Pranav 3

Vol. 40, No. 4 (2018) 594-623, DOI: 10.24874/ti.2018.40.04.
08
Tribology in Industry
REVIEW
www.tribology.rs
A Review on Tribological Characterization of

Lubricants with Nano Additives for Automotive
Applications
P.D. Srivyas a, M.S. Charoo a

a Mechanical Engineering Department, NIT Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Friction
Automotive manufacturers made significant efforts to achieve an overall
Wear
increase in the energy efficiency and to reduce the toxic emission level. In the
Nano-particles
way to achieve these goals, non-conventional engine technologies were
Lubricants Additives
brought to the market with improved efficiency and controlled emission
Automotive Applications
system. Numerous other supporting technologies which include biofuels and
newly improved lubricants were also involved to contribute in automotive
Corresponding author: engine system improvement. The problem of friction and wear being inbred
Pranav Dev Srivyas to the automotive application, further raise environmental hazards by way
Mechanical Engineering Department, of more fuel consumption and wear debris. For several years there have
National Institute of Technology, been numerous efforts to reduce the amount of fuel consumed by
Srinagar-190006, automotive engines. Many of the solutions been strictly mechanical based.
JandK, INDIA. Other efforts have revolved around finding the lubricants that reduce the
E-mail: devpranav.srivyas_17@nitsri.net overall friction in the engine. Lubricants perform an anti-friction media
which facilitate smooth operation, reduce friction, wear and risk of
frequent failure. Due to this ever-increasing demand for lubricant, a
considerable amount of work has been done to modify the lubricating oils
with additives to enhance their overall properties. This review paper is
aimed to highlight the research carried out in the field of lubricating oil
with nano additives for the automotive applications.
© 2018 Published by Faculty of Engineering
1. INTRODUCTION the vehicles [1-3]. Effective lubrication of the

relative parts in the automobile is required for
Improving environmental friendliness, smooth sliding over each other and to reduce
reliability, durability and energy efficiency is of friction and wear in order to decrease the
significant interest in the field of automotive emission and energy losses from the engine. To
industries. New techniques are being developed meet these challenges and to open up the new
which include introducing new lightweight possibilities, new lubricants, and improved
materials, less harmful along with controlled additives must be developed constantly [4-6].
combustion of fuels, effective lubrication which Lubricants are important as they reduce the
controls the environmental problems brought by wears mechanism, protect the surface against
594
P.D. Srivyas and M.S. Charoo, Tribology in Industry Vol. 40, No. 4 (2018) 594-623
the corrosion and also sometimes serve as the 1960 Dispersants.

coolant. Most of the lubricants that are produced Pour Point, Extreme Pressure, Viscosity
1940 Modifiers, Antioxidants, Anti-wear, Corrosion
don’t have all the tribological properties. It was Inhibitors.
found that various additives are used along with 1920 Organic Friction Modifiers.
the lubricants in order to improve its
tribological properties [7-11]. In the current
scenario, most of the lubricants have reached 2. OVERVIEW OF LUBRICATION AND
their performance limit. The most significant is LUBRICANTS
now to develop lubricants that can achieve
energy efficiency across various fields and can Liquid lubrication is the earliest method to
be used even under severe conditions. This hunt reduce friction and wear in the sliding contact
for energy efficiency has led the current bodies. Lubricant separates the contacting
research toward the use of the nanoparticles as mating surfaces by forming a fluid film between
the lubricant additive. From the development the rubbing surfaces. The fluid film reduces
history of the lubricants additive, nanoparticles metal-to-metal contact. There are some other
are relatively the latest class of lubricant factors which affect the lubricant performance
additives. It involves the colloidal solid particles are viscosity index, pour point, flash point
within the lubricating oil [12-16]. The main thermal stability and oxidation resistance.
component of nano lubricants is; the Moreover, the operating characteristics depend
lubricant/base oil; nano additive and surfactant. on the lubrication regimes which include
Nano-additives in the lubricating oil improve the boundary lubrication, hydrodynamic lubrication,
anti-wear properties; extreme pressure and elasto hydrodynamics lubrication [22-25].
properties; and also enhance the friction However, in the case of boundary lubrication, it
properties of the lubricants. The role of the becomes more important because in that case a
surfactant is to inhabit the interface area thin film of the lubricant can only be maintained
between the lubricating oil and the and direct contact between the asperities play a
nanoparticles. Use of the nanoparticles in the dominant role. The right selection of lubricants
lubricating oil has some potential advantages as plays an important role to reduce friction and
lubricating additives [17]. Most important one is wear of materials. Depending upon the source
the small size that enables the nanoparticles to and properties lubricating oils have been
enter the contact area which helps in positive classified into different types.
lubrication effect. The other possible advantages
are insolubility in nonpolar base oils, low Table 2. General classification of the lubricants [26].
reactivity with other additives, high possibility Lubricants Classification
of film formation which helps to withstand high (a) Mineral Oil
temperature and are more durable [18]. But the Paraffinic Naphthenic Aromatic
effectiveness of the nano-additives depends on (b) Synthetic Oil
certain factors i.e. their compatibility with base Synthetic
Silicon Oil Organohalogens
Hydrocarbon
oils; their size and morphology; their
(c) Bio-Lubricants
concentration and their dispersion stability Animal Fat Vegetable Oil
[19,20]. In order to determine the suitable
nanoparticles and lubricants, a comprehensive 2.1 Mineral oil
review is required which also focuses on these
parameters. This review provides an overview These oils were derived from the fractional
of the tribological performance of nanoparticles, distillation of crude oil. The most important
their performance parameters and their constituents of the mineral oils are hydrocarbons.
applications in automotive industries. Hydrocarbons used in lubricants have three basic
chemical structures: paraffinic, naphthenic and
Table 1. Summary of the development of lubricants
additives [21].
aromatic, and their distributions in the chemical
structures giving them unique properties.
Year Development in Lubricants Additives
Paraffinic base oils consist of about 45-60 %
Nanoparticles Additives as Friction Modifiers,
2020
Extreme Pressure, and Anti-Wear Additives. paraffinic structure. Paraffinic is made of the ith
2000 Polymers Friction Modifiers straight chain hydrocarbons. They have good
1980 Soluble Moly Friction Modifiers. lubrication and additive response properties and
595
can be used up to a 200 ˚C temperature in the solvent method as well as the pressing method
absence of oxygen and 150 ˚C in the oxygen [32]. Vegetable oils are further classified into
atmosphere. They have an inherently high four main classes on the basis of the dominance
viscosity index and can be used from full film to of fatty acid. These are lauric acid, erucic acid,
boundary lubrication regimes. Naphthenic oils ricinoleic acid and oleic-linoleic acid [33-35].
consist of 65-75 % of the naphthenic structure Lauric oil consists of about 51 % of lauric acid, 7
and 24-35 % of the paraffinic structure. It % monounsaturated fatty acid and 2 % of
includes a cyclic carbon atom structure with no polyunsaturated fatty acid [36]. Coconut oil
unsaturated bond. The naphthenic structure belongs to the class of lauric oil. Eurcic oils are
allows good additive solubility. Aromatic base oils the type of long chain fatty acids. They contain
include compounds having benzene-like fatty acid as erucic acid (C22). The percentage of
structure. Mineral oils are economical and easily erucic acid varies from 20-50 %. These include
available but it comes from the non-renewable rapeseed oil and mustard oil [37, 38]. Canola oil
source of energy and is non-ecofriendly in nature, is another type of Erucic oil but it is low in erucic
oxidized at high temperature, the chance of acid oil category. In this oil, the percentage of
explosion and loss of viscosity are some of the erucic acid is less than 2 %. It consists of 58 %
factors which crease its use [27]. oleic acid and 36 % of polyunsaturated acid. Due
to the presence of an unsaturated bond, it has
2.2 Synthetic oil low oxidation stability [39]. Ricinoleic oil is
those which are having 89 % of the ricinoleic
These oils are the alternatives for the acid in them. Castor oil belongs to the category
petroleum-based oils and made from the of ricinoleic oil. The other fatty acid present in
chemical modification of petroleum-based this oil is linoleic acid 4 %, oleic acid 3 %, stearic
instead of using completely crude oil. They are acid 1 % and palmitic acid 1 % [40-42]. Oleic-
artificially made with uniform hydrocarbon Linoleic oils are the class of the vegetable oil
molecules which help them to work under which include palm oil, olive oil, soyabean oil,
extremely low to high temperature. In synthetic peanut oil, cottonseed oil and sunflower oil.
base oils, the chemical structure is tailor-made These oils contain a high percentage of
based on the particular applications. unsaturated fatty acid [43].
