.

1 Introduction

.2 EarthDams
.3 Types of Earth Dams
5.3.1 Homogeneous Dam
5.3.2 Z o n d Dam
5.3.3 D~aphragmDams
.4 Causes of Failure in Earth Dams
5.4 1 Hydraul~cFa~lures
5 4.2 Seepage Failures
5.4.3 Structural Falures
.5 Dam Selection to Suit Available Materials
5.5.1 Homogeneous Dam
552 Zoned Dam
5.5.1 Diaphragm Dam
5.5.4 Rockf~llDam

.7 Freeboard
.X Stability Analysis

the various types of earth dams,

the causes of failure of earth dams,
selection of dam depending on the material available,
the method of stability analysis of an earth dam, and
the section adopted in case of rockfill dams.

)wever, with the development of the subject of Soil Mechanics these dams are

nfidence in designing earth dams and it is now possible to have embankment

5.3 TYPES OF EARTH DAMS
There are three main types of earth dams, namely,
1) Homogeneous clam,
2) Zoned dam, arid
3) Diaphragm dam.

5.3.1 Homogeneous Dam

The homogeneous clan1 is a simplc emb'ankment which is essentially homogeneous
throughout, although a blanket of relatively impervious materia! lilay be placed on the
upstream face. Levees are often simple embankmenls, but large danls are rarely constructed
in this manncr.

5.3.2 Zoned Dan1

Zoned dams usually have a central zone of selected soil material, to fonn a relatively
impermeable core, a transitlcm zone along both faces of the core to prevent piping through
cracks which may forn~in the core, and outer zolies of more pervious material for stability.
?'his constructio~iis widely used in earth dams and is seiected whe~ieversuitable materials
arc available. Clay, even though highly in~permeable,may not inake the best core if it
shr~llksand swells too much. The most satisfactory cores are of clay mixed with sand and
tine gravel. Flgure 5.1 shows thc cross-sections of typical earth darns.

1.1 SIMPLE Z O N E 0 EMBANKMENT

TRANSITION ZONE

DERVIOUS S 7 ? 4 T A
IMPERVIOUS FOUNDATION

i b ! 5 A V H DAM W I T F CORE EXTENOING 1 0 IMPEDVIOUS FOUNOATION

PERdIOUS MATERIAL CONCRETE CUTOFF WALL

, C 1 EARTH D A M ON PERVIOUS MATERIAL

Ngure 5.1 :Cmss-sections of %idEalth Darns

5.3.3 Diaphragm Dams

Diaphragni type danis hnvc a Ul~lrcaltral section of concrete, steel, or Lilnher which serves
as a willer harrier, while lhc surrounding earth or rockfill pro1,ide.sstablity. Thin concrete
sections are easily cracked by differential earth londs, and it is difTicult to form a perfectly
watertight barrier of steel or lirnlwr. In ;rdditiorr. the diaphragm must he tied into bedrock or
a very impermeable malerial rf excessive underseepage is 10 be iwoided.

SAQ 1
i) What arc thib v~~rious
~ypc'sol earth tf;~nbs'l
ri) Wh;l( 1s a honlogl!nc.;~~s
tlarti"

ii~) Wh;tl is ;I /.onctl ~ l ; : n i '

i\ J WIiitl I S it (l~;lplirag~~i
~i:1!;1 "
 Earth and Rockfill Dams

failures are caused by improper design quite often based on inadequate

ons, and careless construction and maintenance.
~ a i l u #of~ earth dams may be grouped into the following basic causes:
I,#) Hydraulic failures,
1) Seepage failures, and

C' Structural failures.

