Frogs

A&K has numerous frog designs available in either rigid bolted, rail-bound manganese, solid
manganese self-guarded, solid manganese flat top or spring construction. Your A&K rail
and track specialist will assist you in selecting the proper design and construction to meet
your traffic specifications. Frogs can be furnished to AREMA and A.M.C. specifications and
can be made for your particular application.

CEMP-E
TI 850-02
AFMAN 32-1125(I)
1 MARCH 2000
Design and Selection.
(1) The main design decisions for turnouts are the direction in which the turnout will diverge (as
shown in figure 6-25), and the angle of the frog (or frog number), which determines how sharply the
turnout diverges (and also designates the size of the turnout). Recommended choices for different
turnout components are covered below, as is layout design for use where nonstandard configurations are
required.
(2) Once a standard turnout has been selected from table 6-12, or the geometry has been otherwise
determined, the designer will then specify the desired switch, frog, and guard rails if needed, from the
appropriate AREMA plans; the turnout (or crossover) tie set from table 6-9; and the amount of rail needed
to complete the turnout (connect the switch and frog) from AREMA Plan 910 or 911. Guidance on the
selection of these items and other turnout hardware is given below

FROGS AND SWITCHES.

FROGS.

1676. Turnouts.—A turnout is a device for enabling an engine and train to pass from
one track to another. It consists of two lines of rails a b and c d (see Fig. 522), so laid
as to form a reversed curve uniting the two tracks A B and C D. The several parts of a
turnout are as follows: The switch rails e f and g h, the frog k, and the two guard-
rails l m and n o. The stationary ends c and g of the switch rails are called the heels,
and the movable ends f and h are called the toes. The distance f p, through which the
toes f and h move, is called the throw. The throw must equal the width of the head of
the rail, with sufficient additional width to allow the flanges of the wheels to pass
freely between the main rails r s and t u and

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the turnout rails a b and c d. The throw on tracks of standard gauge is 5 inches; that is,
the toes f and h are moved 5 inches from their original position in the main track in
forming the turnout curve on which the train is to pass from the main track A B to the
siding C D.

The movement of the switch rails is effected by means of a lever.

1677. The Frog.—The frog is a device by means of which the rail at the turnout curve
crosses the rail of the main track. The frog shown in Fig. 523 is made of rails having
the same cross-section as those used in the track, Its parts are as follows: The wedge
shaped part A is the tongue, of which the extreme end a is the point. The
space b, between the ends c and d of the rails, is the mouth, and the channel which
they form at its narrowest point e is the throat. The curved ends f and g are the wings.

That part of the frog between A and A' is called the heel. The width h of the frog is
called its spread. Holes are drilled in the ends of the rails c, d, k, and l to receive the
bolts used in fastening the rail splices, so that the rails of which the frog is composed
form a part of the continuous track.

1678. The Frog Point.—The theoretical point of frog a' (see Fig. 523) and the actual
point a are quite dissimilar. The reason for making a the point of frog is that if the
theoretical and actual point of frog were the same, the point would be so small that the
first blow inflicted by a passing locomotive or car would completely destroy it. The
frog point is accordingly placed at a, where its width is about ¼ of an inch.

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1679. The Frog Number.—The number of a frog is the ratio of its length to its
breadth, i.e., the quotient of its length divided by its breadth.

Thus, in Fig. 523, if the length a' 1, from point to heel of frog is 5 feet, or 60 inches,
and the breadth h of the heel is 15 inches, the number of the frog is the quotient of 60
÷ 15 = 4. Theoretically, the length of the frog is the distance from a to the middle
point of a line drawn from k to 1; practically, we take as the length the distance
from a to 1. As it is often difficult to determine the exact point a of the frog, a more
accurate method of determining the frog number is to measure the entire length dl of
the frog from mouth to heel, and divide this length by the sum of the mouth width b
and the heel width h. The quotient will be the exact number of the frog.

For example, if in Fig. 523, the total length d l of the frog is 7 feet 4 inches, or 88
inches, and the width h is15 inches, and the width b of the mouth is 7 inches, then the
frog number is 88 ÷ (15 + 7) = 4. Frogs are known by their numbers. That in Fig.
523 is a No. 4 frog.
1680. The Frog Angle.—The frog angle is the angle formed by the gauge lines of the
rails, which form its tongue. Thus, in Fig. 523, the frog angle is the angle l a' k. The
amount of the angle may be found as follows: The tongue and heel of the frog form an
isosceles triangle (see Fig. 524). By drawing a line from the point aof the frog to the
middle point b of the heel c d, we form a right-angled triangle, right-angled at b. The
perpendicular line a b,

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bisects the angle a, and, by rule 5, Art. 754, we have tan

½ a = b c/a b. The dimensions of the frog point given in Fig. 524 are not the same as
those given in Fig. 523, but their relative proportions are the same, viz., the length is
four times the breadth. The length a b = 4, and the width c d = 1; hence, b c= ½.
Substituting these values, we have tan

½ a = ½/4 = one-eighth = 0.125. Whence, ½ a = 7º 7½', and a = 14º 15'; that is, the
angle of a No. 4 frog is 14º 15'.

Frog numbers run from 4 to 12, including half numbers, the spread of the frog
increasing as the number decreases.

1681. Classification and Description of Frogs.—Frogs, as manufactured today, are

of two classes, viz., stiff frogs and spring-rail frogs. Each has advantages peculiar to
itself, which specially adapt it to certain situations. Stiff frogs contain much less
material and require less shop work than spring frogs. For a given angle a stiff frog
requires less space, and hence is better adapted to yard work than spring-rail frogs.
They are more simply constructed than spring frogs, and can be made at any well
equipped machine shop.

Spring-rail frogs, because of their furnishing an unbroken surface to the wheel

treads, are particularly adapted to the heavy traffic of a trunk line.

Figs. 525 and 526 represent the best types of stiff frogs. The frog shown in Fig. 525 is
called a plate frog. The rails composing the frog are fastened to a plate of wrought
iron or steel a c d b by means of rivets through the rail flanges, as shown in the figure.
Square holes e, f are

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punched in the plate to receive the railroad spikes, which are driven into the cross-ties
supporting the frog, holding it firmly in place. Plate frogs are perfectly rigid, and by
many railroad men are considered inferior to the keyed frog, shown in Fig. 526,
which is somewhat flexible and better suited to yard work where the curves are sharp
and the frog angles correspondingly large.

In this frog, the pieces of rails a and b, forming the point, are dovetailed together and
secured by heavy rivets. To retain the full strength and durability of the steel, all the
parts are fitted without being heated, excepting the wings, which are bent at a very
low heat. Hence, the strength of the rails is in no respect diminished, and the method
of securing the parts together has advantages over bolts or rivets passing through the
webs or flanges of the rails, as there is nothing which can come in contact with the
wheel flanges. From its peculiar construction, it has the same elasticity as the rails in
the track, which makes it an easy riding frog, more durable than a rigid frog, and less
liable to injury from uneven ballasting. It presents little obstruction to tamping, and,
when fastened into the track with the usual angle splices, it is firm, stable, and free
from any tendency to jump or move.

The parts are bound together by heavy wrought-iron clamps c and d, shown in the
cross-sections A and B, Abeing a cross-section through the, first clamp and B one

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through the second clamp. These clamps are tightened by means of beveled split keys,
or wedges, e and f, the ends of the clamps being bent over a form to an exact angle, at
one end to fit the brace blocks k and k' on the outside of the rail, and at the other end
to fit the beveled keys, which are driven into the spaces between the end of the clamp
and the smaller brace blocks l, l'. The keys lie on the flange of the rail, which prevents
them from dropping down in case they loosen. The flange way between the frog point
and the wing rails is maintained by iron throat-pieces g, h, g', and h', which fit the
rails perfectly, and, extending beyond the point, thoroughly brace and stay it against
lateral stresses. After the keys are driven to the extent necessary to bind the parts
solidly together, the split ends are spread to prevent the keys from working out.

The throat-pieces, as well as the brace blocks, are effectually prevented from sliding
out of their positions. The clamps are firmly secured to the flanges of the rails, and the
only movable pieces in the frog are the keys which, being thicker on their lower edge
(owing to being beveled unequally), together with the angles of the clamps, prevent
the keys from working upwards. Trackmen, when inspecting track, should always
examine the frogs, and any key loosened by the wearing of the parts should be tightly
driven, and the split end spread open. Unless a key is loose it should never be
hammered.
A standard type of a spring-rail frog of keyed pattern is shown in Fig. 527. For main
line tracks, and especially for those sections where the heavy traffic moves principally
in one direction, the spring-rail frog is recommended. It gives to the main line the
smoothness of an unbroken track; it, is simple in its construction, thoroughly
substantial, and is placed in position with the least amount of labor.

As shown in the figure, the fixed parts of the patent keyed spring frog are bound
together by two heavy clamps a and b, shown in the details A and B, which are
sections through the clamps at C D and E F. The parts within the clamps are secured
by split keys or wedges c and d. The frog point

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G is made of two pieces of steel rail fitted and dovetailed together by machinery,
without being heated, and securely riveted together. The flange way between the
point, and wing rails is maintained by closely fitting iron throat-pieces e and f (shown
in the detail sections A and B), which are prevented from slipping by rivets and pins
through the rails. The clamps have side notches g and g' at one end (shown in detail
at L), which engage with notches in the flange at the frog point, and, prevent the
clamps from slipping down, even if loose. The other end of the clamp is bent over a
form to an exact angle to fit the beveled split key, which is driven into the space
between the clamp and the block, which is fitted and secured to the side wing rail.
When the key is driven, the parts of

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the frog are tightly bound together, and the key resting upon the flange of the rail is
prevented from working down and loosening. The outer end of the clamp is secured
by clips, which are riveted to the flange of the rail.

In case the parts of the frog become loosened by wear, they may be tightened by
driving the wedge further in and spreading the split ends so as to hold the key firmly
in place.

That part of the flange of the spring rail next to the frog point is planed off, allowing
the head of the spring rail to lie close to the frog point, forming almost a continuous
rail and fully accommodating all classes of wheels passing the frog. Powerful
springs H and K hold the spring rail firmly against the frog point, and the slide arm h,
which is held in place by the clip k, attached to the slide plate (shown in the detail
section M N),prevents the spring rail from rising up or moving out too far. The usual
length of this spring frog for any angle is 15 feet.
1682. Crossing Frogs.—Where one railroad crosses another at grade, frogs of special
design, called crossing frogs, are required. They are of various patterns, depending
upon the angle of the crossing and the importance of the line. In Fig. 528 a cut is
given of a standard crossing, which embodies the best features as determined by
experience.

This crossing is made of the best quality steel rails, fitted with exactness. The points
are mitered, dovetailed, welded, or forged out of solid rails, the angle of the crossing
and the requirements of the case determining which method is the most practicable.
The rails are mounted on strong wrought-iron bed-plates A, B, etc., to which they are
securely riveted through the flanges of the rails. The guard-rails a, b, c, and d, inside
the intersecting tracks, extend unbroken on all sides, and extend outside the frog
points so as to guide the trucks, causing them to pass squarely through the crossing.