Polyalphaolefins (PAO’-s) is the synthetic oil
synthesized from linear paraffin and shows Table 3. Summary of the constituents and
superior performance as compared to mineral characteristics of different Bio-Lubricants [30-43].
base oils but its ability to absorb the additives Oleic-
Constituents Characteristics
is low due to its well-defined molecular Linoleic Oil
structure. Esters or naphthenic base oils are Monosaturated Fatty Exhibit good anti-
Acid [36%] wear properties
commonly added to the PAOs base oil to Palm Oil Linoleic Fatty Acid [9 %]
Reduce poisonous
improve the additive solvency of the PAOs base Saturated Fatty Acid gases to the
oils. Some other synthetic base oils are (Palmitic acid) [43 %] environment
phosphate esters, polyalkalene glycols, Olive Oil
Oleic Acid [55-83 %] Resistant to
polyisobutylene, silicone oil [28, 29]. oxidation
Linoleic Acid [3.5-21 %]
More susceptible
Linoleic Acid [40-55 %]
to oxidation
2.3 Bio-lubricant oil (Anti-oxidant are
Cotton-Seed Oleic Acid [18-30 %] used to make
Bio-lubricants include animal fats and vegetable Oil them more
Palmitic Acid[20-25 %] stable)
oils. As of now, we are facing hydrocarbon
Exhibit good anti-
depletion. Bio-lubricants (Environmentally Stearic Acid [2-7 %] wear properties.
adapted lubricants) are the best alternative to A large percentage
Linoleic Acid [54 %]
mineral-based lubricants [30]. Vegetable oils are Soyabean Oil of polyunsaturated
mainly triglycerides (i.e. glycerol with three fatty Oleic Acid [24 %] acid
acids). They have excellent lubricating High Unsaturated Better oxidation
properties, inherent high viscosity-index, and Fatty Acid [59 %] stability
Sunflower Oil
Better additive
high flash point, biodegradable, renewable and (High
Monosaturated Fatty solubility
low/nontoxic in nature [31]. Vegetable oils are Linoleic)
Acid [30 %] Exhibit good anti-
generally extracted from the plants by the wear properties
596
A Large amount of 3. NANO-PARTICLES LUBRICATION

Olice Acid MECHANISM
Sunflower Oil
Concentrated
(High Oleic)
Monosaturated fatty
acid [80 %]
Nowadays, nanoparticles are added to the
lubricating oils to enhance its tribological
Table 4. Summary of the comparative studies done properties. So it is important to understand the
by various researchers on lubricating oil [44-62]. lubrication mechanism of the nanoparticles in
lubricants to reduce the friction and wear
Lubricant/
Reference
Test Method / mechanism. Many researchers have proposed
Summary various lubrication mechanisms using various
Lubricant
Four-ball tester rig/ surface analysis techniques. These lubrication
Coconut Oil/ Better lubrication is achieved mechanisms are mainly categorized into two
SAE 20W50 Lower Coefficient of Friction and higher
anti-wear properties were achieved
types that include direct as well as indirect
Ball on disc high-frequency reciprocating lubrication mechanism. Direct lubrication
tribometer / mechanism includes ball bearing mechanism
Palm Oil/
SAE 20W50
Good lubrication properties, Lower COF, and protective film mechanism whereas the
higher oxidation and corrosion properties indirect mechanism includes mending and
were achieved
Pin on disc tribometer/
polishing mechanism.
Palm Oil/
Lower volatility, lower COF, good lubrication
SAE 20W40
properties for boundary lubrication.
Palm Oil with High-frequency reciprocating tribometer/
TMP ester/ Better tribological properties were achieved
SAE 40 and reduction in wear scar diameter
Waste Palm
Four-ball tester rig/
Oil/
High viscosity and lower COF was achieved
SAE 40
Soyabean Oil/ Four-ball tester rig/
Petroleum- Bio-degradable, eco-friendly, non-toxic,
based Mineral good lubrication film formed, reduction in
oil COF and wear rate.
Soyabean Oil/
Commercial High-frequency reciprocating tribometer/ Fig 1. Different lubrication mechanism of Nano-
Synthetic High viscosity particles [26].
Lubricating oil
Pin on disc tribometer/ 3.1 Ball Bearing/ Rolling Mechanism
Castor Oil/
Lower volatility, higher viscosity index,
SAE 20W40
higher lubrication properties.
Castor Oil/ Four-ball tester rig/ In this mechanism, the nanoparticles act like
Super refined Higher antioxidation properties, lower the ball bearing and roll between the mating
mineral oil volatility, higher viscosity index surfaces. The nanoparticles are generally
Four Stroke, Single cylinder, spherical or quasi-spherical in shape. This
Direct injection diesel compression
ignition engine/
lubrication is better for the tribological
Pongamia Oil/ Minimum brake specific energy application having low load conditions so that
SAE 20W40 consumption and highest brake thermal the shape and rigidity of the nanoparticles can
efficiency at high load were achieved. be maintained [63-65]. Peng et al. [100]
Less frictional losses, completely
demonstrated the ball bearing mechanism on
eliminate emission problem
Pin on disc tribometer/ the addition of diamond nanoparticles to the
Jatropha Oil/ liquid paraffin. As the experimentation time
Lower wear loss and lower COF was
SAE 20W40
achieved increased, the spherical nanoparticles behaved
Modified High-frequency reciprocating tribometer/ as small ball bearings and rolling mechanism
Rapeseed Oil/ Improved cold flow property, better
takes place.
SAE 20W40 oxidation stability, lower COF.
Neem Oil,
Olive Oil, Four-ball tester rig/ 3.2 Protective Film an / Tribo-Film
Sunflower Oil, Lower COF, enhanced wear properties, Formation Mechanism
Mahua Oil/ higher viscosity, high flash point, high
Petroleum- lubricity, low evaporation loss, In this mechanism, an amorphous layer of the
based Mineral economical, eco-friendly and renewable.
oil nanoparticles formed on the friction surface
597
and thus reduce the actual area of contact. The Table 5. Summary of the effect of the nanoparticle as
reaction between the nanoparticles and the a lubricant additive on lubrication mechanism and
substrate cause the formation of tribo-film tribological properties [44-62].
under the provided environment [66,67]. Yu et Lubrication
al. [85] made a comparative study of two oils Base Oil/ Mechanism/ Tribological Effect/
Nanoparticle Surface (Friction and
mixed with 0.2 % surface modified copper Additive/ Role Analysis Wear)
nanoparticles. The researchers have reported Techniques
a soft protective film of copper was formed on PAO/ Tribo-Flim Reduction in COF/
the steel balls after performing the tests on MoS2/ Formation Enhancement of
four ball tester. Hu et al. [156] demonstrated [AW, EP, FM] SEM, EDS Wear properties
Mending Effect,
Protective film formation capability by adding PAO/
Tribo-Flim
Reduction in COF/
Magnesium borate in 500-SN base oil and it ZnO, CuO/ Enhancement of
Formation
[FM, AW] Wear properties
was reported that an amorphous film was SEM, EDS
formed between the rubbing surfaces. As a PAO6/ Tribo-Flim
Enhancement of
result, there was a decrease in the COF and an Ca/ Formation
Wear properties
[AW, EP] SEM, EDS
increase in the wear resistance. PAO6/ Tribo-Flim
Enhancement of
Ni/ Formation
Wear properties
3.3 Polishing Effect Mechanism [AW, EP, FM] SEM, EDS
PAO6/
Mending Effect Enhancement of
It acts as the surface enhancement mechanism ZnO, ZrO2, CaO/
SEM, EDS Wear properties
[AW, EP]
and is also called a smoothing effect. In this Tribo-Flim
mechanism, nanoparticles smoothen the PAO10/ Reduction in COF/
Formation
MoS2, BN/ Enhancement of
rubbing surface. They may fill up the gaps of [FM, AW]
Raman
Wear properties
the rough asperities which help to reduce the spectroscopy
SuperGear/
friction and wear mechanism [68,69]. Lee et al. Reduction in COF/
EP220/ Polishing Effect
[74] demonstrated the polishing mechanism Gr/ SEM, EDS
Enhancement of
by adding fullerene nanoparticles in the Wear properties
[FM, AW]
refrigeration mineral oil. Xu et al. [96] have TBA, Liquid Ball Bearing,
Reduction in COF/
reported that upon the use of diamond Paraffin/ Tribo-Flim
Enhancement of
Pb/ Formation
particles as additives in paraffin oil, the [FM, AW] SEM, EDS
Wear properties
rubbing surface at the start of the tribotest got Liquid Paraffin/ Tribo-Flim Reduction in COF/
smoother as compared to the pure paraffin. Al/ Formation Enhancement of
[FM, AW] SEM, EDS Wear properties
3.4 Mending Effect Mechanism Liquid Paraffin/ Reduction in COF/
Ball Bearing
CuO/ Enhancement of
SEM, EDS
This mechanism is also called as a self- Liquid Paraffin/ Tribo-Flim Reduction in COF/
repairing effect. During this lubrication MoS2/ Formation Enhancement of
mechanism, the nano-particles get deposited [FM, AW, EP] SEM, EDS Wear properties
and accumulate on the grooves, which form on Mending Effect,
Liquid Paraffin/ Reduction in COF/
Tribo-Flim
the rubbing surfaces to reduce the abrasion. A MoS2, TiO2/
Formation
Enhancement of
number of the surface characterization [FM, AW] Wear properties
XPS
techniques were used by the researchers, in SAE 10/ Tribo-Flim Reduction in COF/
order to investigate the nanolubrication Fe, Cu, Co/ Formation Enhancement of
mechanism. Liu et al. [70] conducted an [FM, AW] SEM, EDS Wear properties
SAE 30/ Ball Bearing, Reduction in COF/