l ~ ~ d r a u lFailures
ie
out one third of earth dams is attributed to them. They are produced by surface
dam by water. Also included are washouts from overtopping (Figure 5.2 (a)),
of upstream face, scour from the discharge of the spillway, etc. and erosion

ater through the foundation or embankment has been responsible for more than
of earth dam failures. Seepage is unavoidable in all earth dams and usually it does
However, uncontrolled seepage may cause erosion within the embankment or in
which may lead to piping (Figure 5.2(b)). Piping is the progressive erosion
rough and under the dam. It begins at a point of concentrated seepage where
are sufficiently high to produce erosive velocities. If forces resisting erosion,
, interlocking effect, weight of soil particles, action of downstream filter,
those lhat tend to cause the erosion, the soil particles are washed away

l a ) OVERTOPPING l e ) - s ? i D ~ ~ DUE TO WEAK FOUNOATIW

- I f 1 SLIDINC DUE TO SUDDEN DRAW DOWN

OF RESERVOIR

11 FOUNDATION

I/ LC) UUCKING OF EMBANKMENTS DUE TO

FOUNDATION SETILEMENT
(g) DOWNSTREAM SLIDE DUE 1 0 WEAK
EMDANKMOlTS MATERIAL

/ (d) CRACKS IN EMDANKMEN15 DUE TO

SHRLNUAOE
i
11 Figure 5.2 t m e n of Fdlures - Earth .(ham9

ilures are generally caused by (a) pervious fi~indations.(b) leakape through

nts. (c) conduit leakage. and ( d i slouglling

\'!,iti: 'LIIL. is",esof sand nt gravel of 111gl;rpermeability or c;rPrties amti fissures

I I i t
i r e t 1 0 ~of wat~!rtrom the reservo:r causlllg Q ~ O S ~ O I I .
,:12cl ct,a~,!w;\11ncic.1 tk1.2 seat of ttle darn have al\o hesn resporl\rhle for this

i w111pare the colmon causes of embankment leakage which Icad to pipulg:

1 ) Poor construction control which includes insufficient compaction adjacent to outlet
conduits and inadequate bond between embankment and the foundation or between the
successive layers of the embankment.
2) Cracking in the embankment or in the conduits caused by foundation setlleinenl
(Figure 5.2~).
3) Animal burrows.
4) Shrinkage and drying cracks (Figure 5.2d).
5) Presence of roots, pockets of gravel or boulders in the embankment.
Sloughing
Failure due to sloughing takes place where downstream portion of the dam becomes
saturated either due to choking of filter toe drain, or due to the presence of highly pervious
layer in the body of the dam. The process begins when a small amount of inalerial at the
downstream toe is eroded and produces a small slide. It leaves a relatively steep face which
becomes saturated by seepage from the reservoir and slumps again. forming a higher and
more unstable face. This process is continued until the remaining portion of the d,un is too
thin to withstand the water pressure and complete failure occurs.

5.4.3 Structural Failures

Structural failures of the enlbanknlcnt or its foundalion account form about one-fifth of the
total number of failures. Structural failures result in slides, such as
a) Foundation slides, and
b) Slides in embankment.
Foundation Slides
Seams of weathered rocks, shales, soft clay strata are responsible for the foundation failure
in which the top of the embankment cracks arid subsides, and the lower slope moves
outward and large mud waves are formed beyond the toe (Figure 5.2e). Another form of
foundation failure occurs because of excessive water prcssure in confined seams of silt or
sand. Pore water pressure in the confined cohesionless seams, artesian pressure in the
abutments or consolidation of clays interbedded with the sands or silt, reduces the strength
of the soil until it is not capable of resisting the shear stresses induced by the embankments
or its water load. The movement develops very rapidly without warning.
Slides in Embankment
Embankment slides car1 occur when the slope is too steep for the strength of soil
(Figure 5.2f and g). Usually tlie nlovenient develops slowly arid is preceded by cracks on
the top or the slope near the top. Failure of this type is usually due to faulty design and
construction. The shearing strength of the soil is reduced by development of pore pressures
during construction. In high dams embankment slides may occur during dissipation of pore
pressures.