At all the angles the flange way is completely filled by wrought-iron throat fillers e,
f, and c, which are shaped to exactly fit the rails.

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All the corners are braced with heavy wrought-iron braces g, h, k, etc., forged to shape
and planed to fit solid in the fishing spaces of the rails. Strong bolts, 1, m, etc., passing
through the webs of the rails, the throat fillers, and corner braces, bind the parts of the
crossing firmly together.

All the inside splice joints are provided with solid iron throat blocks n, o between the
rails in addition to the usual splice bars. The splice bolts p and q pass through splice
bar, throat block, and rail, binding all securely together. Care should be taken that no
bolts project through the bed-plates, necessitating the cutting of pockets in the
crossing timbers to receive the bolt heads, as increased decay is sure to follow.

1683. Replacing Frogs.—A replacing frog is a device for replacing derailed cars
upon the track. Such a frog must combine portability and great strength. It must be
flexible and compact, and of simple construction.

The replacing frog shown in Fig. 529 combines practically all of these qualities. This
frog consists of a heavy steel bar a slightly curved. The bar is bolted at one end to a
heavy steel hook b which hooks under the head of the rail. The joint c, connecting the
bar and hook, allows the frog to be placed in any desired position. The end d of the
bar is hooked and pointed. In using the frog, the hook b is first adjusted; the end d is
then placed directly in front of the wheel of the derailed truck, and the point d of the
bar driven into the cross-tic with a sledge. This holds the
1111

replacing frog rigidly in place. A replacing frog is placed in position on both rails, and
the car pulled on to the track with a locomotive. Where the trucks are slewed
crosswise to the track, the car must be jacked tip and the trucks straightened before
placing the frogs.

SWITCHES.

1684. Classification of Switches.—Although there have been many different kinds of

switches devised, only two of them have ever been in general use;
viz., stub and split, or point, switches. Stub switches are now rarely used on first-
class roads, even in yards, the split or point switch having entirely supplanted them. It
is estimated that 50 per cent. of the derailments on American lines have been directly
chargeable to the defects of the stub switch.

The principal defect in the stub switch lies in the open joint at the head-block. In
passing over this joint, each wheel delivers a heavy blow on the ends of the rails at the
point, which not only batters the rails but also causes a heavy jolt to the car, injurious
to the rolling stock and causing much discomfort to passengers. Stub switches are
more liable to misplacement than split switches, and there is the constantly recurring
need of recutting the ends of the rails at the head-block, to provide for expansion and
for the removal of battered ends.

1685. The Stub Switch.—The essential parts of a stub switch are shown at A in Fig.
530. The rails a b and c d are the switch rails placed for the turnout track. Their
position when placed for the main track is indicated by dotted lines at e and f. The
switch rails are commonly used in lengths of 30 feet, the standard rail length, of which
only 22 feet are free to move or slide, the remaining 8 feet being spiked to the ties, as
shown in the figure. The moving portions of the switch rails are held in place by
rods g, h, k, and 1, called switch rods. These rods keep the switch rails at proper
gauge, and serve the purpose of track spikes.

1113

The first switch rod g is called the head rod. It extends outside the rails, and by
means of the connection rod m, it is attached to the lever n of the switch stand, by
means of which the switch rails are moved from their connection with the main track
rails o and p, to a connection with the turnout rails q and r. This movement of the
switch rails is termed throwing the switch.
The switch stand, and connection and head rods of this switch are shown in detail
at B. The switch stand Dconsists of a cast-iron plate s to which is cast a semicircular
lug t. A hole in this lug receives a pin, which is attached to the end of the lever n. The
connection rod m is attached to the lever by means of the pin u, and is held in place by
a nut. The lever handle is slotted, and when the switch is set for either track, the slot
fits over a staple v, projecting above the lever far enough to receive a padlock w which
locks the switch.

The switch rods clamp the switch rails firmly, as shown at x. The head chair, shown
at E, is of cast iron, and contains sockets y, y, into which the ends of the main and
turnout rails o and q securely fit. The lateral movement of the switch rail is limited by
the lugs z and z', which are cast into the chair. The head chair is usually fastened to the
head-block with track spikes.

The cross-tie F, which supports the head chairs and switch stand, is called the head
block. The head block and all other switch ties should be of hard wood—oak
preferably. The ties under the switch rails should be of sawed timber, so as to present
a smooth even surface for the sliding rails.

This type of switch stand is equally well suited to split switches, and on account of its
compactness is especially suited to yard work.

The stub switch is cheaper than the split switch, and for tracks owned by private
concerns, it serves very well; but for railroads doing a regular freight and passenger
business, it is not only out of date, but should be condemned as unsafe.

1115

1686. Split, or Point, Switches.—The split, or point, switch does away with the open
joint at the head block and gives a continuous bearing to the car wheels. The two
common types of split switches are shown in Figs. 531 and 532. In Fig. 531, the
rails A A' and B B' are called the stock rails. In the split switch, the heels and toes of
the switch rails are exactly the reverse of those in the stub switch, i.e., the heels in
the split switch are in the places occupied by the toes in the stub switch. The stock
rails are spiked throughout their entire length. The switch rails C C', D D' are usually
15 feet in length for all turnouts excepting those in yards where limited space requires
very sharp curves, and switch points 12 feet in length, or even less, are used instead.

The switch rails are usually straight and planed down so as to fit closely to the stock
rails for 6 or 7 feet. The points C and D are planed down to a thin edge, the web of the
switch rail being grooved so as to fit under the head of the stock rail.
The base of the switch rail is planed so that it fits snugly against the upper part of the
base of the stock rail. The extreme points of the switch rails are slightly below the
level of the stock rails, so that the wheel treads do not come in contact with them until
their size and strength are sufficient to stand the hard pounding which all switches
receive.

The slide plates a, b, c, d, e, and f extend under the stock rails and points, and are
spiked to the cross-ties. The switch rods g, h, k, 1, and in are of wrought iron, and of
such dimensions as the size and weight of the rail require. They are fastened to the
switch rails in various ways. In Fig. 531, the connection is made by means of cast
steel sockets which are bolted to the webs of the rails. The switch rod g, connecting
directly with the switch stand, is called the head rod, and is shown in detail at E. The
cast-steel sockets n and n' are longer, and extend low enough to permit the head rod to
pass under the rails, as shown in the detail. The head rod is fastened to each socket,
with two bolts, while the other switch rods are single bolted.

1116

The stock rails are spiked only on the outsides of the rails, and to prevent the rails
from getting out of line, the slide plates are bent upwards at the outside of the rail,
forming the lip o (see detail at F), which holds the rail brace p solidly against the
stock rail.

The connection rod q is fastened at one end to the head rod and at the other end to the
crank r of the switch stand, shown in detail at G. The switch stand rests upon two
cross-ties s and s', being securely fastened to them either with bolts or track spikes.
The switch stand consists of the column-shaped support t, the lever u, used in
throwing the switch, the target v, and the crank-shaft r.

The target v consists of two rectangular pieces of sheet iron fastened to the target rod
at right angles to each other. One-half of the target is usually
painted white, indicating safety, and the other half red, indicating danger. They are so
adjusted that an open switch always indicates danger

The lever u carries a cam or eccentric-shaped disk w which, when in the position u,
fits between lugs x; the lugs are bolted to the pedestal t, and form a part of the rigid
stand. When the lever is in the position u, the switch may be locked, holding the
switch firmly in place. To throw the switch, raise the lever to the positionu'. This
releases the cam w from the lug x, and the lever being clamped to the target rod or
shaft y, any movement of the lever u is communicated to the crank r, which, by means
of the connection rod q, acts directly upon the switch rails.
The throw of the switch is from 4½ to 5 inches. The rail braces p are usually of forged
steel, though some are still made of cast iron.

1687. Safety Switches.—When a train passes from the main track to the side track, it
necessarily passes the points of the switch first. Such a switch is called a facing
switch. When, on the other hand, a train passes from the side track to the main track,
it passes the frog first. Such a switch is called a trailing switch.

1118

William Lorenz, chief engineer of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, has the
credit of designing a self-acting switch, which is provided with a powerful spring that
holds the switch points firmly against the stock rail, thus keeping the main track
constantly unbroken. With the switch points in this position, a train can make a
trailing switch, the wheel flanges forcing the switch open as they pass from the side to
the main track. As the spring is constantly acting, each wheel throws the switch,
which instantly resumes its position for the main track.

Such a switch is called a Lorenz, or safety switch, and is shown in Fig. 532. With the
exception of the spiral spring A, which is attached to the head rod and holds the switch
point a against the stock rail b, this switch is similar to that shown in Fig. 531.

The switch rods c, d, and e, instead of being single rods with arms at their ends for
attaching them to the switch rails, as in Fig. 531, have a trussed center piece, shown in
detail at B, composed of two bars f and g, riveted together and leaving between them
just space enough to allow the ends of the arms h and k to move as the switch is
thrown from one side of the track to the other, the arms pivoting on the
rivets l and m at the end of the center piece.

This form of switch rod combines flexibility with great strength, insuring easy
movement to the switch and great resistance to the severe stresses which are
continually brought to bear against it.

The switch rods are bent downwards near the arms, bringing them nearly on a level
with the top of the tie, where they are less exposed to injury from derailed cars or
from broken parts of the cars, such as brake rods or beams, which dragging on the ties
frequently catch in switch rods, doing much harm.

The safety switch, shown in Fig. 532, is of a pattern commonly used in yards and
terminals. The switch points vary in length from 7½ feet to 12 feet, the former fitting
all frog numbers as high as 7, and the latter serving for frogs of all numbers.
1119

The advantages of this switch are its compactness, requiring little more than half the
space of an ordinary switch; lightness, which insures easy handling, and its adaptation
to sharp curves which abound in yards and terminals. The short points permit of
trailing switches equally as well as facing switches, as the planed portion of the points
is short, and, consequently, carries a much shorter proportion of the wheel base of an
engine or car than the switch of the standard length. The short points also require
lighter springs than the standard lengths, and are much easier cleared of snow. The
details of the switch are practically the same as those of the switch shown in Fig. 531,
which were fully described. A common yard stand suitable for this switch is shown in
both plan and elevation at C. The target is about 4 feet above the ground, and is
provided with an attachment for signal lamp. The lever is hinge-jointed, and in
throwing the switch, the lever is brought into a horizontal position, resting on the
semicircular iron latch plate E. In the edge of this plate are two slots n and o, into
which the lever hinges after the switch is thrown. Lugs p and q at the sides of the
slots, limit the lateral movement of the lever. The switch stand is secured to the head-
block by either bolts or track spikes, usually the latter.

1688. Three-Throw Switches.—A cut of a three-throw, or double-throw, switch is

given in Fig. 533. The type is that of the ordinary stub switch, except that the moving
or switch rails serve two turnout tracks instead of but one. The head chair A is usually
of cast iron and contains sockets a, b, and c (see detail B) for the fixed rails d, e, and f.

The switch rails g and h have a total lateral movement at the head chairs of from 10 to
12 inches, depending upon the dimensions of the rails. Their lateral movement is fixed
by the lugs k, k on the head chairs.