experimental investigation using a pin on disk CuO/ Mending Effect Enhancement of
set-up. The disks of 20CrMnTi steel and pins of [FM, AW] SEM, EDS Wear properties
H62 bronze were used. After analyzing SEM, SAE 20W50/
Mending Effect Enhancement of
and STM it was found that the copper particles Carbon Nanoball/
SEM Wear properties
underwent mending mechanism in the wear [AW]
SAE 20W40/ Reduction in COF/
area. Ahmadi et al. [155] also reported mending MoS2/
Mending Effect
Enhancement of
mechanism in their study on sliding bearings SEM, EDS
[FM, AW, EP] Wear properties
used in the I.C engine. SE 15W40/ Reduction in COF/
Mending Effect
Al / Sn/ Enhancement of
SEM, EDS
[AW, EP] Wear properties
598
SAE 15W40/ Ball Bearing, Reduction in COF/ hardness increases with decreasing particle
h-BN/ Polishing Effect Enhancement of size. If the hardness of the nanoparticle
[FM, AW] SEM Wear properties
SAE 15W40/ Increase in the COF/
additive is more as compared to the hardness
Plowing Effect of the tribopair it leads to scratching and
Al2O3 Enhancement in
SEM
[FM, AW] Wear Rate indentation [73-75]. While selecting the size of
SAE 10W-30 Ball Bearing, Reduction in COF/ the nanoparticles material, it is important to
/TiO2 Deposition Enhancement of consider the root mean square roughness of
[FM, AW] SEM, EDS Wear properties
60 SN Base Oil Reduction in COF/
the lubricated surface. If the particle size is too
Mending Effect big as compared to the gap between the
ZnO Enhancement of
SEM
[FM, AW] Wear properties asperities it would lead to low lubrication as
500 SN Base Oil
Deposition,
Reduction in COF/ the bid particles get deposited on the contact
Tribo-Film surface [76,77]. Nano-particles size can also
B2Mg3O6 Enhancement of
Formation
[FM, AW, EP]
SEM, XPS
Wear properties affect the homogeneity of the lubricant. It was
Mineral Oil Deposition, Reduction in COF/ reported that the dispersion of the
CuO Polishing Effect Enhancement of nanoparticles can be increased by decreasing
[FM, AW] SEM, EDS Wear properties the size of the particles. It was also stated that
Deposition, the tenfold increase in the particle size
Mineral Oil Reduction in COF/
Tribo-Film
ZnO
Formation
Enhancement of decreases the sedimentation time by a
[FM, AW] Wear properties hundredfold [78].
SEM, EDS
Lubricating Oil Reduction in COF/
Mending Effect
ZnAl2O4 Enhancement of 4.2 Role of nanoparticle morphology
SEM, EDS
Mending Effect,
Tribo-Flim For tribological applications, the role of
Palm TMP Ester nanoparticles shape and structure plays a very
Formation Enhancement of
CuO, MoS2
[AW, EP]
SEM, EDS, Wear properties vital role. Basically, there are five different
Raman types of shape of the nanoparticles i.e.
spectroscopy
Jatropha TMP
spherical, onion, granular, tube and sheet
Tribo-Flim shape [79]. The surface energy of the
Ester Enhancement of
Formation
WS2 Wear properties nanoparticles is large and in order to achieve
SEM
[AW, EP] equilibrium, the spherical shape is preferred.
Sunflower Oil Tribo-Flim Reduction in COF/ The surface energy is homogeneous in all
ZnO, CuO Formation Enhancement in
[FM, AW] SEM Wear Rate
directions for spherically shaped particles.
Soyabean Oil Tribo-Flim Reduction in COF/ Spherical shape particles are having ball-
ZnO, CuO Formation Enhancement in bearing effect as they roll between the rubbing
[FM, AW] SEM Wear Rate surfaces. Spherical shape particles show
AW: Anti Wear; EP: Extreme Pressure; FM: Friction Modifier extreme pressure characteristics and also have
high load carrying capacity. Spherically shaped
nanoparticles have point contact with the
4. NANOPARTICLES PERFORMANCE counter body [80-82]. Onion shape
PARAMETERS nanoparticles are another type of nanoparticle
shape. It is characterized by having an
4.1 Role of nanoparticles size externally spherical shape but the internally
laminar shape. It has an advantage as this type
The size of the nanoparticles has a direct of shape lacks dangling bond which leads to
effect on the tribological performance of the less interaction between the particles and the
nano lubricant in many ways. The small size of surface [83]. Lamellar Sheet shape was
the nanoparticles helps them to penetrate the observed in the graphene and MoS 2 structure,
rubbing surface which helps to reduce the which makes them better lubricant. In these
friction and wear mechanism [70-72]. The types of lubricants, the exfliotaion will occur
mechanical properties of the particles such as between the adjacent layers under the applied
hardness can be determined by its size which shear stress and hence reduces wear [84].
ultimately effects the tribological properties of
the nano-fluid. For the material having a size
of the nanoparticle greater than 100 nm, the
599
Table 6. Summary of the size and morphology of the SiO2 365

FESEM
nanoparticles used by various researchers as Ceramics Spherical
lubricant additives. SiO2 215
FESEM
Ceramics Spherical
Average Particle Morphology SiO2 140
Nanoparticles/ FESEM
Size (nm)/ Analysis Ceramics Spherical
Classification
Morphology Technique SiO2 58
FESEM
Cu 25 Ceramics Spherical
TEM Al2O3/SiO2 70
Metal Nearly Spherical TEM
Ni 20 Nanocomposites Elliptical
TEM ZrO2/SiO2 50-80
Metal Nearly Spherical TEM
Al 65 Nanocomposites Nearly spherical
SEM Polytetrafluoroe
Metal Spherical 30-50
Pb 2.2 thylene (PTFE) FESEM
TEM Spherical
Metal Spherical Polymer
CuO 40
TEM, XRD
Metal Oxide Spherical 4.3 Role of nanoparticles dispersion stability
CuO 5
TEM
Metal Oxide Spherical
CuO 4.35
Nanoparticles have high surface energy due to
SEM the high surface area by volume ratio. In order to
Metal Oxide Nearly Spherical
ZnO 11.7 achieve the equilibrium state, the particles in
SEM
Metal Oxide Nearly Spherical suspension may stick to each other to form
ZnO 20 agglomerates. This phenomenon is called as
TEM
Metal Oxide Nearly Spherical
TiO2 80
agglomeration / flocculation [85,86].
TEM Agglomeration of the nanoparticles affects the
Metal Oxide Spherical
MoS2 90 sedimentation rate and also there is a loss of
Transition Metal Layered lamellar FESEM wear and friction protection ability. That is why
Dichalcogenide flaky the dispersion stability of the nanoparticles is
MoS2
Transition Metal
350
TEM
important. In the case of poor dispersion
Layered stability, sedimentation and clogging may occur.
Dichalcogenide
MoS2 Stability means that the particles do not
150
Transition Metal
Layered
TEM accumulate at a significant rate. The stable
Dichalcogenide suspension is a prerequisite for an effective
MoS2 100
Transition Metal Rectangular, SEM, TEM
nano lubricant formulation. As suspension
Dichalcogenide Oblate Spheroid stability is vital issues that affect the
WS2 performance of the lubricant, it is important to
100
Transition Metal
Spherical
AFM understand these influencing factors: (a).
Dichalcogenide method of nanoparticle dispersion in the
WS2
Transition Metal
120
SEM, TEM
lubricant (b). dispersion stability analysis
Polyhedral methods (c). methods to enhance dispersion
Dichalcogenide
Diamond 10 stability.
TEM
Carbon Based Sphere
Graphite 55 In order to achieve stable dispersion and to
TEM
Carbon Based Spherical
80
reduce the agglomeration of the nanoparticles,
Carbon Dahila (Rounded various techniques such as ultrasonication,
Nanohorns ball shape with the SEM homogenizing, magnetic force agitation, probe
Carbon Based double flat spiral sonication, ball milling and high shear mixing are
on the surface) done [87]. For the proper dispersion of the
Graphene 10
Carbon Based Spheroidal
TEM nanoparticles, it is important to select the method
Boron Nitride 70 which governs proper dispersion. After selection
SEM
Nitrides Spherical of the dispersion method, another key factor is
Boron Nitride 114
SEM,XRD the time duration for dispersion in order to
Nitrides Nonspherical reduce the chance of agglomeration. To
Aluminum oxide 78
Ceramics Spherical
SEM investigate the dispersion stability, a number of
SiO2 30 methods have been used which include
FESEM, TEM
Ceramics Spherical sedimentation, zeta potential, spectral
600
absorbency and metallographic micrograph 2kTt

stability test [88-90]. Sedimentation method is X (3)
the simplest method to evaluate the dispersion 6 R
stability of the nanolubricants. It is also called as
observation stability test. But the main R = Radius of the Particles
disadvantage of this mechanism is that it is a time η = Dynamic Viscosity of the Fluid
taking the process and also precautions must be T = Temperature
taken to maintain the same volume, temperature t = Time
and other conditions for all the samples. The k = Boltzman Constant (1.38×10-23 J/K)
movement should be avoided to ensure
reliability. The sedimentation rate of the particles By using 2nd and 3rd equation the distance covered
can be calculated using Stokes' law [138]. by one particle in 1 second can easily be compared
by sedimentation and the Brownian motion
(1) respectively. The sedimentation force is oriented
vertically whereas the distance covered by
Brownian movement has no preferential direction.