5.5 DAM SELECTION TO SUIT AVAILABLE MATERIALS

For darns advantage should be taken of every local resource lo reduce llie cost of thc project
without sacrificing the efficiency and quality of the final structure. If suitable soils can be
found in nearby borrow pits, an embankment dam may prove to be the most ecc!nl~rmcal.
 Earth and Rockfill Dams
as also the foundations. For economy, the design of earth dam should be adopted to

materials and their excavation costs dictate the type of earthfill structures to be

each type of material available from borrow areas intluences the type of
en. If materials are to be used with stockpiling, they must be used early in the
chon period. Materials from a brrow area may also be available only at certain
of the year and only to certain depths due to groundwater or climatic conditions.

the type of dams that may be selected depending upon the materials available are:
1) Homogeneous dam,
2) Zoned dam,
3) Diaphragm dam, and
4) Rockfill dam.

.1 Homogeneous Dam
s dam rnay be selected when there is an abundant supply of a single material Also when
more readily available materials are neither clearly pervious or impervious. The material
drain$ usually ~nvolveslimited volumes and hence can be processed materials.

ttd dam may he considered where sufficient quantities of both pervious and

HREATlC LINE

PHREATIC LINE

MODIFIED HOMOGENEOUS
Figu~e5.3 : Homogeneous Type Earth Dams
 VlOUS CLAY CORE

RFACE

LEDGE ROCK

(a) VERTICAL DIAPHRAGM

W '
PERVIOUS STRATUM
4 m
1

P - PERVIOUS, M -IMPERVIOUS, SM =SEMI-IMPERVIOUS, SP=SE4I - PERVIOUS

( b ) INCLINED DIAPHRAGM
Figure 5.4 : Diaphragn~Type Earth Dams

5.5.4 Rockfill Dam

Where appurtenant features such as spillway, tunnel and outlet works provide the greater
portion of rockfill materials such a dam may be selected. Figure 5.5 shows sections of
typical rockfill dams. If the rock is strong, hard, durable, relatively dense, and flat or platy
fragments are absent then it is acceptable. If the materials are capable of resisting
weathering, then they may be used in the outer porlions c~fthe upstream and downstream
slopes.

LOOSE ROCK FILL

DRY RUBBLE OR MASONRY

Figure 5.5 :Sections of Typical Rocklill Dams

111 t I1 jw woul(l \ r ~u 3r1Iccr ,I tl~nphrnplu tiarrl clcpc11d111yu p o n r l i ~ r*r l : t f ~ - r~ : r l c

'
~ l v i l 1 l ~ l i ~ l ~ ~
 Earth aod RwkGll Dams
5.8 TOP WIDTH
Th op or crest width of an earth dam depends on several considerations such as
a) nature of embankment materials and minimum allowable percolation distance
( through the embankment at normal reservoir water level,

/ 1 b)c) height and importance of structure,

11 required width to provide embankment mass for resistance to earthquake

shock, and

I1 d) roadway requirements.
practice is fairly well represented by the formula

B, = crest width (m), and

H = height of dam (m).
Ho
tt ver, the top width should be not less than 4 m for maintenance purposes.

ired allowance for waves is based on the effect of wind of maximum velocity
wn the reservoir and setting up a wave splash on the dam face. Various empirical
ending upon wind velocity and reservoir fetch have been suggested for
ave heights. The Stevenson-Moliter formula which is normally used is given by

h, = 0.032 + 00.763 - 0.271 F 'I4where F < 32 km

h, = 0.032 where F > 32 km ...(5.3)

h, = wave height (m),

F = fetch (km), and

Iv = wind velocity ( k m h ) .
surface the wave rides along the slope upto a vertical height of 1.5 times the
above the reservoir level, hence free hoard is 1.5 h,.
on is made between the normal and minimum free boards.Norma1 freeboard is
the difference in elevation between the crest of the dam and normal reservoir
face. Table 5.1 gives the freeboard to be provided according to the fetch.
Table 5.1 :Recommended Values of Freeboards

Fetch (km) Minimum Freeboard (m) Normal Freeboard (m)