The switch stand is shown in elevation at C, and in plan at D. The three positions of
the switch are fixed by the slots l, m, and o in the latch plate into which the switch
lever hinges.

1120

A more comprehensive idea of a double-throw switch may be obtained from the detail
given at E, which shows to a reduced scale the switch and both turnout curves with
main rail frogs p and v, and the crotch frogr, by means of which

1121
the outer rails of the turnout curves cross each other. The turnout curves of a double-
throw switch are usually of the same degree, which brings the crotch frog in the
middle of the main track.

The defects of the stub switch already described should prevent its use in the main
track at yards, and at terminals where trains move slowly, as well as at intermediate
points where trains run at top speed.

A double-throw split switch has been invented and used in a limited way, and though
a perfect switch so far as mechanism is concerned, it is much more expensive and
complicated than a double-throw stub switch, and is not enduring.

The object of the double-throw switch, viz., economy of space, is practically attained
by substituting two single split switches, placed as close together as is consistent with
their safe operation. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 534, in which a a' and b
b' are the rails of the main track. A 7° 30' turnout curve c e is laid out to the right of
the main track. This calls for ahead block at c and a No. 9 frog at f.

A 17 degree turnout curve g m is next laid out to the left of the main track, with its P.
C. located so as to bring the head block g of the second switch far enough from the
heel d of the first switch to afford sufficient room for operating the second switch.
This calls for a No. 6 frog at k and a No. 5½ crotch frog at l.

1689. Derailing Switches.—A derailing switch is a device for derailing cars, and so
preventing them from accidentally running out of the siding on the main track.

1123

They are, of course, needed only for sidings built with grades descending towards the
switch.

An effective type of a derailing switch is shown at A in Fig. 535. It consists of a single

switch rail a, which is hinged at the rail joint b. The switch point c is beveled, as
shown in the detail at C. When the switch is closed, this beveled switch point rests
against the outside rail of the siding, which is bent at an angle corresponding to the
bevel of the switch point and shown at d, forming a lap switch. When the switch is
open, the switch point rests against the guard rail e, the end of which is beveled to
form a seat for the switch point. The beveled ends of both track and guard rail rest
upon a wrought-iron head chair f, shown in detail at C, upon which the switch point
slides.
This switch is connected with and operated by the movement of the main line switch
B. The figure shows the switch set for the main line, and the derailing switch set to
throw from the track a car moving out of the siding.

The derailing switch is operated as follows: A bell-crank g is pivoted to a cross-tie,

with one end of the crank attached to the head rod of the switch B. To the other end of
the crank is attached a strong steel wire which extends to a sheave h, directly opposite
the derailing switch A, and thence to an eye k, as shown in detail at Cand D, in the end
of the head rod. This wire is kept taut, so that any movement of the switch B is
communicated directly to the switch rail a. The connection rod l is attached to the
short arm m of the switch lever; and when the switch is set for the main line E E, as
shown in the figure, the resulting stress in the wire is transmitted to the short arm m of
the derailing switch lever; the long arm of the lever which carries the weight o is then
brought into the position n, and the switch rail or point takes the position a (see
detail C), leaving the derailing switch open and protecting the main track from
runaway cars.

When, on the other hand, the switch is placed for the siding E F, the tension on the
wire is relaxed and the long arm n of the derailing switch lever, being acted upon by
the

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weight o, is made to take the position n', and the short arm of the lever, the
position m'. This movement is transmitted by the connection rod to the switch rail,
which takes the position a' (see detail C), securely closing the switch. The guard
rail e is secured to the main rail p by two heavy bolts, the space between them being
maintained by a cast-iron throat filler q. Near the derailing switch, a guard rail r is
placed, diverging from the outside rail, the object of which is to prevent derailed cars
from running on to the main line. A heavy plank s is spiked to the ties close to the
outside rail to prevent any derailed trucks from turning up the rails.

1690. Automatic Turnouts.—For dummy or street car roads using a light T rail,
the automatic switch shown in Fig. 536 may be used on turnouts, or passing tracks, to
great advantage. There are two switch points a and b, one of which, a, is rigid,
forming a combination of frog and switch point. It consists of a guard rail c, two
throat fillers d and e, and the switch point a. The throat fillers between the switch
point and the head block unite, forming a single filler, which is grooved at f. When
1125

approaching or leaving the switch, the wheel flange enters this groove, bringing the
wheel tread safely upon the stock rail g.

In America, at least, it is the universal custom for cars approaching a passing track to
take the right-hand track in the direction indicated in the figure by the arrows m and n.
Accordingly the switch is always set for the right-hand track, the switch point b being
held firmly against the stock rail h by means of the iron rod k, which is acted upon by
a powerful spring confined in the shell l. This shell is spiked to the head block
between the rails, as shown in the figure, and hence is not an obstruction to travel, as
it would be if placed outside the rails, and it is also comparatively safe from injury
from the wheels of heavy trucks and drays.

A car moving in the opposite direction, as indicated by the arrow o, throws the switch
automatically. As the wheel flanges come in contact with the switch rail b, the spiral
spring which holds the switch rail in place yields to the pressure, and the switch
opens, allowing the car to pass from the siding to the main track. The wheel flanges,
after passing the switch point a, enter the groove f, before mentioned, and the wheel
treads pass safely on to the stock rail g. As the spring is constantly acting, each wheel
throws the switch, which closes the instant the wheel flange passes the point.

There are three forms of turnouts, or passing tracks, in general use; they are shown
in Fig. 537, at A, B, and C,

1126

the arrows indicating the direction in which cars enter and leave the turnout. It will be
seen that some one of these three forms of passing tracks will meet practically any
given situation. That shown at B is particularly suited to track laid along the side of a
street or highway, which may be widened at the points requiring passing tracks. The
form shown at C should always be adopted for tracks laid on the center line of streets.
The extra room required for passing tracks is equally distributed on both sides of the
main center line of the street, so that there will be the least possible encroachment
upon the space left for vehicles.

1691. Y Tracks.—The form of turnout shown in Fig. 538 is called a Y. It is used as a

substitute for a turntable. Sometimes the switches are automatic, as shown in the
figure, in which case all locomotives must enter the Y from the same end, viz., at a,
and leave at b. Usually, however, the switches are operated by hand levers and
the Y is entered from both directions. One special advantage of a Y track is that both
engine and train may be turned together, and where favorably situated, they are much
used in shifting light trains which are run at frequent intervals for the accommodation
of suburban travel.

1127

1692. The Parts of a Turnout.—The several parts of a turnout are represented in Fig.
539. The distance p f from the P. C. of the turnout curve to the point of frog is called
the frog distance. The frog number and frog angle we have already defined. The
radius c o of the turnout curve, the frog distance, the frog angle, and the frog number
bear certain relations to each other, which are expressed by the following formulas:

1128
1129

The switch lengths in the above table merely denote the shortest length of stub
switch that will at the same time form part of the turnout curve, and give 5 inches
throw. Point or split switches require a throw of not more than 3½ inches, though
many have a throw of 5 inches, with an equal space between the gauge lines at the
heel. The heels of a split switch, which occupy the same position as the toes of a stub
switch, should be placed at the point where the tangent deflection or offset is 5 inches.
The point where the tangent deflection is but 4½ inches will answer for many rail
sections, but for those above 65 lb. per yard, 5 inches should be taken.

In the table of Tangent and Chord Deflections, tangent deflections for chords of 100
feet are given for all curves up to 20 degrees, and for a curve of higher degree, the
tangent deflection may be found by applying formula 93, Art. 1255, tan deflection =
c²/2R.

In complicated track work where space is limited, curves must be chosen to meet the
existing conditions, and not with reference to particular frog angles, in which case the
frogs are called special frogs, and are made to fit the particular curve used. The
determination of the frog distance, switch length, and frog angle may be understood
by referring to Fig. 540 (next page).

Let the main track a b be a straight line; the gauge p q = 4 feet 8½ inches (= 4.71
feet); the degree of the turnout curve =13 degrees; the chord q d = 100 feet; c d = the
tangent deflection of the chord q d, and p f = the frog distance. From the table of
Tangents and Chord Deflections, we find the tangent deflection for a chord 100 feet
long of a 13 degree curve is 11.32 feet.
This locates the heel of a split switch and the toe of a stub switch.

The frog angle is the angle k f l (see Fig. 540) formed by the gauge line of the main
rail f k and the tangent to the outer rail q f of the turnout curve at the point where the
two rails intersect. This angle is equal to the central angle q o f. The arcs q f and r
s are assumed to be of the same length. The turnout curve being 13°, the central
1131

13 x 60 angle for a chord of 1 foot is 13 x 60/100 = 7.8', and the central angle for 64.5
feet, the frog distance,is 7.8' x 64.5 = 8° 23', the frog angle for a 13 degree curve. By
this process the frog distance, switch length, and frog angle may be calculated for
curves of any radius.

1693. To Lay Out a Turnout from a Curved Main Track.—There are two cases:

Case I.—When the two curves deflect in opposite directions, illustrated by Fig. 541,
and

Case II.—When the two curves deflect in the same direction, illustrated in Fig. 542.

In Fig. 541, the curve a b is 3 degrees 30', and it is proposed to use a No. 8 frog. By
reference to Table 35, we find that the degree of curve corresponding to a No. 8 frog
is 9° 31'. Accordingly, we use a turnout curve a e, whose degree when added to the
degree of curve of the main track shall equal the degree required for a No. 8 frog, i.e.,
we use a 6° turnout curve, which is within one minute of the required

1132

degree, and close enough for practical purposes. From our knowledge of tangent and
chord deflections we know that for curves of moderate radii, i.e., from 1 degree up to
12 degrees, the tangent deflections or offsets increase as the degree of the curve. That
is, the tangent deflection of a 2 degrees, 4 degrees, and 6 degree curve is two, four
and, six times, respectively, that of a 1 degree curve. In the accompanying figures
illustrating the location of frogs and switches, each curve is represented by two lines
indicating the rails, whereas only the center lines of the curves are run in on the
ground. In Fig. 541, the line c d is tangent to the center lines of the curves. These
center lines do not appear in the cut.

Now, if, in Fig. 541, a tangent c d be drawn at c, the point common to the center lines
of the curves, the sum of the deflections of both curves from the common tangent will
be equal to the tangent deflection of a 9° 30' curve from a straight line.

Accordingly, to find the frog distance for a 6 degree turnout curve from a 3 degree 30'
curve, the curves being in opposite directions, as shown in Fig. 541, we find the
tangent deflection of a 9 degree 30' curve for a chord of 100 feet. This deflection is
8.28 feet (see table of Radii and Deflections). Assuming the gauge of track to be
standard, viz., 4 ft. 8½ in. = 4.71 ft., and denoting the required frog distance by x, we
have the following proportion:

8.28 : 4.71 :: 100² : x²;

whence, x² = 10,000 x 4.71/8.28 = 5.688.4, and

frog distance x = 75.42 feet.

We use the tangent deflection for a 9° 30' curve, which is practically the same as for a
9° 31' curve, and so save the labor of a calculation, which will not appreciably affect
the result.