ν2 = Settling Velocity
ρNP = Nanoparticles Density Spherical absorbency is another method in
ρF = Fluid Density which ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry
g = Gravity absorbance measurements are used to
r = Nanoparticle Radius characterize the colloidal stability of the
µ = Viscosity dispersion particles. Zeta Potential shows the
dispersion stability of the dispersion by
Particle suspension in a liquid medium is measuring the potential difference between the
subjected to the different type of forces: dispersion medium and the stationary layer of
gravitational force particles to fall down; fluid attached to the dispersion particles. This
viscosity of fluid decrease the speed of their value helps us to determine the dispersion
displacement; Archimedes force opposite to tendency of the nanoparticles in the oil. It was
gravitational force. By applying the fundamental reported that higher the value of zeta potential
relation of dynamics, the expression of steady- higher the tendency of stability of the dispersion.
state sedimentation speed of the dispersion
particles is obtained [138]. Table 7. Summary of the dispersion properties and
sedimentation time for different nanoparticles at 20 ˚C.
2  R     
2
V  g (2) Sedimentation
Brownian Sediment
9   Nano- APS (Distance
movement Time
particle /nm covered in 1
in 1 sec (Hours)
R = Radius of the Particles sec)
η = Dynamic Viscosity of the Fluid IF-MoS2 40 0.01 282 10
IF-WS2 140 0.2 150 5.5
ρ = Density of the Particles IF-WS2 90 0.1 188 6.5
ρ′ = Density of the Fluid IF-NbS2 60 0.02 230 8
2H- MoS2 2000 140 28 ---
It is important to notice that the speed varies is 2H- WS2 1000 55 39 ---
proportional to the square of the radius of the 3R-NbS2 1000 29 13 ---
particle. Particles with large radius will
sediment much faster than the small one, due to There are certain methods for improving the
the flocculation process. Fortunately, some dispersion stability of the nanoparticles in the
other effects can also allow for the better oils. The dispersion stability can be enhanced
dispersion stability of the dispersed particles either by surface modification of nanoparticles
suspension. Brownian Motion is an interesting or by using the surfactants. In the method of
one which corresponds to the chaotic movement surface modification, the surface properties of
of the dispersion particles due to shocks of the nanoparticles are tailored to the use of
liquid molecules on its surface. For small organic modifying agents [89]. The most
dispersion particle, the relation of strokes- commonly used modifying agent is oleic acid
Einstein gives the average distance ‘x’ by which absorbs around the nanoparticles
particles, during a certain time ‘t’ [138]. reducing their surface energy which prevent the
601
agglomeration. Surfactants are another method Ultrasonic

Ultraviolet-
which is used for the dispersion stability of the Multigrade Visible
Agitation
Engine Oil Spectrophoto
dispersion particles. They are also called as CuO
30 min
metry [83]
dispersants that are added to the nano ---
Absorbance
lubricants to enhance the dispersion stability. It Ultrasonic
Ultraviolet-
is an easy and economical method. The most Visible
SAE-40 Dispersion
Spectrophoto
commonly used surfactants are oelic acid, CuO 40 min [83]
metry
sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), TRITON TMX102, ---
Absorbance
Benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride Ultraviolet-
[90]. It was reported that the use of the Coconut Oil
--- Visible
surfactants not only enhance the dispersion 40 min Spectrophoto
CuO [83]
--- metry
stability but also reduce the friction and wear on Absorbance
its own. Ultrasonic
Probe Ultraviolet-
Machine Oil
Table 8. Summary of the commonly used dispersion Sonicator Visible
ZrO2
methods, dispersion duration, a technique to achieve 30 min Spectrophoto ---
(Surface
dispersion stability and dispersion stability Silane coupling metry
Modified)
measuring technique. agent (KH- Absorbance
560)
Dispersion Ultrasonic Ultraviolet-
Method/ PAO Probe Visible
Dispersion Dispersion CuO, ZnO Sonicator Spectrophoto
Effect on 30 min metry [94]
Lubricant / Duration/ Stability
Dispersio --- Absorbance
Nanoparticles Surfactant/ Measuring
n Stability Ultrasonic Ultraviolet-
Surface- Technique
Modifying Probe Visible
Vegetable Oil
Agent Sonicator Spectrophoto
CuO,ZnO [94]
30 min metry
Ultraviolet- Oelic Acid Absorbance
Ultrasonic
Visible Ultrasonic
Machine Oil Dispersion Improved
Spectrophoto Bath/
ZrO2/SiO2 30 min dispersion 60SN Base Oil Improved
metry megnatic
(Surface Aluminium stability ZnO dispersion
Absorbance, stirrer Sedimentation
Modified) Zirconium [108] (Surface stability
Zeta 30 min/ 20
coupling agent Modified) [94]
Potential min
Ultrasonic Oelic Acid
Machine Oil Improved
Dispersion Palm TMP Ultraviolet-
Al2o3/SiO2 dispersion Ultrasonic
30 min Sedimentation ester Visible Improved
(Surface stability Bath
Silane CuO, MoS2 Spectrophoto dispersion
Modified) [71] 60 min
coupling agent (Surface metry stability
Ultraviolet- Oelic Acid
Modified) Absorbance
Ultrasonic Visible
Ultrasonic
Machine Oil Dispersion Spectrophoto Improved
Shaker
Al2O3 30 min metry dispersion Ultraviolet-
Coconut Oil 60 min with an Improved
(Surface Silane Absorbance, stability Visible
MoS2 intermediate dispersion
Modified) coupling agent Sedimentatio [71] Spectrophoto
(Surface gap of 3 min stability
(KH-560) n, Zeta metry
Modified) Sodium [91]
Potential Absorbance
Dodecyl
Chemical Ultraviolet-
Servo 4T Sulfate (SDS)
Shaker Visible
synthetic Ultrasonic
Agiation Spectrophoto
10W-30 Oil [78] Shaker
30 min metry Ultraviolet-
TiO2 Mineral Oil 60 min with an Improved
--- Absorbance Visible
Liquid Ultraviolet- MoS2 intermediate dispersion
--- Spectrophoto
Paraffin Visible (Surface gap of 3 min stability
30 min metry
TiO2 Spectrophoto Modified) Sodium [97]
Tetrafluoro Absorbance
(Surface metry [99] Dodecyl
benzoic Acid Sulfate (SDS)
Modified) Absorbance
Ultraviolet- Liquid
Improved Ultrasonic Improved
Lubricating --- Visible Paraffin
dispersion Stirrer Sedimentatio dispersion
Oil 30 min Spectrophoto SiO2
stability 60 min n stability
ZnAl2O4 Oelic Acid metry (Surface
[94] Oelic Acid [90]
Absorbance Modified)
602
Liquid 5. NANOPARTICLES AS OIL ADDITIVES

Paraffin --- Improved
PbS --- Sedimentation dispersion
Nanoparticles can be generally categorized into
(Surface Oelic Acid stability
Modified) different types based on its applications. Since in
SAE 15W40 Ultrasonic Improved
this review the main focus is on the tribological
h-BN Homogenizer dispersion properties of the nanoparticles as additives.
Sedimentation
(Surface 20 min stability Because of the excellent properties of
Modified) Oelic Acid [98] nanoparticles due to their high surface to
Magnetic volume ratio, the role of the nanoparticles as
PAO100
Stirrer Improved additives in lubricating oil has gained much
--- Sedimentation dispersion focus. Different nano-additives have different
Silica
Amino stability
Functionalized
characteristics of extreme pressure, anti-wear,
friction modifier, antioxidant, an anti-corrosion
Ultrasonic additive which can be used in various
Probe
PAO6
Sonicator Sedimentation
tribological applications.
Cu [94]
30 min
--- 5.1 Classification of nanoparticles
Ultrasonic
Probe Based on chemical composition the
PAO6
Sonicator Sedimentation nanoparticles additives are classified as Metals
Ni [94]
30 min nanoparticles additives, Metal Oxide
--- nanoparticles additives, Sulphide nanoparticle
Ultrasonic additive, Nitride nanoparticle additive, Carbon-
PAO6
Probe based nanoparticle additive and Nanocomposite
Sonicator Sedimentation --- based additives. Metal nanoparticles additives
ZnO, ZrO2
2 min
--- include Au, Ag, Cu, Ni, Fe, Zn. These
nanoparticles are used in the base oils to
Ultrasonic
PAO enhance the properties of the lubricating oils.