< 1.5 1.OO 1.25

1.5 1.25 1.so
4.0 1.SO 1.80
8.0 1.80 2.50
15.0 2.20 3.00

er recommended that the freeboard given in the table be increased by 50 percent if

pavement is provided as protection on the upstream slope.
5.8 STABILITY ANALYSIS
Every soil mass which has a slope at its end is subject to shear stresses on internal surfaces
in the soil mass, near the slope. This is due to the force of gravity which tries to pull down
the portions of the soil mass, adjoining the dope. If, however, the shearing resistance of the
soil is greater than the shearing stress induced along the most severely stressed or critical
internal surface, the slope will remain stable; and if on the other hand the shearing resistance
of the soil, at any time after the construction of the slope becomes less than the induced
shearing stress, the portion of the soil mass between the slope and the critical internal .
surface will slide down along this surface, until, the new slope formed by the sliding mass
makes the shearing stress less than the shearing strength of the soil. The stability of slope of
earthwork thus depends on the shear resistance or strength of the soil.
The well known method of investigating stability of slope is the Swedish method, devised
*
by Swedish engineers in 1922, which is simple, and therefore, is more commonly used.
In this method, the curved slip surface is taken to be an arc of a circle with a certain centre.
There will be a number of such likely slip circles with their respective centres. It is
necessary to pick up the most dangerous of critical slip circle which is the circle along
which the soil has the least shear resistance. The centre of this circle is located by trial and
error. Below are shown methods of locating the critical slip circle in the case of various
types of soils, assuming that the soil slope is homogeneous structure i.e., it consists of one
type of soil only.
a) Cohesive Soils
The slip circle for cohesive soils is shown in Figure 5.6. Let PHV be any slip circle with
centre 01, XIis the distance of the centroid G of the area DPHV from the centre, O1.The
position of G can be obtained in the same manner as the centroid of an irregular plane area.
CURVES OF VALUES OF 'F'FOR
DIFFERENT SLlP CIRCLES

H A R D STRATUM

W E O I S H METHOO FOR COHESIVE SOILS

Figure 5.6 :Slip C i d e Method

Actuating moment which may cause a slip along surface PHV = W x x 1 (kgm) ...(5.4)
where, W = weight of soil mass of area DPHV and length of 1 m.
For cohesive soils 4 = 0 and, its shearing resistance depends on cohesion only and is the
same along the entire surface PHV.
The maximum resisting moment mobilized by the soil to prevent the likely occurrence of a
slip = cohesive shear resistance developed along PHV (for 1 m length) x (I1V (kgm)
= LCR (kgm) ...(5.5)
where,
L = length of arc PHV (m) = R a ,
C = unit cohesion (kg/m2),
 R = radius of likely slip circle (m). and . Earth md Rackfill Dams

,I a = angle subtended by arc PHV at O1 (radians).

Hejde, maximum resisting moment = CRR a = CR' a (kgm).
Maximum resisting moment
of safety against slipping along surface PHV = Actuating momer~t

ous other slip circles like the above one, e.g. QHIV, SH2V,TH3V,etc. are drawn to scale
the factor of safety is found, as shown above, for each such slip circle. The slip circle
g the minimum factor of safety is the critical slip circle, because, the failure, if it
urs, will occur along this slip circle. This critical slip circle is located as shown below.
lues of the factor of safety worked out for various slip circles say four, are plotted as
in Figure 5.6 and a curve is drawn passing through the tops of the ordinates
enting the four values of the factors of safety corresponding to four slip circles. The
t point on this curve is noted and a vertical line is drawn through it, meeting the top of
mass at a point say Z; V and Z then mark the two points through which the required
cal slip circle Mil pass.
//$ c-cp Soil
e shear strength of such a soil due to cohesion and internal friction varies from point to
olnt along the slip circle. The equation for shear strength of this soil is
s = c + P,, tan cp (kg/m2)

here C is constant along the slip circle but P, which is the pressure normal to the slip
due to the weight of soil varies from point to point along the slip circle. The method
of locating the critical slip circle is as follows:
Figure 5.7 shows the Swedish method for C- g soil. The whole soil mass adjoining the
slope, is divided into vertical strips or slices as shown in Figure 5.7(a). The fifth strip from
the left in the figure is taken for the study and is shown on a bigger scale in Figure 5.7(b).