We locate the heel of the switch in the same way, using for the second term of the
proportion 0.42 foot, the distance between the gauge lines at the heel, instead of 4.71
feet, the gauge of the track.

1133

In Fig. 542, which comes under Case II, both curves deflect in the same direction, and
the rate of their deflection from each other is equal to the rate of the deflection of a
curve whose degree is equal to the difference of the degrees of the two curves from a
tangent.

Let the main track curve a b be 5 degrees, and the turnout curve a c be 10 degrees.
Then the rate of deflection or divergence of the 10° curve from the 5° curve is equal to
the divergence of a (10 degrees - 5 degrees) 5 degree curve from a straight track or
tangent.

Accordingly, we find, in the table of Radii and Deflections, the tangent deflection for
a 5° curve for a chord of 100 feet = 4.36 feet. Denoting the required frog
distance by x, we have the following proportion:

4.36 : 4.71 :: 100² : x²;

whence, x² = 10,000 x 4.71/4.36 = 10,802.8, and

frog distance x = 103.9 feet.

Distances are not calculated nearer than to tenths of feet.

1694. How to Lay Out a Switch.—In laying out a switch, locate the frog so as to cut
the least possible number of rails. Where there is some latitude in the choice of
location, the P. C. of the turnout curve can be located, so as to bring the frog near the
end of a rail.

To do this, take from Table 35 the frog distance corresponding to the number of the
frog to be used. Locate approximately the P. C. of the turnout curve, and measure
from it along the main track rail the tabular frog distance. If this brings the frog point
near the end of the rail, the P. C. of the turnout curve may be moved so as to require
the cutting of but one main track rail. Measure the total length of the frog and deduct
it from the length of the rail to be cut, marking with red chalk on the flange of the rail
the point at which the rail is to be cut. Measure the width of the frog at the heel and
calculate the distance from the heel to the theoretical point of frog. For example, if the
width of the frog at the heel is 8½ inches, and a No. 8 frog

1134

is to be used, the theoretical distance from the heel to the point of frog is 8.5 x 8 = 68
inches = 5 feet 8 inches. Measure off this distance from the point marking the heel of
the frog. This will locate the point of frog, which should be distinctly marked with red
chalk on the flange of the rail. It is a common practice to make a distinct mark on the
web of the main track rail, directly opposite to the point of frog. This point being
under the head of the rail, it is protected from wear and the weather. The P. C. of the
turnout curve is then located by measuring the frog distance from the point of frog.
From Table 35 we find the frog distance for a No. 8 frog is 75.3 feet, and the switch
length, i.e., the distance from the P. C. of the turnout curve to the heel of the split
switch or toe of the stub switch, is 22 feet.

If a stub switch is to be laid, make a chalk mark on both main track rails on a line
marking the center of the head block. A more permanent mark is made with a center
punch. Stretch a cord touching these marks, and drive a stake on each side of the
track, with a tack in each. This line should be at right angles to the center line of the
track, and the stakes should be far enough from the track as not to be disturbed when
putting in switch ties. Next, cut the switch ties of proper length; draw the spikes from
the track ties, three or four at a time, and remove them from the track, replacing them
with switch ties, and tamping them securely in place. When all the long ties are
bedded, cut the main track rail for the frog, being careful that the amount cut off is
just equal to the length of the frog. If, by increasing or decreasing the length of the
lead 5 per cent. you can avoid cutting a rail, do not hesitate to do so, especially for
frogs above No. 8.

Use full length rails (30 feet) for moving or switch rails, and be careful to leave a joint
of proper width at the head chair. Spike the head chairs to the head block so that the
main track rails will be in perfect line. Spike from 8 to 10 feet of the switch rails to the
ties, and slide the cross rods on to the rail flanges, spacing them at equal intervals.

1135

The cross rods are placed between the switch ties, which should not be more than 15
inches from center to center of tie. The switch ties, especially those under the moving
rails, should be of sawed oak timber. Southern pine is a good second choice. Attach
the connection rod to the head rod and to the switch stand. With these connections
made, it is an easy matter to place the switch stand so as to give the proper throw of
the switch.

It is common practice to fasten the switch stand to the head block with track spikes,
but a better fastening is made with bolts. The stand is first properly placed and the
holes marked and bored, and the bolts passed through from the under side of the head
block. This obviates all danger of movement of the switch stand in fastening, which is
liable to occur when spikes are used, and insures a perfect throw.

The use of track spikes is quite admissible when holes are bored to receive them, in
which case a half-inch auger should be used for standard track spikes. The switch
stand should, when possible, be placed facing the switch, so as to be seen from the
engineer's side of the engine—the right-hand side.

Next stretch a cord from a, Fig. 543, a point on the outer main track rail opposite the
P. C. of the turnout curve, to b, the point of the frog. This cord will take the position
of the chord of the arc of the outer rail of the turnout curve. Mark the middle
point c and the quarter points d and e. Whatever the degree of the turnout curve, the
distance from the middle point c of the chord to the are a b is 1.18 feet, and the
distances from the quarter points d and e are .88 foot; hence, at c lay off the ordinate
1.18 feet, and at both d and e the ordinate .88 foot, three-quarters of the middle
ordinate. These offsets will mark the gauge line of the rail a b. Add to these off sets
the distance from the gauge line to outside of the rail flange,

1136

and mark the points on the switch ties. Spike a lead rail to these marks and place the
other at easy track gauge from it. Spike the rails of the turnout as far as the point of
frog to exact gauge, unless the gauge has been widened owing to the sharpness of the
curve. Beyond the point of frog the curve may be allowed to vary a little in gauge to
prevent a kink showing opposite the frog. In case the gauge is widened at the frog,
increase the guard rail distance an equal amount. For a gauge of 4 feet 8½ inches,
place the side of the guard rail which comes in contact with the car wheels at 4 feet 6-
and-five-eighths-inches from the gauge line of the frog. This gives a space of 1-and-
seven-eighths inches between the main rail and the guard rail.

In case the gauge is widened ¼ or ½ inch increase the guard rail distance an equal
amount.

When the turnout curve is very sharp, it will be necessary to curve the switch rails, to
avoid an angle at the head block. The lead rails should be carefully curved before
being laid, and great pains taken to secure a perfect line.

If a point, or split, switch is to be laid, the order of work is nearly the same. The same
precautions must be taken to avoid the unnecessary cutting of rails, with the additional
precaution of keeping the switch points clear of rail joints, as the bolts and angle
splices will prevent the switch points from lying close to the stock rails. As already
stated, these conditions can usually be met Where there is some range in the choice of
the location of the switch. Where there is none, the main track rails must be cut to fit
the switch.

Having located the point of frog, the P. C. of the turnout curve, and the heel line of the
switch, measure back from the heel line a distance equal to the length of the switch
rails, and place on the flange of each rail a chalk mark to locate the ends of the switch
points. This will also locate the head block. Prepare switch ties of the requisite
number and length, and place them in the track in proper order. As in

1137

the case of stub switches, see to it that all long switch ties are in place before cutting
the rail for placing the frog; also, that the ends of the lead rails, with which the switch
points connect, are exactly even; otherwise the switch rods will be skewed, and the
switch will not work or fit well. Fasten the switch rods in place, being careful to place
them in their proper order, the head rod being No. 1. Each rod is marked with a center
punch, the number of the punch marks corresponding to the number of the rod.

Couple the switch points with the lead rails and place the sliding plates in position,
securely spiking them to the ties. Connect the head rod with the switch stand, and
close the switch, giving a clear main track.

Adjust the stand for this position of the switch, and bolt it fast to the head block. Next,
crowd the stock rail against the switch point so as to insure a close fit, and secure it in
place with a rail brace at each tie; then continue the laying of the rails of the turnout.
If there is no engineer to lay out the center line of the turnout, the section foreman can
put in the lead from ordinates, as explained in Fig. 543. In modern railroad practice,
however, most track work is done under the direction of an engineer, in which case
the center line of the turnout is located with a transit. This ensures a correct line and
expedites work. For ordinary curves, center stakes at intervals of 50 feet are sufficient,
excepting between the P. C. of the turnout and the point of frog, where there should be
a center stake at each interval of 25 feet. Place a guard rail opposite the point of frog
on both main track and turnout. The guard rail should be 10 feet in length; this is an
economical length for cutting rails, as each full-length rail makes three guard rails.

Two styles of guard rails are shown in Fig. 544. That shown at B is in general use, but
the style shown at A is growing in favor.

The latter is curved throughout its entire length. At its middle point a, directly
opposite the point of frog, the

1138

guard rail is spaced 1-and-seven-eighths inches from the gauge line of the turnout
rail b c. From this point the guard rail diverges in both directions, giving at each end a
flange-way of 4 inches. This allows the wheels full play, excepting at the point of
frog, where the guard rail is exactly adjusted to the track gauge, and holds the wheels
in true line, preventing them from climbing or mounting the frog. The style of guard
rail shown at B, though still much used, has two objectionable features, viz., first, the
abruptly curved ends d and e often receive an almost direct blow from the wheel
flanges, which causes a car to lurch violently; and second, the flange-way of uniform
width, though proper for the main track when straight, as in Fig. 544, is unsuited for
sharp curves on either a main track or a turnout, as it compels the wheels to follow a
curved line; whereas, the normal position of the wheel base of each truck is that of a
chord of, or a tangent to, the curve. These two defects alone produce what is known as
a rough-riding frog, even though the frog is well lined and ballasted.

It is customary to bend the stock rail with a rail bender in the proportion of about 1 to
40, placing the angle about 10 inches back from the switch points, so that the beveled
points will lie snugly against the stock rail. Exception to this rule is found in the
practice of the Philadelphia and Reading R.R., where the switch points are curved so
as to fit the stock rail, which is not bent at the switch point, but laid to an exact curve.

The custom of half spiking side tracks should be condemned as unsafe and very poor
economy. Side tracks should receive as thorough work as the main line, though, of
course, they require less of it. This point has been touched upon before.
1139

1695. Laying Frogs in Track.—In placing a frog in the track, special care should be
taken to put it in perfect line and surface with the rails with which it connects. Couple
the frog to the main track rails and put them in perfect line before spiking. This is
more certain to give a true line to the frog than to spike the connecting rails before
coupling with the frog. If the main track is in poor line, put in track centers for lining
the frog, for it is very difficult to correct defects in line after a switch is once in place.
Having spiked the frog in place, put the rail opposite the frog in perfect gauge for the
full length of the frog, if on a tangent, and at the point of frog, if on a curve. To have a
frog in perfect gauge, try the gauge at each end of the frog, and at about six inches
back of the frog point.

If the curve is very sharp and laid to a uniform gauge throughout, an ugly kink is left
opposite the frog. This defect is caused by the frog rail, which is necessarily straight,
and can be remedied by spiking the rail to gauge only at the point of frog, and
allowing it to assume its natural curve for the remainder of the frog's length.

Turnout curves of long radii require long frogs, and the track can be spiked to proper
gauge throughout its length without any perceptible kink at the frog.

Long frogs and long leads are the best where it is practicable to use them. The wear
from sharp curves and short frogs, both upon rails and rolling stock, is great, and they
are to be used only where limited space requires them.