Bath
Carbon Onion
300 min
Sedimentation
[102] These nano-metallic particles lead to the
Graphite formation of the adsorbed film between the
---
Ultrasonic mating surface and then these particles generate
PAO
Bath the ball bearing effect which helps in reducing
Carbon Nano- Sedimentation [105]
300 min the friction and wear. Another class of nano-
onions
--- additives are metal oxides, they also have the
Ultrasonic
EOT 50 Shaker
same lubrication mechanism similar to that of
Sedimentation --- metal. Sulfides are another class of nanoparticles
SiO2, MoS2 120 min
--- additives. The most commonly used sulfides
nanoparticles are MoS2, WS2, CuS. They exhibit
4.4 Role of nanoparticle concentration protective film mechanism. Tribofilm formation
is due to the heat generated because of the
Particle concentration is another important friction between the rubbing surfaces.
factor in reducing the friction between the
mating surfaces. Suitable optimum Carbon-based nanoparticles are the other class
concentration is important; adding an excess of which includes diamond particles, carbon
nanoparticles does not necessarily means it is nanotubes, and graphene. There are some
going to reduce the friction and wear [91]. hybrid multiphase solids nanoparticles which is
Suitable nanoparticles concentration for another class of additives in the lubricating oil.
lubricating oil depends on some critical factors They include Cu/ SiO2, Al2O3/SiO2, Cu/
which include dispersion method, dispersion graphene oxide, Al2O3/TiO2 etc. these
duration, the role of nanoparticles and tribo multiphase particles shows excellent results
test conditions [92]. Besides this, some other due to the presence of different phases. To
parameters, such as the type of base oil, investigate the tribological performance of the
counter surface roughness etc. also affect the lubricating oil with nanoparticles additive
tribological properties. various research studies were carried out using
603
different tribo-geometries which include four- (1.25 µm, 100 nm, and 2 nm) with varying
ball tester, ball on the disc, pin on the disc, the concentration (0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 wt%) as the additive.
cylinder on a flat plate, piston ring on cylinder It was reported that the nano additive enhances
liner and block on the ring. Here is the detailed the friction and wear properties by forming the
literature regarding the experimental studies of protective film between the mating surfaces as
the nanoparticles as an additive in various compared to the micro additive particles.
lubricant oils. Kanagasabapathi et al., [93] in Optimum results come from 100nm and 1 wt%
their research of pure soyabean oil, soybean of MoS2 particles. Gulzar et al. [83] in their
methyl ester (SBME), soybean methyl ester + research study the tribological behavior of CuO
1.5 % of copper nanopowder and mineral oil and MoS2 nanoparticles in the palm oil. It was
(4T). It was reported that the introduction of reported that 1 wt% of MoS2 particles showed
the copper nanopowder decreases the wear better results as compared to CuO particles.
scar diameter by 12 % as compared to the Kogovsek et al.[97] in their studies make a
SBME as well as mineral oil. Asakauskas et al. comparative analysis by using micro, nano MoS2,
[94] conducted a comparative study between WS2 and carbon nanoparticles and it was
the different type of oils i.e. mineral oil, reported that nano MoS2 give the best result in
synthetic oil and vegetable oil. Different tribological aspects. Zhang et al. [169] studied
nanoparticles i.e. copper, iron, nickel, zinc were and reviewed the recent developments,
investigated in different oils. Various oxidation structural and physical properties of 2-D few
modifiers and other additives are also added to layered MoS2. Altavilla et al. [149] investigate a
the oils. After the experimentation, it was new kind of hybrid organic-inorganic nano-
reported that the synthetic oils show the composite, made by an inorganic core of
minimum wear scar diameter as compared to CNT/MoS2 coaxial nano-tubes coated by
the other oil used. Nallusamy et al. [142] in this oleylamine molecules as an anti-friction and
research work studied the various performance anti-wear additive for grease lubricants.
and emission characteristics of a single cylinder Feranandes et al. [150] studied the electronic
direct injection diesel engine by using an structure of a hetro-junction made of two
alternative fuel of the biofuel mixed with pine monolayers of MoS2 & WS2. Tannous et al. [151]
oil and its blends. The results were compared experimentally investigate the Inorganic
with standard diesel fuel. From the results, it Fullerene (IF-MoS2, IF-WS2) as anti-wear and
was found that there is a slight increase in friction modifier additive under boundary
brake thermal efficiency and a decrease in lubrication. It was reported that lubrication
brake specific fuel consumption in all pine properties are attributed to a gradual exfoliation
blended fuels when compared with regular of the external sheets of the particles during the
diesel fuel. The use of pine oil resulted in lower friction process leading to their transfer on to
emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons aspirates of the reciprocating surface. Different
and increased emissions of nitrogen oxides. 5% rubbing surfaces (steel, alumina, DLC) were
of pine oil showed significantly comparable investigated in this research. Lahouij et al. [152]
thermal efficiency and consumption of specific investigated Inorganic Fullerene nano-particles
fuel with diesel. (IF-MoS2, IF-WS2) as anti-wear and friction
modifier additive. It was reported that
Arumugum et al. [74] studied the behavior of the exfoliation and third body transfer of molecules
micro and nano TiO2 particle in the chemically sheet on to the asperities constitute the
modified rapeseed oil. it was reported that by prevalent mechanism for the improved
using TiO2 nanoparticles there is a decrease in tribological behavior of IF nano-particles. It was
the wear scar by 15 % when compared to the also reported that rolling friction process could
microparticles. Baltez et al. [73] used different also play a role for well crystallized and
nanoparticles i.e. CuO, ZnO, and ZrO2 in PAO6 oil spherical particles. Yadgarov et al. [154] studied
as the nano additive. It was reported that 0.5 % the tribological properties of Rhenium- Doped
is the optimum concentration for the reduction Inorganic Fullerenes like MoS2 nano-particles in
in the COF. It was reported that the ZnO PAO’s oil as compared to the IF-MoS2 and 2H-
nanoparticles exhibit best tribological MoS2 platelets in the lubricating oil. The
performance. Xu et al. [96] in their investigation tribological tests were performed in different
used the micro as well as nano MoS2 particles lubrication regimes. A reduction in friction and
604
wear was reported. Re-doped MoS2 nano- About 50 nm diameter of Al2O3 nanoparticles
particles exhibit best results due to their were used in this analysis and found that the
reduced tribo-charging and agglomeration. The overall heat transfer coefficient and convective
reduction is about 40 % in the COF was heat transfer coefficient of nano-fluid were
observed compared to the base lubricant value. slightly higher than those of the base liquid at a
Xie et al. [157] studied the effects of the base same mass flow rate and inlet temperature.
lubricant with and without nanoparticles on the Sendilvelan et al. [145] in their research
tribological behavior of magnesium alloy/steel calculate various emission factors in a diesel
contacts using reciprocating sliding ball-on-flat engine using cerium oxide nanoparticles. The
tribometer. It was reported that as compared experimental result reveals that the influence of
with the SiO2 nanolubricants, the positive effect cerium oxide in the form of nano-particles for
of the MoS2 nanolubricants is more pronounced oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbon, and carbon
in terms of the load carrying capacity and the monoxide levels in a diesel engine. The cerium
lubrication film stability. The optimal oxide increases the conversion rate due to the
concentration of nano-MoS2 is 1.0wt% and that oxygen content for the oxidation process of
of nano-SiO2 is 0.7wt%. Nano-SiO2 is deposited carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon in the
on to the wear track during the sliding, which catalytic converter. It was also observed that the
helped to reduce the friction coefficient due to cerium nano-particles reduce the oxides of
the rolling action of billions of nanoparticle nitrogen effectively. Nallusamy et al. [146] in
between the rubbing surfaces. The advanced their research studied the overall heat transfer
lubricity of MoS2 platelets could be attributed to coefficient by doing an experimental
friction chemical reaction which led to the investigation of the convective heat transfer and
formation of the tribo film on the mating metal flow characteristics of a nanofluid. Nanofluid
contact. Reeves et al. [98] studied the behavior consisting of water and 1 % volume
of h-BN (Hexagonal Boron Nitride) concentration of Al2O3/ flowing in a parallel
nanoparticles of different size (70 nm, 0.5 µm, flow, counter flow in shell and tube heat
and 5µm) in canola oil. It was reported that the exchanger under laminar flow condition. It was
nanoparticles show improved friction and wear reported that that the overall heat transfer
properties as compared to the microparticles. coefficient and convective heat transfer
Shaari et al. [99] studied the behavior of TiO2 coefficient of nanofluid to be slightly higher than
particles in the palm oil with TiO2 in different that of the base liquid at a same mass flow rate
concentration varying from 0.1wt% to 0.5wt%. and inlet temperature.