i -
Figure 5.7 :Swedish Method for C $ Soil
Taking 1m of the strip, its equilibrium is practically due to two forces only, namely, its
weight W5 and its shearing strength S5 along the curved surface of length l5 m at the bottom
of the strip. The weight WSis equivalent to two forces, namely, W,S which is normal to the
curved surface and, the tangential force W6 which is tangential to the curved surface as
shown. Thus the equation will be
ss = c. 15 + Wn5 tan 4 (kg)

where,
C.15= cohesive strength per m length of the strip (kg), and
Wns. tan $ = frictional strength per m length of the strip.
The m X I m t of this shear strenglh is = R.Ss (kg-m)

1 PHV =r~rf
I , ~ W, , +- A,
and the moment of shear strength along the entire slip surface,

PHV = R [C. 15 + Wn5. tan $1

=R C [c. 15 + wn5. tan $1

=R [CL + tan $. W, (kg-m)
5.
where,
L = length of the whole slip surface PHV.
The actuating moment along slip surface at bottom of the strip = R. Wts (kg-m).
Hence, the actuating moment along the entire slip surface PHV d

The factor of safety, against shear failure, along the slip surface PHV = Resisting moment
Actuating moment

or, in general, the factor of safety =

CL+tan$. C w,,
cw
The weight of each strip I m long, is proportional to its area and this latter can be found
accurately by a planimeter. W,and Wt of each strip can be found graphically by drawing the
triangle of forces for each strip (Figure 5.7 (a)).
The factor of safety is found for each of other slip circles and the critical circles is located as
usual. It should be carefully noted, that, the tangential components of the weights of the first
few strips near the toe of the slope, will resist the slipping tendency and these components
must therefore, be taken with their proper sign.
Location of Critical Sllp Surface
The location of the critical slip surface by trial and error entails much' loss of time. To save
time in locating the centre of critical slip circle for homogeneous sections, Fellenius
construction for locating the line on which the centre of the critical circle is most likely to
lie, is generally adopted. Various circles with centres on this line are tried until the one with
minimum factor of safety is found.
According to the Fellenius construction, the position of the line on which the centre of the
critical circle lies depends only on the height and slopes of the embankment. Referring to
Figure 5.8, the values of a and P me taken from Table 5.2 for the embankment slope.
From point A and B these angles are drawn to meet at point O1. Point 0 2 is then located at a
horizontal distance of 4.5H,starting directly below point A, and at a depth equal to H, the
height of the embankment. The line joining 0 , and O2 is the line on which the centre of the
critical circle lies. The maximum depth to which the rupture can occur is limited by the
presence of hard stratum underneath.
O F CENTRE OF CRITICAL
SLIP CIRCLE
 Earth and Rockml Dams
, Table 5.2 : Recommended Values of a and 13 for Fellenius Construction

Slope ( H:V ! a P
1:1 27.5' 37O
2: 1 25 32'
3: 1 25 O 3S0
4: 1 25 " 36"
5: 1 25 37"

, a 0 f+
!! tlow will y o u t ~ l l l~c slilhility
r of an car111 ija~nconslruclctl r~lcohcsivtssoils'?