1696. Switch Timbers.—Every first-class railroad has its own standards for switches,
which include the necessary switch timbers. The following rule will answer well for
general use:

Rule.—To find the number of ties required for any switch lead, reduce to
inches the distance from the head-block to the last long tie behind the frog,
and divide this distance by the number of inches from center to center of tie;
the quotient will be the number of ties required.

1140

EXAMPLE.—The distance from the head block to the last tie behind the frog is 77
feet. The ties are spaced 21 inches center to center. What is the number of ties
required for the switch?

SOLUTION.—77 feet = 924 inches; 924 ÷ 21 = 44, the number of ties required. Ans.
Switch ties should be 10 inches in width and at least 6 inches in thickness, though 7
inches is preferable. The head-block should be 12 inches in width and 8 inches in
thickness, and 16 feet in length. When timber may be furnished in odd lengths, the
following list will furnish the necessary timber for a given switch, which is a single
throw, and requiring a No. 8 frog:

SWITCH TIES 21 INCHES TO CENTER.

1 head-block 8" x 12" x 16' long.

8 pieces 6" x 10" x 9' long.

8 pieces 6" X 10" X 10' long.
8 pieces 6" x 10" x 11' long.
5 pieces 6" X 10" X 12' long.
5 pieces 6" x 10" x 13' long.
5 pieces 6" X 10" x 14' long.
3 pieces 6" X 10" x 15' long.

When even lengths only can be ordered, the list must be modified, only care must be
taken to have the timber long enough.

Switch ties in important yards should not be more than 9 inches apart, if they are to be
kept in proper surface. It is poor economy to use inferior timber for switch ties, or a
scant number of ties. Switch building is expensive work, and should be made as
permanent as is practicable.

To cut switch ties the proper length apply the following rule:

Rule.—Measure the length of the tie next the head block and the length of the
last long tie behind the frog. Find the difference in inches between them.
Divide this difference by the number of ties in the switch lead; the quotient will
be the increase in length per tie from the head block towards the frog to have
the ends of the ties in proper line on both sides of the track.

1141

EXAMPLE.—The length of the tie next the head block is 8 feet 6 inches = 102
inches. The length of the last tie behind the frog is 15 feet = 180 inches. The,
difference between the lengths of the ties, 180 – 102 = 78 inches, which, divided by
44, the required number of ties, gives 1.8, say 1¾ inches, the average increase in
length per tie.
There is nothing gained by giving to switch ties a greater projection outside the rails
than ordinary track ties. They add to the labor of raising the track, are unsightly, and
labor is wasted in tamping up the long ends. The switch ties should be cut to proper
length, marked with chalk in consecutive numbers, and a mark for the outside flange
of the main track rail placed on each tie for lining them. Any one acquainted with
track work knows that the labor of cutting ties to exact length, numbering them, and
marking them for, proper lining is labor saved. There is then no time wasted in cutting
and trying; the work can be pushed from start to finish, and the result is a perfect piece
of work.

1697. Tamping Switch Ties.—Before tamping up a set of switch ties, raise the track
to a uniform surface. Tamp the ties under the frog and main track rail first, raising the
frog a shade higher than the rest of the switch. The head block should also be about
one-quarter of an inch above the common surface, especially if a stub switch, as the
continual jarring caused by wheels passing the open, joint will cause the head block to
settle slightly. Tamp up the middle of the ties first and then the outer ends. This will
prevent any sagging of the ties at center and a corresponding rise at the ends. If
possible, complete the tamping before a train passes the switch.

1698. Three-Throw Switch Timbers.—The lengths of switch timbers for a three-

throw switch are found by doubling the lengths of those for a single turnout, and
subtracting from each the length of the standard cross-tie.

1142

Before placing them in the switch, draw a chalk line across the middle of each tie, and
number them in the same order as in a single turnout. Then, place them under the
main track rail, and make the middle mark of each switch tie coincide with the middle
point of the track gauge placed on the main track above the tie.

1699. Location of Crotch Frog.—A crotch, or middle, frog is a frog placed at the
point where the outer rails of both turnouts of a three-throw switch cross each other.
When both turnouts are of the same degree, the crotch frog comes midway between
the main track rails. Its location and angle may be determined as follows: Let the
turnout curves A and B, Fig. 545, be each 9° 30', uniting with the main track C by a
three-throw switch. Let a be the P. C. common to both curves, and b, the location of
the crotch or middle frog.

It is evident that the point of the crotch frog should be exactly midway between the
gauge lines of the main track rails, and if the gauge is 4 feet 8½ inches = 4.71 feet, the
point of the crotch frog will be 4.71/2 = 2.35 feet from each rail. Now, the problem is
to find the frog distance from a, the P. C., to the point c, where the tangent deflection
will equal 2.35, or half the gauge. From the table of Radii and Deflections, we find the
tangent deflection of a 9° 30' curve is 8.28 feet. Applying the principle explained in
Art. 1692

1143

and Fig. 540, and letting x represent the required frog distance, we have the following
proportion:

8.28 : 2.35 :: 100² : x²;

whence, x² = 100² x 2.35/8.28 = 2,838.2 feet,

and x = 53.3 feet, nearly,

the required frog distance.

Now, there are two curves starting at the common point a; the outer rails intersect
at b, and the angle d b e,formed by tangents drawn to the point of intersection, is the
angle of the crotch or middle frog. The angle is equal to the sum of the angles a f
b and a f' b; that is, equal to double the central angle of either curve between the P. C.
and the point of intersection b. The degree of the curve is 9° 30' = 570', and the central
angle or total deflection for each foot is 570'/100 = 5.7', and for the frog distance of
53.3 feet, the central angle is 53.8 x 5.7 = 303.8' = 5° 03.8'. The angle of the crotch
frog is double this angle, i.e., 5° 03.8' x 2 = 10° 07.6'. The crotch frog should be
accurately located and spiked in place before the lead rails are placed.

The one objection to the three-throw switch is the open joint at the head block, the
inevitable attendant of the stub switch, but its advantages are so great that it will
continue to be used, especially in yard service.

1700. Cross-OverTracks.—A cross-over is a track by means of which a train passes

from one track to another, The tracks united are usually parallel, as are the tracks of a
double track road. Such a cross-over is shown in Fig. 546. The tracks a b and c d are
13 feet apart from center to center, which is the standard distance for double tracks.
The cross-over consists of two turnout curves, e f and g h. These curves are usually,
though not necessarily, of the same degree. The curve terminates at the points of
frog f and h, between which the track f h is a tangent. The essential point in laying out
a cross-over is to so place the

1144
frogs that the connecting track shall be tangent to both curves. In Fig. 546, suppose
the frogs are No. 9, requiring 7° 31' turnout curves.

From Table 35, we find the required frog distance is 84.7 feet, and the switch length
25 feet. As previously noted, if there is considerable range in choice of location, the
frogs can be so placed as to largely avoid the cutting of rails; but usually cross-overs
are required at certain precise places, and the rails must be cut as occasion demands.
Having located the point of frog at f, we determine the point of the next frog at h, as
follows: A No. 9 frog is one which spreads 1 inch in width to every 9 inches in length,
and as the track between the frog points is straight, the distance f h between these
points will be as many times 9 inches as is the space k between the tracks at the frog
point f. The main track centers are 13 feet apart, making the space between the gauge
lines of the inside rails 8 feet 3½ inches. As it is the rail l of the turnout which joins
the second frog at h, we subtract the gauge, 4 feet 8½ inches, from 8 feet 3½ inches,
leaving 3 feet 7 inches, the distance k,between the gauge line of the rail l, opposite the
frog point f, and the gauge line of the nearest rail of the track c d. This distance
multiplied by 9 inches will give the distance from the frog point f to the frog point h; 3
feet 7 inches = 43 inches, 43 x 9 = 387 inches = 32 feet 3 inches. Accordingly having
located the point of frog f we mark a corresponding point on the nearest rail of the
opposite track. From this point we measure along the rail the distance 32 feet 3 inches,
locating the second frog point h, and again the frog distance 84.7 feet to the P. C. of
the second turnout curve at g.

If frogs of different numbers, say 7 and 9, were to

1145

be used, the distance between the frogs is found as follows:

As the No. 7 frog spreads 1 inch in 7 inches, and the No. 9 frog 1 inch in 9 inches, the
two will together spread 2 inches in 7 + 9 = 16 inches, or 1 inch in 8 inches. Now, if
the rails to be united are 3 feet 7 inches, or 43 inches apart, as in the previous
problem, the distance between the frog points will be 43 x 8 = 344 inches = 28 feet 8
inches.

In locating cross-over tracks, regard should be paid to the direction in which the bulk
of the traffic moves, and the cross-over tracks should be so placed that loaded cars
will be backed, not pushed, from one track to the other.

At all stations on double track roads there should be a cross-over to facilitate the
exchange of cars and the making up of trains.
http://www.catskillarchive.com/rrextra/tkwk10.Html

Turnouts

Contents
i. Introduction
ii. Frogs or Crossings
iii. Switches
iv. Layout
v. Switch Stands and Targets
vi. Additional Safety Appliances
vii. Using Turnouts
viii. References

Introduction
When two wagons encountered one another on a narrow road, one wagon had to turn out to let the
other pass. In railway engineering, an appliance is necessary to allow a vehicle to move from one
track to another. By analogy, in America this appliance came to be known technically as a turnout. In
Germany, what wagons did when they met was weichen, so the railway appliance became known as
a Weiche. In Britain, however, attention was focussed on the movable, pointed rails that were known from
their shape as points, and this became the name of the appliance, though really there is no actual term for
the complete appliance there. In France, the points were les aiguilles, the "needles," and this was the word
that was adopted there. In America, the turnout is popularly called a switch, in the same vein. Most people
will talk of "switches" or "points," while only an engineer will refer to a "turnout." Also, the points
themselves are technically switch rails, of which the point is just one end.

Some typical uses of turnouts are sketched at the right. A train approaches a facing turnout in a direction
facing the points, able to take either route; a trailing turnout is approached from the other direction.
Whether a turnout is facing or trailing depends, of course, on the direction of the train, but the facing
direction is always the one in which the train has a choice of routes. There is always a danger at a facing
turnout of a misplaced switch, since the safe speed for a divergence is almost always much lower than for
the straight route. Facing turnouts are necessary at junctions, but on double-track railways have been
strongly deprecated. Early railways avoided them altogether on main lines. A trailing crossover permits a
train to "shunt" by backing through the crossover onto a parallel track. With short trains, this is quite
practical, but with today's long freight trains is impossibly inconvenient. Facing points were the first
points of danger protected by fixed signals. The position of a turnout is often described by the terms
"open" and "closed." A closed turnout is set for the normal route, usually the straight one, while an open
turnout is set for the diverging route. Operating a switch to one position or the other is called "lining" it.

The "slip switches" illustrated have their points and closure rails entirely within the crossing, which must
be at a small angle (less than about 10°) typical of turnout frogs. They permit a transversal track to
connect selectively with the tracks crossed, double slip switches acting as crossovers. They are not used in
main tracks, but are common in terminals and yards, where space is at a premium. The obtuse crossings
may have movable points, especially when the angle of crossing is small. A "wye" switch is not
necessarily used in a wye track, but is so named because the routes diverge as in the letter Y. It can, of
course, be used in a symmetrical wye track.