It was reported that 0.1wt% of the
concentration which improves the friction and Peng et al. [100] in their studies used the
wears properties. Thottackkad et al. [78] studied diamond nanoparticles in the paraffinic oil to
the behavior of CuO nanoparticles with different reduce the friction and wear mechanism. Yusu et
concentration varying from 0.2wt% to 0.6wt% al. [101] studied the behavior of graphene
in the coconut oil. After experimentation, it was nanoplatelets (GNP) in the vegetable oil. It was
concluded that 0.34wt% is the most optimum reported that the GNP leads to reduce the COF
nanoparticle concentration in the lubricating oil and wear considerably. Zhang et al. [102]
for the best tribological properties. Nallusamy et experimentally studied the behavior of graphene
al. [143] experimentally optimize the machining and multi-wall carbon nanotubes as an additive in
parameters for face milling of EN 31 steel diamond-like carbon, ionic fluid. Hybrid film in
workpiece using a tungsten carbide tipped tool high vacuum condition. It was reported that
under minimum coolant flow requirement. different lubrication mechanism is produced
Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) nanoparticles with 60 using different nanomaterials. Lin et al. [103]
nm are added in the coolant for improving the studied the behavior of chemically modified
face milling process. Material removal rate was graphene platelets. The mixing process was done
found maximum with 3 % concentration of by sonication and magnetic stirring and then the
nanoparticles in the coolant. Nallusamy et al. tribotest was conducted on the four-ball tester at
[144] experimentally studied the nano-fluid 1200 rpm speed under load 147 N at the
consists of water & 1 % volume concentration of temperature of 75 ˚C. It was reported that adding
Al2O3. Nanofluid flowing through parallel and the nano graphene platelets increase the load
counter flow shell and tube heat exchangers. carrying capacity of the oil. The optimum
605
concentration is 0.075 wt.% to reduce the friction Li et al. [92,108] studied the multiphase
and wear. Also, Lin et al. studied the behavior of ZrO2/SiO2 nanocomposite with Aluminium
surface modified graphene and it was reported zirconium as an additive. It was reported that
that there was a reduction in the wear and the COF is lower by 16.24% with 0.1 wt.% of the
friction of the mating surface. Micrographic Nano additive. Al2O3/ TiO2 multiphase
studies revealed that this might be due to the thin nanocomposite was added to the lubricating oil.
laminated structure of the graphene which help Xie et al. [158] experimental investigated, the
him to easily enter between the rubbing surface. SiO2/MoS2 hybrid nanoparticles with different
Senatore et al. [104] studied the behavior of mass ratios as lubricant additives in the base oil,
graphene oxide nanosheet in lubricating oil. They and their tribological properties were evaluated
added 0.1 % of graphene oxide. It was reported using a reciprocating ball-on-plate tribometer
that the average COF is decreased by 20 % within for magnesium alloy-steel contacts. The results
the temperature of 25-80 ˚C. the wear scar demonstrate that the SiO2/MoS2 hybrid nano-
diameter was also reduced up to 30 % with particles exhibit superior lubrication
graphene oxide additive based oil as compared to performances than individual nano-SiO2 or
the base oil. Choudhary et al. [105] first nano-MoS2 even in high load and diverse
performed alkylated graphene with variable velocity cases. The optimal SiO2/MoS2 mixing
length of alkyl chain by coupling alkylamine with ratio and the concentration of SiO2/MoS2 hybrid
the carboxylic group of graphene oxide and then nanoparticles in the base oil are 0.25:0.75 and
disperse them in different organic solvents. The 1.00–1.25 wt%, respectively.
tribological test was performed on a four-ball
tester at 392 N load, 1200 rpm speed at Table 9. Summary of the tribotest conditions for
temperature 75˚C. the friction and wear were lubricating oil with nano-additives.
reduced by 20%. It was reported that the Tribo-Test
lubrication properties were because of the Conditions
Geometric
graphene nanosheet between the rubbing Lubricant/ Test Duration/
Configration/
Nanoparticles Temperature
surface which prevent the direct contact. Wei et Additives/
Tribopair
/Normal Load
al. [106] studied the tribological ˚behaviour of (Material/
Concentration (N)/
Counter body)
liquid phase exfoliated graphene modified (0.02- Frequency (Hz)/
0.06%0 as an additive in oleic acid. It was Speed (RPM)
Block on Ring 3066 sec/---/165
reported that the graphene as a nano additive PAO 6
--- N/
enhance the friction and wear properties of the Cu
--- 1 m/s [ 115]
lubricating oil and there is a reduction in wear Piston Skirt 10,800 sec/ 20˚C,
scar diameter by 17%. Kinoshita et al. studied PAO 10 Cylinder Liner 40 ˚C, 100 ˚C/
the behavior of graphene oxide nanoparticles in MoS2 --- 250 N/
--- 120 RPM [131 ]
the water-based coolant. It was reported that the
Piston Skirt 10,800 sec/ 20 ˚C,
COF is reduced to 0.05 after using nanoparticle PAO 10 Cylinder Liner 40 ˚C, 100 ˚C/
in the coolant. Nallusamy et al. [140,141] BN --- 250 N/
experimentally investigate different samples --- 120 RPM [ 131]
with a varied composition of the nano-materials Chemically
7200 sec/ 60 ˚C/
Modified Piston Skirt
copper-multiwalled carbon nanotubes-graphene Rapeseed Oil Cylinder Liner
80 N/
hybrids. The hybrid composite was made by stir 600 RPM [ 83]
CuO
casting process. It was also found that the 400, 600, 1200
addition of carbon nanotubes and graphene into Mineral Oil
Pin on Disc sec/ ---/ 40 N, 60
copper leads to lower surface roughness values --- N/
CuO
--- 0.5m/s, 1 m/s,
better surface finish compared to pure copper. 1.5 m/s. [83 ]
In another research, they experimental Pin on Disc 178-714 sec/ ---/
Coconut Oil
investigated the heat transfer of nanofluids CuO
--- 49-98 N/
using carbon nanotubes. It was reported that the --- 1.4-5.6 m/s [83 ]
thermal conductivity enhancement of nanofluids Ball on Disc 3600 sec/ 50 ˚C/
PAO
--- 10 N/
depends on the particle volume fraction, size CuO
--- 1200 RPM [83 ]
and shape of nanoparticles, type of base 3600 sec/ 50 ˚C/
Sunflower
fluid/nanoparticles, pH value of nanofluids and CuO
Ball on Disc 10 N/
type of particle coating. 1200 RPM [ 83]
606
Ball on Disc 3600 sec/ 50 ˚C/ 1800, 4500 sec/

Soybean Ball on Flat
--- 10 N/ Engine Oil 25 ˚C/ 1,3,5,8 N/
CuO ---
--- 1200 RPM [83 ] MoS2 0.03, 0.08 m/s [
---
27,000 sec/ 70 131]
SAE 30 Piston Ring
˚C/ 160 N/ Ball on Flat 1800, 4500 sec/
WS2 Cylinder Liner Engine Oil