'1 11 5.9 ROCKFILL DAM SECTION

Rockfill dams (Figure 5.2) can be divided into two main types:
a) Impervious membrane type which depends on an impervious membrane of
cement concrete, asphaltic concrete, or rarely of steel or timber for water
tightness.
b) Earth core type with an earth core sloping at 1.3:1 or 1.4:l ( R V )placed
against a dumped rockfill. If the rockfill is placed in layers, the core may be
placed at any slope or even centrally.
The main structural element of the rockfill dams is quarry run rock, dumped or placed in
layers. This material being highly pervious requires a membrane or earth core for water
tightness. On hard rock formations, and if suitable core material is not available, the
membrane type would normally be used. Where suitable core materials are available, the
core type would generally be found more economical. Also for large heights likelihood of
cracking and leakage through membrane makes core type preferable.
I Material for Rockfill Dams
The rock used in rockfill construction should be sound and should neither disintegrate
during long exposure to water and weather nor split and crush under the heavy stresses to
which it will be subjected. Massive igneous and metamorphic rocks are satisfactory.
Sedimentary mcks like sandstones and limestones have also been used satisfactorily.
In earlier practice of dumped construction large sized rocks, weighing 3 - 5 t and larger were
used. In more recent practice, however, smaller rock is preferred.
Foundation Requirements
Large rockfill dams are usually founded ul~onbed rock. It is, however, not necessary to look
for rock foundations of as high quality as for concrete or masonry dams. For darns of
moderate or low heights, river bed sand gravel (and boulder, when dense and compact, with
shear strength of the same order as that of the rockfill, may be retained and need not be
excavated.

/
II
Dam Cmss-section of Membrane Type
Dumped rockfill adopts a natural slope of about I .3:1 to 1.4:1 (H:V ), and the downstream
slope is usually kept at natural rock slope (Figure 5.9). If no of dumpd rock
is desired, 01s upstream slope will $so be h e same. However, in a nulnher of dams be
upsveam
well as h a heen made steeper, about 0.75: 1 (H.Q, to reduce be qumtity of rock as
Of the membrane. %is requires rehandling of
mbble cushion'. to resist rock pressure.
rock and a ajckuvle of
 GROUT CURTAIN
Figure 5.9 :Membrane Type RocklUl Dam
The transition between the main rockfill and the face membrane was built in the past of
hand or derrick laid rock. The more common practice now is to provide well graded rockfill
of small boulder-gravel material compacted in layers of 30 - 45 cm thickness. It acts as a
cushion distributing the water load from the membrane to the main rockfill evenly. On self
supporting rock slope it may be 1.5 - 3 m thick at the top increasing at 5 percent of height
towards the bottom.
A rockfill dam of the proportions given above is automatically safe against sliding. It has
practically no pore pressures, good seismic resistance, and is inherently a stable structure.
Membranes
The most common type is reinforced cement concrete membrane. The thickness is usually
-
about 30 crns at the top increasing at about 0.5 1 percent of the height. The reinforcement
is usually 0.5 percent of the sectional area of the slab in each direction. The slab is generally
poured directly on the rubble cushion and is provided with joints 10 - 12 m apart. The
horizontal joints are tight while the vertically inclined expansion joints permit movement.
Reinforcement does not pass the joints. Water seals have to be provided at the joints.
Asphaltic concrete membranes cost less than reinforced concrete and are more flexible and
hence less susceptible to cracking. They can also be constructed more rapidly. The asphaltic
concrete is made of aggregates from 25 mm size to fine rock dust with 8 - 10 percent by
weight of asphaltic binder.
RocMll Dams wlth Earth Cores
Rockfill dams with earth cores are just like earth dams except that the shell material is free
draining rockfill.
m i c a 1 sections of Oroville dam and Nurek dam are shown in Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.11,
respectively. It is necessary to provide adequate filter between the core and the rockfill on

ZONE 1 - X Y ~ V I U J S RED OLWF U l E R U C CONUININC W T O bOKROCK P I C C O

ZONE 2 -TRANSITION MIXTURE OF COARSE DQED6E IAILINGS AND SAND
ZONE 3-PERVIOUS CDARSE OREDGE TAILINGS

Figure 5.10 :Omviile Dam

COFFER DAM

I - LOAM 3 -ROCK FILL

2-TRANSITION &-ROCK PAVEMENT
ZONE

Fipre 5.11 :N m k Dam Section W S R )

 f the core so that core particles may not migrate into the rockfill. For stability Earth and Rockhll Dams
is, surfaces of failure consisting of two or three planes are more appropriate than
s. The method of analysis is called the "wedge method" and is beyond the scope

r construction practice the rock was dumped at site from large heights and this
done from buckets travelling on cableways strung across the valley, but
om the sides of the valley itself. The idea was to cause the rock to break its
rs and roll into a stable position. Jets of water were played on the rock as it was falling
e same purpose.
ockfill in 1 - 2 m thick layers, more or less like earth, is gradually
ler, well graded rock is used in this case. The layers are
rollers or caterpillar tractors. Water is commonly used, but not

roblem of rockfill dams is their settlement resulting in danger of cracking of the

