Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Inertia (mass)— a measure of the force needed to change the motion of a body (M)
Momentum— the potential of an object to induce motion in another object (MLT-1 or kg-m/s)
Angular Momentum and Rotational Energy— the equivalent constants of motion for rotation
(MT-1 or kg/s) and (MLT-2 or kg m/s2 or N)
Pressure— force divided by the area over which the force is applied (ML-1T-1 or kg/m-s or N/m2
or Pa)
What are the major subfields in Physics?
• Classical Physics (pre 20th century)
• Mechanics → forces, motion
• Thermodynamics → heat, temperature
• Electricity and magnetism → charge, currents
• Optics → light, lenses, telescopes
• Modern Physics (20th century)
• Atomic and nuclear → radioactivity, atomic power
• Quantum mechanics
} → basic structure matter
• Particle physics
• Condensed matter → solids and liquids, computers, lasers
• Relativity, Cosmology → universe, life!
Introduction
• Laws of thermodynamics and laws of electricity and magnetism
provided the basis for explanation of all phenomena in classical
physics
• Classical mechanics – motion of objects which are directly observable
or observable with help of inst. like microscope.
• Classical concepts do not hold good at atomic dimensions.
• The phenomena in the realm of atoms, nuclei and elementary particles
are commonly referred to as quantum phenomena and the subject
matter concerning all these phenomena constitute quantum physics.
• The currently accepted basic mathematical theory of quantum physics
is called quantum mechanics.
Inadequacy of classical mechanics
Lamp black
(Graphite)
Heat energy transmission
radiation.
actual motion of material. For example, if you hold one end of an iron
rod and the other end of the rod is put on a flame, you will feel the heat
some time later. You can say that the heat energy reaches your hand by
heat conduction.
• Convection is transfer of heat by actual motion of molecules. The
hot-air furnace, the hot-water heating system, and the flow of blood
• Radiation The heat reaching the earth from the sun cannot be
between the earth and the sun has no material medium. The energy is
radiation.
Stefan-boltzmann’s law (1879, 1884)
it is found that the radiation energy (E) is proportional to the fourth power of the associated
temperature (T).
Area under a curve which measures the total energy of radiation at that temperature,
increases according to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. Thus Stefan’s
fourth power law is verified.
total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body per unit time
(also known as the black-body irradiance or emissive power)
E T4
E = T4
= 25k4 / 15h3c2
=5.6704 x 10-8 Js-1m-2K-4
Wein’s displacement law (1893)
The wavelength distribution 0f thermal radiation from B.B. at any temperature has
essentially the same as at any other temperature
max .T = constant max = c/max
2.898 x 10~3 m-K
max/T =constant (Universal)
Useful to determine the temperature of stars
This holds good for shorter wavelength not for longer wavelengths
Derived a formula for energy distribution in black body radiation according to which,
the energy density Ed for waves between and +d is given by
This law is quite useful for measuring the temperature of a blackbody with a very
high temperature.
The wavelength of the peak of the blackbody radiation
curve decreases in a linear fashion as the temperature is
increased (Wien's displacement law).
Rayleigh Jean’s law
E T
E 1/ 4
E = 8k T / 4
Or
8 2
E , T 3 kT
c
Assumptions
1. A black body radiator contains electron Max Planck
or so called oscillator, which are capable 1858 – 1947
of vibrating with all frequencies. German theoretical
physicist
2. Frequency () of radiation emitted by
osci.