2.29 m/s [ 8] --- 25 ˚C/ 1,3,5,8 N/
SiO2
Pin on Disc 24,000 sec/ ---/ --- 0.03, 0.08 m/s
Paraffin Oil
--- 100-500 N/ Disc on Disc 180 sec/ 25 ˚C/
WS2 SE 15W40
--- 0.6 m/s [ 8] --- 500 N/
BN
600 sec/ 26-28 --- 500 RPM[ 131]
Mineral Oil
Disc on Disc ˚C/ 1000-1500 144,000 CYCLES/
C60 PAO4 + PAO 40
N/ 1000 RPM Ball on Flat 80 ˚C/ 10 N/
MoS2
Pin on Disc 5000 sec/ ---/ 7 600 RPM [ 131]
Paraffin Oil
--- N/ Ball on Disc 7200 sec/ 50 ˚C/
Pb PAO8
--- 1 m/s [ 115] --- 200 N/
CuO
Chemically Piston Ring --- 3000 RPM [ 99]
21,600 sec/ 70 ˚C
modified Palm Cylinder Liner Ball on Dsc 7200 sec/ 50 ˚C/
/ 160 N/ PAO8
Oil --- --- 200 N/
1.1 m/s [ 83] Al2O3
CuO --- --- 3000 RPM [ 20]
Chemically Ball on Disc 7200 sec/ 50 ˚C/
21,600 sec/ 70 SAE 75W85
modified Palm Piston Ring --- 200 N/
˚C/ 160 N/ CuO
Oil Cylinder Liner --- 3000 RPM [ 99]
1.1 m/s [118 ]
MoS2 Ball on Disc 7200 sec/ 50 ˚C/
SAE 75W85
120 sec/ 25 ˚C/ -- --- 200 N/
Ball on Flat Al2O3
SAE 40 -/ --- 3000 RPM [ 92]
---
Cu 0.001-1.8 m/s Machine Oil Thrust Ring 1800 sec/ 75 ˚C/
---
[115 ] ZrO2/SiO2 --- 200 N/
120 sec/ 25 ˚C/ -- --- 1200 RPM [129]
Ball on Flat
SAE 40 -/ Thrust Ring 1800 sec/ 75 ˚C/
--- Machine Oil
TiO2 0.001-1.8 m/s --- 200 N/
--- Al2O3/SiO2
[120 ] --- 1200 RPM [113]
120 sec/ 25 ˚C/ -- Four-Ball Wear
Ball on Flat 1800 sec/ 25
SAE 40 -/ 60 SN Base Oil Tester
--- ˚C/500 N
Carbon Horns 0.001-1.8 m/s [ ZnO Steel
--- 1000 RPM [115]
116] Steel
Block on Ring 1533 sec/ ---/ Four-Ball Wear
PAO 6 150 N Group II 3600 sec/ 75 ˚C/
--- 165 N/ Tester
CuO Base Oil 392 N/
--- 2 m/s [115 ] Steel
PTFE 1200 RPM [108]
Block on Ring 1533 sec/ ---/ Steel
PAO 6
--- 165 N/ 10 stages till
ZnO Four-Ball Wear
--- 2 m/s weld/ 25 ˚C /
SAE 15W40 Tester
1533 sec/ ---/ variable load till
PAO 6 h-BN Steel
Block on Ring 165 N/ weld/
ZrO2 Steel
2 m/s 1760 RPM [119]
Ball on Disc 160 sec/ 20 ˚C/ Four-Ball Wear
SAE 10W 1800 sec/ 25 ˚C/
--- 10 N/ Liquid Paraffin Tester
BN 300 N/
--- 0.25 m/s[12] MoS2/TiO2 Steel
1450 RPM [120]
Vegetable Pin on Disc 3600 sec/ 24 ˚C/ Steel
Based Oil --- 2,10 N/ Four-Ball Wear
3600 sec/ 25 ˚C/
Graphite --- 100 RPM SAE 10 Tester
150 N/
Commercial Disc on Disc 600 sec/ 35 ˚C/ Fe Steel
1400 RPM [115]
Mineral Oil --- 500-3000 N/ Steel
Graphite --- 1000 RPM Four-Ball Wear
3600 sec/ 25 ˚C/
1000, 20,000 SAE 10 Tester
150 N/
PAO sec/ 25 ˚C/ 2,5,10 Cu Steel
Pin on Flat 1400 RPM [115]
Cabron N/ Steel
0.25 m/s Four-Ball Wear
3600 sec/ 25 ˚C/
1000, 20,000 SAE 10 Tester
Pin on Flat 150 N/
PAO sec/ 25 ˚C/ 2,5,10 Co Steel
--- 1400 RPM [115]
Nano Onions N/ Steel
---
0.25 m/s 10 stages till
Chemically Four-Ball Wear
1000, 20,000 weld/ 25 ˚C/
Modified Tester
PAO sec/ 25 ˚C/ 2,5,10 variable load till
Pin on Flat Jatropha Oil Steel
Graphite N/ weld/
WS2 Steel
0.25 m/s 1770 RPM [8]
607
Chemically Four-Ball Wear 300 sec/ 25 ˚C/ Rotary Universal

Modified Palm Tester 392, 784, 1176, Tribometer
PAO4 ---/ ---/ 10 N/
Oil Steel 1568 N/ ALSI52100
0.01 wt% τ-GO 10 mm/s [126]
TiO2 Steel 1200 RPM [120] Steel disc
PAO + M50 steel ball
Four-Ball Wear
5%^Chemically 3600 sec/ 25 ˚C/ Rotary Universal
Tester
Modified Palm 392 N/ Tribometer
Steel PAO4 ---/ ---/ 10 N/
Oil 1200 RPM ALSI52100
Steel 0.1 wt% τ-GO 10 mm/s [126]
CaCO3 Steel disc
Reciprocating M50 steel ball
Universal Rotary Universal
Tribometer ---/ 50 ºC/ 50 N, Tribometer
HC Base oli
ALSI 52100 100 N, 150 N/ PAO 10 ALSI 52100 ---/ ---/ 392 N/
0.5wt% GO
Steel 50 Hz [125] 0.01wt% GNP Steel 1200 rpm [122]
ALSI 52100 ALSI 52100
Steel ball Steel
Reciprocating Rotary Universal
Universal Tribometer
Tribometer ---/ 100 ºC/ 50 N, PAO 10 ALSI 52100 ---/ ---/ 392 N/
HC Base oli
ALSI 52100 100 N, 150N/ 0.03wt% GNP Steel 1200 rpm[122]
0.5wt% GO
Steel 50 Hz [125] ALSI 52100
ALSI 52100 Steel
Steel ball Rotary Universal
Reciprocating Tribometer
Universal PAO 10 ALSI 52100 ---/ ---/ 392 N/
Tribometer ---/ 150 ºC/ 50 N, 0.05wt% GNP Steel 1200 rpm [122]
HC Base oli
ALSI 52100 100 N, 150 N/ ALSI 52100
0.5wt% GO
Steel 50 Hz [125] Steel
ALSI 52100 Rotary Universal
Steel ball Tribometer
Reciprocating PAO 10 ALSI 52100 ---/ ---/ 392 N/
Universal 0.1wt% GNP Steel 1200 rpm [122]
Tribometer ---/ 50 ºC/ 100 ALSI 52100
HC Base oli
ALSI 52100 N/ Steel
0.5wt% GO
Steel 10- 50 Hz [125] Rotary Universal
ALSI 52100 Tribometer
Steel ball PAO 10 ALSI 52100 ---/ ---/ 392 N/
Reciprocating 0.2wt% GNP Steel 1200 rpm [122]
Universal ALSI 52100
---/ ---/ 100 N,
Tribometer Steel
PAO40 200 N, 300 N, 400
ALSI 52100 Rotary Universal
0.05wt% GO N, 500 N/
Steel Tribometer
30 Hz [126]
ALSI 52100 PAO 10 ALSI 52100 ---/ ---/ 392 N/
Steel ball 0.5wt% GNP Steel 1200 rpm [122]
Reciprocating ALSI 52100
Universal Steel
---/ ---/ 100 N,
Tribometer
PAO40 200 N, 300 N, 400 Rotary Universal
ALSI 52100
0.5wt% GO N, 500 N/ Tribometer
Steel
30 Hz [126] PAO 10 ALSI 52100 ---/ ---/ 392 N/
ALSI 52100
Steel ball 1wt% GNP Steel 1200 rpm [122]
ALSI 52100
Reciprocating
Steel
Universal
---/ ---/ 100 N,
Tribometer Rotary Universal
PAO40 200 N, 300 N, 400
ALSI 52100 Tribometer
0.1wt% GO N, 500 N/
Steel PAO 10 ALSI 52100 ---/ ---/ 392 N/
30 Hz [126]
ALSI 52100 3wt% GNP Steel 1200 rpm [122]
Steel ball ALSI 52100
Reciprocating Steel
Universal Rotary Universal
Tribometer Tribometer
PAO40 ---/ ---/ 300 N/ ---/ 75 ºC / 147
ALSI 52100 SN 350 ALSI 52100
1wt% GO 10- 50 Hz [126] N/
Steel 0.075wt% MGP Steel
1200 rpm [127]
ALSI 52100 ALSI 52100
Steel ball steel ball
608
Rotary Universal Table 10. Summary of the tribological studies of base

Tribometer lubricating oil [136-146].
---/ 25 ºC / 60 N/
SN 150 X155CrVMo12-1 Base Geometrical
1 m/s, 1.5 m/s, 2
0.1 wt% GO steel disc Lubricating Configuration/ Summary
m/s [127]
X45Cr13 steel Oils Tribopair
ball
Reciprocating
Rotary Universal Universal
For palm base oil the COF
Tribometer Tribometer
---/ 50 ºC / 60 N/ Palm Oil is 0.092 and wear scar
SN 150 X155CrVMo12-1 Grey Cast Iron/
1 m/s, 1.5 m/s, 2 diameter is 25.6mm.
0.1 wt% GO steel disc Chromated
m/s [127]
X45Cr13 steel Grey Cast Iron
ball For mineral base oil the
Reciprocating
Rotary Universal COF is 0.075 and wear scar
Universal
Tribometer diameter is 19.1mm.
---/ 80 ºC / 60 N/ Tribometer
SN 150 X155CrVMo12-1 Mineral Oil It was reported that
1 m/s, 1.5 m/s, 2 Grey Cast Iron/
0.1 wt% GO steel disc mineral oil shows better
m/s [127] Chromated
X45Cr13 steel tribological properties
Grey Cast Iron
ball than compared to palm oil.
Four Ball
Rotary Universal Rapeseed Wear scar diameter of the
Tester
SN/CF20W50 Tribometer ---/ ---/ 40 N/ Oil base rapeseed oil is 0.63 mm.
Steel/ Steel
Additive + G60 Steel Ball 1200 rpm [133]
Epoxy Four Ball Wear scar diameter of the
Steel Ball
Rapeseed Tester base Epoxy rapeseed oil is
Rotary Universal Oil Steel/ Steel 0.72 mm.