Frogs or Crossings
Let us consider a turnout from a straight track to a track diverging to the left for concreteness. The straight
track supports and guides the wheels with the help of the wheel flanges. Somehow, at the turnout, the
flanges must both cross the left-hand rail, while the wheels are continuously supported and guided. The
device that allows the left-hand flange to pass is the first encountered, and is called the switch. The right-
hand flange then later crosses by means of the crossing or frog. The American term "frog" comes from
the supposed appearance of early cast-iron crossings with their four splayed legs.

The frog occurs in all kinds of turnouts, consisting of rails making an angle F, the frog angle, with
grooves cut in the heads of the rails to allow the flanges to pass. The wheel treads are wider than
the flangeways, and so the wheel is more or less supported at all times. The toe of the frog is on the side
of the switch, while the heel is the other end. The rails from the switch side form the wings on each side
of the tongue of the frog. The mouth is the space between the rails approaching the frog, while
the throat is the point of closest approach. The point of the frog is generally rounded off to a width of 1/2"
at the actual point of the frog. The point where the flange edges of the two rails meet when extended is
the theoretical point.

In America, the frog angle is specified by the frog number, which is the ratio of the length to the width, n
= PH/AB. This is the ratio of the length to the sum of heel and toe spreads. The frog angle F is easily seen
to be related to n by tan(F/2) = PH/2AB = n/2, or F = 2 tan-1(1/2n). Practical frog numbers range from 5 to
20, but yard frogs are seldom less than number 8, and mainline frogs seldom less than 12. Frogs have
standard dimensions that are given in Reference 2. In the diagram above, k and h are the toe and heel
distances measured to the theoretical point.

A necessary accessory to the frog is some device to ensure that the flange of a wheel does not
strike the point of the frog, but is carefully guided to one side. This is most usually done by guard
rails, which keep the backs of the opposite wheels far enough away, as shown in the figure. The check
gauge c measured from the back of the wheel must be maintained at a value that will ensure flange
clearance. Raised edges on the frog itself may press on the outside of the wheel tread for the same
purpose; this is called a self-guarded frog. Self-guided frogs are only used at low speeds, say 30 mph or
less. If the frog angle is small, it may be necessary to use moving point frogs in which the unused
flangeway is completely closed by moving a "knee" to one side. This is effective, but requires additional
mechanism. A "spring frog" holds one flangeway closed by spring pressure on a movable wing rail. When
a wheel goes this way, the wing rail is forced out of the way so the flange can pass. These are very
commonly used on main lines, and are sprung for the straight-through movement. Diverging movments
are made at low speed. Spring frogs are not used at junctions, of course.

Brittle cast-iron frogs were very early replaced by built-up frogs made of rail, bolted together with
spacers. These were hard to inspect, and could fail from cracking, but were much safer than cast iron.
Later, cast steel frogs were introduced and proved very satisfactory. Most frogs used now are cast steel.
Manganese steel gives great wear resistance because of its extraordinary work hardening.

The Hayes derail is a movable casting that can be placed on the rail to lift and divert a wheel to the
outside of the rail. The opposite wheel, of course, comes off its rail and falls onto the ties. Derails are used
to protect the main line from a private siding in case of loose cars on the siding. Lack of a gradient should
not be sufficient; cars can be blown by the wind or moved maliciously. It can be operated by an electric
switch machine, or manually by a switch stand. On main lines, point derails are used instead; these are
turnouts that don't go anywhere. Derails not only forcibly prevent fouling another line, they also give
incontrovertible evidence of passing a signal at danger, like a crossing gate or a smashboard. They are
encouragement not to overrun a stop signal.

Switches
The kind of switch used characterizes most kinds of turnouts. A very effective switch, first developed for
steam railways, was one in which the straight and diverging tracks were completely separate and side by
side. A length of rail, called the switch rail, was not spiked down but slid transversely on support plates,
so that it could register with one track or the other. The throw of the switch was about 5 inches, usually
with stops on both sides to ensure proper registration. In America, this kind of switch was called a stub
switch. It also offered the advantage of an easy way to make a three-way switch. Unlike other kinds of
switches, ice and snow, odd stones or other extraneous materials cannot get in the way of a proper
alignment. For this reason, it was adopted as a safety measure, for example on the London and
Birmingham Railway, as well as on the Pennsylvania Railroad. It was exported to the Continent, to
France in particular.

An important part of a stub switch were the headshoes, malleable iron castings that received the two stock
rails on one side, and had a flat table on the other side for the switch rail, with stops on either side. A stub
switch had the disadvantage that a train approaching in the trailing direction on the wrong track would
certainly be derailed. A serious accident of this type happened at Rio, Wisconsin on the Chicago,
Milwaukee and St. Paul on 28 October 1886, with 17 fatalities (mostly due to the subsequent fire). The
Milwaukee Road then removed all stub switches from its main lines. Before 1900 they had vanished from
main lines everywhere.

In the split switch the outer, or stock, rails are continuous; one remains with the undeviated track, while
the other forms part of the deviated track. Switch rails, often called just points, connect one or the other
closure rail to the outer rails as necessary, only one switch rail being used for each route. These points are
planed down, and are supported laterally continuously by the stock rails, which are often braced outside
for added strength against overturning. The switch rails are connected by tie rods, and move together to
one side or the other on flat slide plates, by means of the operating rod. The operating rod must provide a
means of making small adjustments in its length. At the heels, the switch rails are connected flexibly to
the closure rails by joint bars. The standard throw of a split switch is 4-3/4". Despite the danger of some
obstruction's getting between the point and its stock rail, presenting the danger of the flange's passing
between them and derailing the train, this kind of switch proved the safest in practice, and is now
universally used. Note that the main track was not continuous, but broken at the point of the switch rail.
Some engineers objected to this lack of continuity.

The Wharton switch overcame this objection by leaving the main tracks continuous and complete. To take
the turnout, a ramp was brought beside the main track that raised a wheel enough by its tread so that the
flange could move across the rail, when the wheel pair is guided to one side. Of course, this was not
suitable at full speed, but at low speeds it was not objectionable. These turnouts were intended to be used
at spurs, sidings and service tracks where the speed would have been restricted at any rate.

Switch rails are usually straight, with AREA standard lengths of 11 ft to 33 ft. The point is planed down
to a thickness of 1/4", and is rounded off at the top. The heel distance, the distance between the gauge
sides of the switch rail and the stock rail at the heel, is 6.50 in. or 6.25 in. The stock rail is not notched to
receive them, but the diverging stock rail is bent at the switch angle. The switch rails are supported
by slide plates, and held apart by the head rod at the toe, and 3 or 4 back rods along the length. Rail
braces support the stock rails against overturning. The switch angle is the angle between the direction of
the straight track and the gauge side of the switch rail. Curved switch rails for high-speed turnouts must
be carefully designed and well-supported laterally.

A single-tongue switch consists of a switch rail opposite a frog in the other rail that will permit a wheel to
pass either way. The wheel is guided by one side or the other of the switch rail. This is an early kind of
switch, and was even used on steam railways in some cases, but only when speeds were low. It was much
more commonly used on street railways.

The curve in the closure rail cannot be superelevated, so it is necessary to restrict the speed to a
comfortable level. At such a speed, the shock of the divergence at the switch rails will not be significant.
Speed is generally restricted to 15 mph for a No. 8 switch, 20 mph for a No. 12, and 30 mph for a No. 15.
No restriction is necessary for a straight-through movment, only for the divergence. No divergence is ever
normally negotiated at a speed comparable to the overturning speed on the lead curve.

Switch rails can be used without crossings in scale tracks, where the wheels are diverted to "live" rails
connected with the scale when the switch is open. When closed, wheels pass on the ordinary track. Single
switch rails can also be used in "point derails" to enforce a stop signal. Frogs can be used without switch
rails in gauntlet tracks, where two tracks are superimposed without connections where the roadway is of
restricted width, as on a narrow bridge.

Layout
All measurements are referred to the actual point of the frog as a reference. If b is the width of the frog
point, usually 1/2" or 12 mm, then the distance between the theoretical point and the actual point is nb.
The analysis is done in terms of the theoretical point. The frog number n and the length of the points L are
the other necessary parameters. We want to know the radius of the curve R connecting the points and the
frog, as well as the distance E from the point of the frog to the toe of the points, called the lead. These
measurements are sufficient for constructing the turnout.

All we need to solve this problem is trigonometry, but it gives a better understanding to approach it by
some approximate solutions. In the simplest case, assume that the curve is tangent to the straight at some
point Q. If the gauge is g (standard gauge is 4.7083 ft, 56.5 in, or 1435 mm), then the radius of curvature
of this rail is R + g/2. This arc crosses the other rail at some point P, which will be the theoretical point of
the frog. Actually, frogs are made with straight rails except in some special cases, but we'll ignore that at
this point. The angle of crossing is F. It is easy to see that g = (R + g/2)(1 - cos F), so that R + g/2 = g/(1 -
cos F). Therefore, with a continuous circular arc from point to frog, the frog angle F determines the radius
of curvature of the closure rail. The lead is E = (R + g/2) sin F.

Let's apply this to a No. 12 frog, n = 12. then, F = 4.772°, from which R = 1355.9 ft, and E = 113.0 ft. E
should be increased by the distance from the theoretical to the actual point, 12 x 1/2" = 6", or E' = 113.5
ft. Now, the frog rails are straight, and the distance from the theoretical point to the toe of the frog is k =
6.417 ft (from a table of frog dimensions). It's very easy to modify our formulas to allow for this. In fact,
R + g/2 = (g - k sin F)/(1 - cos F). Recalculating, R = 1201.9 ft. We must add k cos F = 6.39 ft to E, or E =
106.4 ft, E' = 106.9 ft. The effect of the straight portion of the frog is to decrease R and E somewhat. If it
is convenient to decrease the lead, we can do this by adding a straight portion near the frog.
In either case, we can easily arrange a stub switch. If we assume that the rail will assume a circular curve
when deviated (which is not quite true), then the throw T = L2/2R, or L = √(2RT). For the example with a
straight frog, L = 34.7 ft. This is rather long, since it is best if L is less than a rail length, so L was
generally made a little shorter, and some angular misalignment was accepted. The switch rail is a
cantilever beam loaded at the end, approximately. The deflection of such a beam is D = PL3/3EI, where P
is the load, L the length, E the Young's modulus (for steel), and I the transverse moment of inertia of the
rail section. For a modern 115 lb/yard section, I = 10.7 in4. For a 22 ft switch rail, the force P is 52.3 lb
per inch of throw, or 314 lb for a throw of 6 in. When stub switches were used, rail sections were much
lighter, and the force was correspondingly less.