. The settlement results from crushing of rock corners and readjustment of rock
. The settlement may be roughly estimated by

S = settlement (m), and

H = dam height (m).
construction all effort should be made to obtain a compact mass. The placing of the
ane should be delayed to enable settlement under rock load to be substantially
ted. Subsequent settlement under water load is, however, unavoidable.

5d0 SUMMARY
and rockfill dams are economical structures if adequate quantities of the appropriate
als are available. The various types of earth dams depends on the quantities of
als available. The stability of the dam section has to be analysed for the worst
ation of loads. The methods of analysis also depends upon the materials used in the
tion. The quality control during construction has to be good to avoid problems with
structures arising from careless workmanship. All these aspects would be clear to you
e end of this unit.
5.11 KEY WORDS
Coheslve Solls ..
Soils having only cohesion and no friction, such as clays.
C- ql Solls * Soils having both cohesion and friction between soil
particles.
Condult Leakage .
Conduits are sometimes embedded in the body of an
earth dam. Seepage may occur along the outside of the
conduit which develops into piping or leaks through the
conduit may cause seepage which may also lead to
piping.
Dlaphragm Dam .
A dam in which a thin diaphragm of impervious
material such as clay or cement concrete is placed in the
central or on the upstream face of the dam. The
diaphragm may be vertical or inclined.
Foundation Requirements : Rockfill dams are founded on rock foundation but not as
strong as that required for a concrete or a masonry dam.
Foundation Slides Slides caused in the foundation due to seams of
weathered rocks, shales, or soft clay.
Free board It is the required allowance in the dam height against
water splashing on the dam top due to effect of wind.
Homogeneous Dam A dam constructed with a single material.
Hydraulic Fallures Failures of an earth dam may be attributed to hydraulic
failures, that is, to surface erosion due to overtopping or
rainfall or scouring due to wave action.
Leakage through * Leakage through embankment lead to piping failures.
Embankments
Locatlon of Critkal The slip circle having the lowest factor of safety against
Sllp Clrcle failure is the critical slip circle. Various methods are
available to locate the critical slip circle depending on
the type of material used in the dam and that occurring
in the foundation.
Material for Rockall Dams : They include igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks of large and small sizes to make up the bulk of the
dam section.
Membranes .
They are impervious materials laid on the upstream face
of a rockfill dam to reduce seepage through the rockfill
dam section.
Methods of Rock Placement: Rock is placed in the rockfill dam so as to minirnise the
effort of placement, Various methods are adopted.
Pervlous Foundatlons .
Foundations consisting of sands and gravels or cavities
and fissures allow profuse seepage from the reservoir.
R ~ k f l lDams
l wlth a They are similar to earth dams with a freely draidng
Earth Cores shell.
Seepage Fallures a Failures of earth dams due to excessive seepage through
the foundationlor the embankment are termed seepage
failures,
Settlement of Rockflll
Dams
.
The upstream membrane may crack due to the
settlement of a rockfill dam and this is the most serious
problem with such dams.
Slides In Embankment : When the slope of embankment is too steep for the
strength of the soil, slides may take place.
The downstream portion of the dam may slump due to
ebslon leaving a relatively steep face which slumps
again.
\
I
i
: The checking of the dam section for safety against all Earth and Roc- Dams
destabilising forces is stability analysis.
: They are due to slides in the foundation or in the
embankment.
: It is the width of the dam at the top required for a
roadway and the parapet walls.
: Embankment dams formed of a number of different
materials with transition zones between different
material in contact are zoned dams.

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b

a) Homogeneous dam, zoned dam and diaphragm dam.

5
ydraulic failures; seepage failures; and structural failures.