= of vibration
nE n=n
3. Osci. Radiate energy in discrete manner
not continuous 3E n=3
4. Osci. Exchanges energy in the form of
2E n=2
absorption or emission in terms of
quanta of magnitude h E n=1
Eave=ET/ N 1
N- number of oscillators
ET – total energy
N=N0+N1+…..Nn 2
kkB=1.3806488 x 10-23 m2Kg/s2K
Boltzmann’s distribution law J/K
N n N 0e nh / kT 3
0 h / kT 1h / kT 2 h / kT nh / kT
N N 0e N 0e N 0e N 0e
x e h / kT
N N 0 1 x1 x 2 x n
1 1
N N0 N0 h / kT
1 x 1 e ---- 4
ET N 0 .0 N1.1h N 2 2h N n .nh
ET 0 hN 0e 1h / kT 2hN 0e 2 h / kT nhN 0e nh / kT
ET hN 0 e 1h / kT 2e 2 h / kT nenh / kT
xe h / kT
N ( )d 3 d
c
Energy radiated per unit volume in the
frequency interval and +d
8 h 2
E ( )d N ( )d .E 3 d . h / kT
c (e 1)
8 2
h
E 3
c (e h / kT
1)
int erms
c c c
d d d d
2
2
8hc 3 c 1
E ( )d 3 3 2 d hc / kT
c (e 1)
8hc
E 5 hc / kT
(e 1)
int erms
One at the same wavelength λ as the incident X ray photon and other at a
longer wavelength λ´.
The Compton Effect
Experimentally found that the frequency of X-rays scattered by
Like ordinary light waves, X-rays are scattered by matter in two different ways
Coherent scattering
Consists of two components (i) one having the same wavelength (ii) has a
It was found that the scattered x-rays has two components (i)
incident x-rays
Ee , Pe E =m c p c
2 2 4 2 2
v2
mc 2
m c 1 2
2 4
Total Energy, E =
E 2 -p 2 c 2 = c =m 2 c 4
v2
1 2 v2
c 1 c 2
2 m2c 4
E =
v2 2 2 2 2 4
1 2
c E -p c = m c
mv
momentum, P =
1 2
v2 E =m c p c
2 2 4 2 2
c
2 2 m2v 2c2
Pc =
v2
1 2
m2c 4
c
m2v 2c2
E= m c p c 2 4 2 2
2 2 2
E -p c =
v v2
2
1 c 2 1 c 2
m c m v c
2 4 2 2 2
Einstein relativistic
E 2 -p 2 c 2 =
v2
1 c 2
equation
Conservation of energy
Energy before collision = energy after collision
E me c 2 E Ee
Ee E me c 2 E (1)
Conservation of momentum
p 0 p cos pe cos
Squaring the above pe cos p p cos
(2)
pe cos p p cos 2 pp cos
equation 2 2 2 2 2
E m c E m c p c p c 2 ppc cos
2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2
e e
E m c E 2E E m c m c p c p c 2 ppc
e
2 2 2
e
2
e
2 4 2 2 2 2 2
cos
E 2 me 2c 4 2 Eme c 2 E 2 2 E E 2 E mec 2 me 2c 4 p 2c 2 p2c 2 2 ppc 2 cos
E 2 E 2 2 E E me 2c 4 2me c 2 E E me 2c 4 p 2c 2 p 2c 2 2 pp c 2 cos
Using (5), energy of photon can be written as
E 2 P 2 c 2 , E 2 P 2 c 2
E 2 E 2 2 E E me 2 c 4 2me c 2 E E me 2c 4 E 2 E 2 2 EE cos
E 2 E 2 2 E E me 2 c 4 2me c 2 E E me 2 c 4 E 2 E 2 2 EE cos
2 E E 2me c 2 E E 2 EE cos
2me c 2 E E 2 E E 1 cos
E E 1 cos
E E me c 2
1 1 1 cos
(6)
E E me c 2
In terms of wavelength
1 cos
E h
hc
hc hc
2
me c
h
1 cos
me c
h
compton shift , 1 cos (7)
me c
h
compton shift , 1 cos
me c
Eq. 7 gives the changes in wavelength expected for a photon that is scattered
Through the angle by the particle of rest mass me
= 4.852 X10-12 m
Shift in wavelength for visible light is less than 0.01 percent of the
initial wavelength
Compton Effect : Experimental setup
Collimating slit
Incident
X ray
Collimating
slit
Inciden
t
X ray
Thomson Scattering: elastic scattering of EM radiation by a free
charged particle
This is valid only if photon energy is less than the rest mass
energy of the particle.
h
1 cos 0
mN c
since
mN me
Mass of carbon atom is 22000
time than the mass of electron
The explanation of spectral distribution of black body by Planck results in
the concept of energy quanta which was later known as photon.
If light, a wave show particle character, then the particles of material may show
wave nature.