The addition of straight switch rails adds a little complication. If t is the thickness at the toe and h the heel
distance, then the switch angle S is given by sin S = (h - t)/L, where L is the switch rail length. If h =
6.25" and t = 0.25", then for L = 11 ft, S = 2.605° and for L = 22 ft, S = 1.302°. We see that switch angles
vary between 1° and 3°. This corresponds to an abrupt change of direction, which limits the speed at
which the divergence can be taken. The formula for R is now R + g/2 = (g - h - k sin F)/(cos S - cos F),
which we see becomes the stub-switch formula for S = h = 0. The theoretical lead E = L + [(g - h - k sin
F)/tan(F + S)/2] + k cos F. To find the actual lead, nb must be added.

For a No. 12 turnout with 22 ft switch rails, we find that F = 4.772°, S = 1.302°, (F + S)/2 = 3.037°, g - h -
k sin F = 3.653 ft, so that R + g/2 = 1138.7 ft, or R = 1136 ft. (a 5° 3' curve). The theoretical lead is E =
97.25 ft, so E' = 97.75ft. These numbers are not far from those for a No. 12 stub switch.

The general case is illustrated at the right. The length L of the switch rails includes any straight
segment at this end of the curve, while the length k at the frog includes any straight segment there.
To find R, we express the distance CD in two different ways. One way is g - h - k sin F. The other way is
(R + g/2)(cos S - cos F). Equating these gives R + g/2 = (g - h - k sin F)/(cos S - cos F). If we increase L,
we increase the heel distance h proportionately, and this decreases R. If we increase k, then R is also
decreased.

The lead E is the sum of L, the projection of AB, and k cos F. AB is (g - h - k sin F)/tan[(F + S)/2]. The
angle ABD is [180° - (F - S)]/2 less 90° - F, or (F + S)/2. Therefore, E = L + [(g - h - k sin F)/tan(F +
S)/2] + k cos F. If S is small, then a change in k produces an equal and opposite change in E. By
increasing k, then, we can decrease E. On the other hand, increasing L will increase E by a somewhat
smaller amount. By adjusting the straight segments at each end of the closure rail, we can change E by
small amounts, to suit the rail lengths we have available. It is only necessary to insert an extra tangent at
one end to make this adjustment. The AREA made a table of "practical leads" of this kind. For example, a
No. 12 switch, with 22-ft switch rails, can use 3 24-ft rails for the curved closure rail, and 2 24-ft rails,
plus a 23 ft 10-5/8 in rail for the straight closure rail. There is a tangent of 5.33 ft next to the switch rail,
and no additional tangent at the frog. The actual lead is 100' 9-5/8", and the radius of the lead curve is
1098.73 ft. (Compare with the theoretical lead given above.)

Many turnout applications involve parallel tracks. North American standard-gauge railway equipment is
about 10 ft (3048 mm) wide, so parallel tracks must be a minimum of 12 or 13 ft between centres. A
spacing of 14 ft or 15 ft gives satisfactory clearance. On a curve of radius R, a car with a distance D
between truck centres will overhang a distance of about D2/8R. For D = 60 ft and R = 500 ft, this is 0.9 ft.
Therefore, increasing the spacing by 1 ft for R between 1000 ft and 500 ft, and by 2 ft for smaller radii,
should be sufficient. The overhang of the car corners should also be checked. We'll assume a spacing of p
= 14 ft in what follows.
Consider a crossover between two parallel tracks of spacing p. Let the frogs be the same, and suppose the
connection is straight, which is the best practice, avoiding a reversed curve. If L is the distance between
the point of one frog and the point opposite the toe of the other frog where the closure curve begins, then
L sin F = p - q cos F + k sin F. The distance q between the frog theoretical points, measured parallel to the
tracks, is then q = L cos F - g sin F - k cos F, or q = (p / tan F) - g(sin F + cos F). Subtracting 2nb then
gives the distance between the actual points. When the location of the frog points is determined, the
crossover can be constructed. The distance along the connecting track between points opposite the frog
points is d = (p/sin F) - (g/tan F).

For a No. 12 crossover between tracks 14 ft apart, F = 4.772°, so q = 162.62 ft. and d = 111.89 ft. The
total length of the crossover, from point of switch rail to point of switch rail, is q + 2E = 357.12 ft.

A second problem is to find the radius of the circular curve to connect with a parallel track. The central
angle of this curve is F, so the mid-ordinate of the inner curve is (R - g/2)(1 - cos F). This is equal to p - g
- s sin F, where s is the distance along a straight track from the theoretical point of the frog to the
beginning of the curve (P.C.). Therefore, R - g/2 = (p - g - s sin F)/(1 - cos F). s includes the heel distance
of the frog, but it is good to make s larger to avoid a reversed curve.

For a No. 12 turnout, s = 30 ft, and p = 14 ft, we find R = 1962.9 ft. This is about a 3° curve. If the
maximum allowed speed on the turnout is 25 mph, a circular curve is adequate, and superelevation is not
required.

Now consider a straight ladder connecting body tracks 14 ft apart. If there is no curve beyond the frog, the
ladder angle is F. For a No. 8 ladder, this is 7.153°. A forward distance of 111.56 ft is required for each
track, so a straight ladder occupies a great deal of space, and often ways must be found to reduce this
distance by introducing curves. If E is the lead, and s the distance from the point of the preceding frog to
the points of the switch rails, then p = (E + s) sin F. This can be solved for s, s = p/sin F - E. With a No. 8
ladder, and p = 14 ft, we find s = 44.96 ft. The distance between frog points is 112.43 ft.

Suppose a curve is used beyond the frog, with a distance h between the theoretical point and the
P.C.. The point at which this curve, projected backward, becomes parallel to the straight track is at
coordinates x = R sin F - h cos F and y = R(1 - cos F) - h sin F, with x measured towards the points and y
measured towards the other rail, as shown in the diagram. This construction is often useful when
designing track layouts.

Switch Stands and Targets

The mechanism for the hand operation of turnouts is usually called a switch stand in America. It
usually converts a rotary motion about a horizontal or vertical axis to a linear motion, moving the
switch rails by means of the operating rod, and usually includes some sort of switch target to make its
position evident to an approaching train or a switchman [we'll assme this includes the switch lamp as
well]. The distance moved by the switch rails is the throw of the switch, around 4-3/4 in or 120 mm.
Some examples of switch stands are shown at the right. If the handle moves a distance D while the throw
is d, the ratio of the forces is the ideal mechanical advantage D/d. The harp switch stand was an early
type, often used with stub switches, and is a simple lever of the first class. It can easily be applied to a
three-throw switch. A pin was inserted to hold the lever in the desired position. The simple ground throw,
called a parallel throw, operates through a 180° angle, and is held in position by the weight of the handle
(but may be latched in each position as well). The more elaborate kinds may be "safety stands" (see
below) and may have a vertical target rod. The "high" switch stand has a vertical axis that rotates through
90°. A popular model was known as the "High Star" switch stand, and there was a similar "Low Star"
model. The operating handle folds down into a notch in the top plate, and can be padlocked there. In other
types, the handle rotates a shaft driving the main shaft through gears, for a greater mechanical advantage.
If d is the crank length, then √2d is the throw. Double cranks made connections easier. The connecting
rod from stand to points was generally 6 ft long. When a vertical axis rotates through 90°, targets can be
attached to indicate the position of the switch. A simple circular target is shown, which displays a red disc
(or other shape) when the switch is set for divergence, and shows its edge when the switch is set for the
straight. For the night indication, a lamp with four 4-1/8" lenses is placed on the top of the axis. The target
rod tip is rectangular (1-1/8" x 13/16") so the lamp will go on only with the correct orientation. The long
side is parallel to the rail for a closed switch. Such switch stands are used on main tracks, where the target
and lamp must be high enough for visibility at a distance. When two switch stands come close together,
one is high, the other low.

The eccentric was used by the London & Birmingham Railway in the 1830's to control stub switches,
which had been adopted as the safest choice. It gave a definite throw (twice the eccentricity) and a
positive setting. The eccentric was rotated by a capstan-like device, the handle rotating through 180°. This
mechanism was exported along with early railways to Europe, especially to France, where the employees
operating switches at stations became known as gardes excentriques. This name long survived the
eccentrics and stub switches.

The switch may be held in either position by a spring, so that it "toggles" between the two positions. A
lever is provided to change the position by a sharp pull that moves the switch rails to the intermediate
position where they snap over to the other setting. Such switch operating mechanisms are used in Britain
in yard tracks, and are not equipped with targets. When run through in the trailing direction, they
automatically take the correct position if it is not already set. Generally, these switch stands are called
"automatic"; that is, if run through they change to the correct position. An example has been given above.
Another was the Ramapo switch stand, operated by a vertical handle and camming the crank rod. It
rotated in steps of 90°.

The sketch labelled "Racor" is only a suggestion of what these very commonly used patent low
switch stands are like, of which Racor was one manufacturer. The handle rotates through 180°
parallel to the track, while the vertical axis rotates through 90°, driven by bevel gears. The operating lever
is held in a latch on either side, which can be released by a foot pedal. The latch can be padlocked to
prevent tampering with the switch. The switch target can be a lamp with four lenses, 4 to 5 in in diameter,
each surrounded by a coloured circular target, supported on this axis. At times, only the red or yellow
target was used, while the other one was omitted. Some usual colours are shown in the diagram. The
colours (a) were originally chosen when green was the colour of caution, and white for clear (before
1895). For main line switches, red was often used in place of green, as at (c). When yellow replaced green
for caution, (b) was the result. These were the colours later used by the Pennsylvania Railroad. If green
also replaced white, (d) was the result. For main line switches, (e) was popular, and was often used for all
switches. (f) might be used for yard switches, if green was considered inappropriate. Actually, yellow and
green is probably the best choice for yard switches, since it does not use red to mean something other than
stop. The C&EI used white and yellow, the SP&S white and red, for switch lamp targets. For main lines,
green and red is probably the best choice of colours. The AT&SF used green for a closed switch, red for
an open main track hand-thrown switch, yellow for interlocked and yard switches. The yard switches used
small rectangular yellow targets. Lunar white (bluish-white) was sometimes used for lamps on yard
switches set for the straight route, as by the Southern, who used regular white (clear) for main line
switches.

Some typical simple targets for high switch stands are shown at the right, usually made of painted
sheet steel. The company identifications are not certain, but seem to be valid. The same company
may well have used different targets in different times and places. Except where shown otherwise, there is
no target for a "closed" switch, one set for the main line, in these examples. Such a target was often
called blind. The target is displayed when the switch is "open," set for the divergence. The "SS" target is
for a spring switch lined for the main line. The simple red disc is by far the most common target, used not
only by the UP, but by the AT&SF and many other companies. Red or yellow are the only colours found;
red is often used for main line switches, and yellow for yard switches, but sometimes no distinction is
made and one colour is used for both. In block signal territory, switch stands did not carry lamps, to avoid
confusion with signals. These switches were, of course, protected by the nearby signals, which went to
Stop when the switch was open. Outside block signal territory on main lines, lamps (or reflectors) were
always used. Ideally, the lamp should be at the engineman's eye level, 10 to 11 ft above the rail, but were
usually somewhat lower, 7 to 8 ft. This is high enough to avoid confusion with hand signal lamps. A low
lamp was at a height of 4 to 5 ft. The disc target is typically 18" in diameter, which gives an idea of the
usual size of targets. The operating handle is 22" long. The crank at the bottom is 3-11/16" long, giving a
throw of 5-1/4", slightly greater than the point throw to provide extra pressure. Very often yard switches
had at most a lamp, often without coloured targets, to show the state of the switches by night. By day,
crews were expected to observe the points. Sometimes, small targets were provided on the lamp axis if
the lamps did not have them surrounding the lights. Often, yard switches are found with no lamps or
targets at all. Interlocked switches never had targets.

The figure also shows the German switch indicators. They are black boxes illuminated from inside. The
white areas are translucent. When approaching a switch from the facing direction, the arrow shows
whether the divergence is to the right or left. When trailing into a switch, the disc is shown when the
switch is set for divergence. If set for straight through, then the vertical rectangle is seen as in the facing
direction. The discs with sickle-shaped black lines are used when both directions are divergences. In the
facing direction, the inclined rectangles are used. Indicators of this type are very widely used in Europe.
The same indicators may be found in Austria and Switzerland, while similar ones are used in Belgium and
France. German-type indicators have the advantage that they cannot be confused with coloured signal
lights.

At the left are shown typical main line switch targets and lamps. These examples are from the
Pennsylvania Railroad, the Southern Railway and the Louisville and Nashville, all of which use
the original signal colours red and white, and which give a positive indication of a closed switch. (The
PRR, SOU and C&EI used white and yellow targets for yard switches). The red pierced "spectacle" is a
very early and familiar shape often found on switch targets. Note the green reflective disc. This red
spectacle and white inclined bar is familiar, often without the green reflector. There has been a very great
variety of target shapes and colours. It is good practice to make the two targets for the straight and
diverging routes of different shapes, as is clearly done here, but very often only a single target is used.
Different shapes are more easily recognized than the colours under bad illumination. The use of reflective
surfaces is a very good idea. With bright headlights, reflective surfaces can replace active illumination
with considerable economy, since no maintenance is required.

At the right are some targets used by the Denver & Rio Grande Western, as seen in photographs.
The yellow targets, on high stands, were used in Salida Yard, for example. Yellow and green
circular targets also were used on switch lamps. The D&SL targets were at Utah Junction in 1947, while
the small red target was seen at Craig much later. Green (or blue) is a relatively bad colour for painting
any sign or signal, since it is obscure and does not stand out against the usual backgrounds. When
backlighted, or in the shadows, it becomes black. White, red and yellow are excellent colours, and black
makes a good contrast with yellow and white, as does white with red.

Two sets of targets showing a positive "closed" aspect are shown at the left. The Milwaukee
arrow-feather target was often used alone, without the green diamond, which seems to have been
an afterthought. The feather target is 2' 9" high and 1' 0" wide, the top at a height of 6' 9". The white bar
and red arrow is typical of many other targets, both high and low. There may well be alternative colours,
such as a white bar and a yellow arrow, and a white disc substitute for the bar. The CB&Q also used small
rectangular targets on low switch stands, green above and yellow below, as well as green and yellow lamp
surrounds, and the red bar for high signals. The Michigan Central made typical choices for switch target
colors, as shown at the right. A yard switch set for the lead (the track from which others diverge) shows a
lunar white light.

The switch stand may be located on either side of the turnout, usually on two long (15 ft) crossties,
called the headblock. The origin of the term "headblock" is probably interesting, but I do not know
it. It probably comes from the days of bar rail wooden track, and refers to the base on which the switch
rails moved. On a ladder track, the switch stands should be on the outside, across from the body tracks, so
that the switch tender will not have to cross tracks to go from one turnout to another. In other cases, the
switch stand is generally placed on the right-hand side as seen when approaching the points, if space is
available.

Oil lamps gave good service in switch lamps for many years, especially when mineral oils (kerosene)
replaced organic oils. Their principal disadvantage was the cost of maintenance. The reservoir (fount) had
to be filled, and the wicks trimmed or replaced, at regular intervals. Founts and burners could be
exchanged as a unit without disturbing the whole lamp, so the maintenance could be performed in the
lamp shed. The simple round- or flat-wick burners screwed or socketed into the tops of the founts. An
American long-burning lamp could burn for 6 or 7 days, but was not very bright. A 4-day fount held 37.4
cu. in., while a 7-day fount held 63.9 cu. in. A quart of kerosene will burn for about six days in a long-
time burner. At this burning rate, the lamps would do well to produce 1 cp. In Europe, propane lamps,
using incandescent mantles, gave excellent service. Some could burn for six weeks before the gas tank
had to be exchanged. Propane lights never were used in the United States. Electric lamps were excellent,
of course, but involved the problem of electricity supply, which could involve a tangle of wires. Electric
switch lamps are easily identified by the lack of a chimney and lamp handle. The reliability of oil lamps,
and the absence of wires, were strong incentives for retaining them. The short focal length lenses were
Fresnel lenses to reduce their thickness, and the glass was appropriately coloured. Optical systems were,
in general, crude. Reflectorized surfaces ("Scotchlite") are also an excellent idea where headlights are
bright, and should have been used more widely.

A split switch may be run through safely in the trailing direction even if the points are set incorrectly.
However, if the operating connection is rigid, this will in general break it and free the switch rails.
Therefore, the switch rails must be spiked in position until repairs can be made. Also, the train must not
be backed once any portion has run through the switch in this way. A spring may prevent breakage of the
operating rod, but in general springs are avoided except for turnouts meant to be run through,
called spring switches. In this case, a dashpot retards the switch rails from moving back rapidly once they
have been forced aside by a wheel. It is very important not to make a partial movement through a spring
switch. In general, an accompanying signal shows when the switch rails are in the correct position for a
facing movement. Spring switches are very convenient at the exit end of sidings.

Additional Safety Appliances

Track-circuited turnouts must have the the switch rails insulated from each other, so the tie rods must be
provided with insulating joints. A circuit controller connected directly with the points should be adjusted
so that a movement of 1/4" or 6 mm away from the stock rail will cause the track circuit to be shunted.
A switch indicator in clear view of the switch stand (about 4 ft away, and 4 ft high) should show if the
track circuit is shunted, that is, if a train is approaching. The indicator was usually a miniature semaphore.
All arrangments to detect the position of the points, such as the switch box, must be connected directly
with the points, and not to the operating rod.

A facing-point lock has the dual functions of (1) proving that the switch rails are properly set in one
direction or the other, and (2) preventing motion of the switch rails while engaged. A facing-point lock is
not usually provided for hand-operated turnouts, but is used with motor-operated or interlocked turnouts
that are controlled remotely. Originally, a facing-point lock was provided with fouling bars in the
flangeways. In order to withdraw the facing-point lock, the fouling bars had to be raised first, which could
not be done if wheels were passing over them. This protection is now provided by track circuits. The
facing-point lock can either be in the stretcher bar between the switch rails, or at the side of the track,
connected by a rod directly to the points. The plunger then engages in one of two holes, or else the switch
rails are held directly by rotating lugs in their two positions.

Using Turnouts
The failure of turnouts themselves seem to have caused very few serious accidents. The stub switch
accident at Rio is one in which the turnout design contributed to the accident, but was not the cause.
Spring switches have caused accidents when a partial movement is reversed, or when the points have not
fit properly due to an obstruction. In general, problems with turnouts arise when they are not used
properly. A misuse that has caused many accidents is that of the "open switch" when a train moving at
speed encounters a facing turnout set for a low-speed divrgence. A particular case of this kind of accident
is discussed in The Open Switch, in which a switch is abruptly changed to the wrong position
immediately in front of an approaching train, without malicious intent. This is a psychological peculiarity
that can be defended against. Open switches can also result from malicious behavior, in which points are
slightly opened, or steps taken to display a clear lamp or target by mechanical means. This is disussed
in Sabotage . It should be appreciated that an excessive speed may not be sufficient to cause overturning
or derailment at the turnout itself; more dangerous is the possible collision with equipment on the diverted
route.

Under the Standard Code of Operating Rules in the United States, the use of turnouts was governed by
Rule 104 and lettered supplements to it. Rule 104 outlined the responsibilities of employees handling
switches. Main track switches were to be lined for the main track, secured and locked. Switches on a
siding (track used for meets) were to be lined for the siding, secured and locked. Derails were to be set to
derail and locked in that position. Switches used by a train were to be left in their normal positions, and
the conductor was responsible for checking that this was done. Switches were not to be left open for
another train; each train was separately responsible for its own switches. Rule 104(A), drafted by the
individual company, prescribed the steps to be taken to ensure that a switch was not inadvertently opened
in the face of a train. These were usually that the switch should be kept lined for the main track and
locked until the expected train had passed, and that the employee lining the switch should stay a certain
distance away (20 ft, the clearance point, across the track) until the train had passed. Rule 104(B) might
prescribe that all switches involved in a movement (e.g., both switches of a crossover) must be lined
before any track is fouled, and the movement should be completed before any switch is relined. And also,
that a train must not be reported in the clear before the switches are lined and secured. Rule 104(C) might
govern the use of spring switches, and mention not to reverse until the train is completely clear of the
spring switch, not to use sand on spring or power switches, and that their locations are specified in the
time table. Of course, these supplements varied with the different companies, but generally the matters
mentioned were included.

North America was unusual in the prevalence of hand-operated turnouts in main lines, a result of the light
traffic density as well as of tradition. Even major passenger terminals, such as at New Orleans, Louisville
and Dearborn Station in Chicago, to mention just a few, were until well after World War II operated by
switchtenders that went from switch stand to switch stand setting routes, and then hand signalling to trains
when they could enter or depart. This method of operation was suitable only with relatively light traffic
and simple routes, but was remarkably successful and, above all, was cheap. It can be used safely only
when there is a single switchtender responsible at any time, to avoid the confusion that early encouraged
interlocking in Britain.

Turnouts in a limited area were not controlled from a central location in the form of a ground frame in
North America. Indeed, ground frames were unknown, their functions carried out by switch stands
located at the turnouts. This avoided the problem of not knowing exactly what one was doing at a ground
frame that necessitated interlocking. In particular, the turnouts involved in meeting (crossing) and passing
trains were handled by the crew of the train using the siding. Main-line turnouts were kept padlocked, but
the padlocks were not part of the signal system, so the turnouts could be operated at any time by anyone
possessing a switch key.

After about 1945, the development of CTC made the creation of small electric interlocking installations,
as at important junctions, practical. These machines could be operated by the telegraph operator who also
handled train orders, and controlled signals and turnouts on up to several miles of line.

References
C. F. Allen, Railway Curves and Earthwork, 6th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1920). pp. 79-103.

C. F. Allen, Field and Office Tables, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1931). Tables XXII, XXIIA,
XXIIB.

E. P. Alexander, A Pictorial History of the Pennsylvania Railroad (New York: Bonanza, 1967). Stub
switches are shown in illustrations 41, 107, 122 and 188, with harp switch stands, in the 1860's. .
Illustration 171 shows a split switch in 1875.

https://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/railway/turnout.htm

http://www.pcrnmra.org/pcr/clinics/Kolm-TurnoutsWhatYouNeedtoKnow-PCR2008-handout.pdf