SN/CF20W50 Tribometer ---/ ---/ 40 N/ Epoxidised Soyabean Oil
G60 Steel Ball 1200 rpm [133] Epoxidised
Ball On Disc exhibit lower COF due to
Steel Ball Soyabean
Steel/ Steel the formation of polymeric
Rotary Universal Oil
Film on Metal Surface.
SN/CF20W50 Tribometer ---/ ---/ 40 N/ Hexadecan Ball On Disc COF of Hexadecane Oil is
G12 Steel Ball 1200 rpm [133] e Oil Steel/ Steel reported to be 0.5
Steel Ball COF of Jojoba Oil is
Jojoba Oil ---/---
Rotary Universal reported to be 0.1
SN/CF20W50 Tribometer ---/ ---/ 40 N/ Safflower Ball On Disc COF of Safflower Oil is
G8 Steel Ball 1200 rpm [133] Oil Steel/ Steel reported to be 0.11
Steel Ball High-Oleic COF of High-Oleic
Ball On Disc
Rotary Universal Safflower Safflower Oil is reported
Steel/ Steel
SJ/CF20W50 Tribometer ---/ ---/ 40 N/ Oil to be 0.10
Additive + G60 Steel Ball 1200 rpm [ 134] Methyl Ball On Disc COF of Methyl Palmitate
Steel Ball Palmitate Steel/ Steel is reported to be 0.11
Rotary Universal It was reported that the
SJ/CF20W50 Tribometer ---/ ---/ 40 N/ addition of Linoleic acid in
G60 Steel Ball 1200 rpm [134] the sunflower oil hardly
Steel Ball affect the wear, whereas
the addition of Oelic acid
Rotary Universal
improves the wear
SJ/CF20W50 Tribometer ---/ ---/ 40 N/ Sunflower
Reciprocating properties.
G12 Steel Ball 1200 rpm [134] oil (stearic
Universal It was reported that 0.5 wt%
Steel Ball acid, oelic
Tribometer of the nano additive reduced
Rotary Universal acid, linoleic
Steel/ Steel the wear rate by 20% and for
SJ/CF20W50 Tribometer ---/ ---/ 40 N/ acid)
5 wt% the wear rate is
G8 Steel Ball 1200 rpm [134] decreased by 30%.
Steel Ball By the addition of 1 wt%
Rotary Universal stearic acid in the
10W40 Tribometer ---/ ---/ 343 N/ lubricating oil reduce the
0.1wt% GO GCr15 steel ball 1200 rpm [135] wear by 90%.
GCr15 steel ball It was reported that with an
Sequential
Soyabean increase in the temperature
Rotary Universal Four Ball Tester
Oil the oxidation of the
10W40 Tribometer ---/ ---/ 343 N/ Steel/ Steel
lubricating oil increases.
0.1wt% Ag/GN GCr15 steel ball 1200 rpm [135] It was reported that High
GCr15 steel ball Oelic Sunflower Oil exhibit
Rotary Universal High Oelic Sequential
10W40 better tribological
Tribometer ---/ ---/ 343 N/ Sunflower Four Ball Tester
0.1wt% Sc- properties than Soyabean
GCr15 steel ball 1200 rpm [135] Oil Steel/ Steel
Ag/GN Oil and Epoxidised
GCr15 steel ball Soyabean Oil
609
Epoxidised Sequential
Epoxidised Soyabean Oil Table 11. Summary of the tribological studies of
exhibit better wear lubricating oil with nano-additives[136-146].
Soyabean Four Ball Tester
properties than compared
Oil Steel/ Steel Lubricant/
to Soyabean Oil
Nanoparticle Geometric
Lubricating
Four Ball Wear scar diameter Additive/ Configration
Oil Summary
Tester decreases from 0.84 mm to Particle Size/ /
(Glycerol+o
Steel/ Steel the range of 0.34-0.75 mm. Particle Tribopair
elic acid)
Concentration
It was reported that
Four Ball COF decreases with
Benzotriazo sulfur based oil exhibit
Tester an increase in the
le Sulphur minimum improvement in
Steel/ Steel concentration of
wear scar diameter.
Coconut Oil unmodified CuO up
Dibutyl Phosphite Four ball
Modified and Unmodified CuO to 0.3 wt%.
Four Ball showed better tester
Dibutyl 20-150 nm Coconut oil with CuO.
Tester performance by reducing Steel/ Steel
Phosphite 0.1-0.4 wt%
Steel/ Steel the wear scar diameter to
Nanoparticles offer
0.53 mm
better tribological
Improvement in the
properties.
anti-wear properties and
COF for unmodified
pour point was reported.
Oleic Acid Four Ball MoS2 nanoparticles is
Improvement in the low- Coconut Oil
Triester Tester 0.052.
temperature properties Modified and
Lubricant Steel/ Steel
due to ti increase in Unmodified Four ball
Minimum COF for
chain length of the MoS2 tester
modified MoS2
midchain ester. 90 nm Steel/ Steel
nanoparticles is
It was reported that the 0, 0.25, 0.50,
Four Ball 0.049 at a
Stamping Stamping oil exhibit m, 0.75, 1 wt%
Tester concentration of 0.52
Oil minimum wear scar
Steel/ Steel wt%
diameter of about 0.9 mm.
Coconut Oil
It was reported that under Four ball Minimum COF is
Commercial Four Ball Cu
extreme conditions the tester obtained at 0.34
Hydraulic Tester 20-150 nm
commercial hydraulic oils Steel/ Steel wt%.
Oil Steel/ Steel 0-0.6 wt%
exhibit minimum COF.
Jatropha oil exhibit good Nano MoS2 Vesicles
Four Ball tribological properties. It Rapeseed Oil gives the best results
Jatropha Oil Tester was reported that the Micro MoS2 with minimum COF
Steel/ Steel wear scar diameter is Platelets, which is around 0.06
about 3.1 mm. Nano MoS2 at 1 wt%.
Vesicles, Four ball
Four Ball The wear scar diameter is
RBD Palm Nano MoS2 tester It was reported that
Tester about 3.9 mm in case of
Oil Platelets Steel/ Steel there is a decrease in
Steel/ Steel RBD Palm Oil
1.25µm, 100 the tribological
Four Ball Lesquerella oil sample
nm, 20 nm properties while
Lesquerella Tester had the lowest COF of
0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 using Micro MoS2
Steel/ Steel about 0.045.
wt% Platelets and Nano
Cuphea oil is having
MoS2 Platelets.
Four Ball maximum COF of about
Cuphea Tester 0.096 but having lowest Minimum COF and
Rapeseed Oil
Steel/ Steel wear scar diameter of Four ball better anti-wear
TiO2
0.530 mm. tester properties were
20 nm
Four Ball It was reported that Steel/ Steel obtained at 0.25 wt%
Mewod 0-4 wt%
Tester Mewod Form Oil is the concentration.
Form Oil
Steel/ Steel most oxidation stable oil. Rapeseed Oil
It was reported that the Cerium-Doped Four ball Beter tribological
maximum wear occurred Anatase tester properties were
with SAE 40 blend with 20 nm Steel/ Steel obtained.
40% OF Jatropha Oil and 0-4 wt%
[Blend] minimum wear with 10% Optimal COF and
Jatropha Oil, Pin On Disc blend of jatropha oil. Chemically Wear rate is obtained
SAE 40 (10, Aluminum/ It was reported that the Modified at 0.5 wt% of the
20, 30, 40, Cast Iron COF may remain almost Rapeseed Oil Four ball nano-additives.
50%) the same for 10-40% bio- CuO tester It was reported that
lubricant which is about 40-70 nm Steel/ Steel there is an increase
0.15, afterward it will 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1 in the COF and wear
increases to 0.225 for wt% rate beyond this
50% blend. limit.
610
It was reported that It was reported that

Soybean
there is a decrease in the soybean oil had
Methyl Ester Four ball
the frictional torque the least wear scar
Chemically Cu tester
by 21, 14 and 14.5 % followed by Soybean
Modified --- Steel/ Steel
for CuO, Methyl Ester + 1.5
Rapeseed Oil 1.5 wt%
WS2 and TiO2 wt%
CuO, Four ball Rapeseed Oil, Rapeseed Oil +
nanoparticle
WS2, tester Stearic Acid Four ball stearic Acid exhibited
additives.
TiO2 Steel/ Steel TiO2 tester lower COF as
Wear scar diameter
70 nm, 40-80 20 nm Steel/ Steel compared to the
is reduced by 39, 36
nm, 30-35 nm 0-4 wt% Rapeseed Base oil.
and 34 % for CuO,
0.5 wt% Sunflower Oil
WS2 and TiO2
nanoparticle ZnO Epoxidised
Four ball
additives. CuO Sunflower oil
tester
11 nm exhibits minimum
COF is reduced by Steel/ Steel
4 nm COF.
40% as compared to ---
the base oil. It was Canola Oil Maximum COF of
Chemically
reported that 0.5 BN Four ball 0.19 was reported
Modified
wt% of CuO gives the 70 nm tester for 5 µm particles
Rapeseed Oil
Four ball optimal value for the 0.5, 1.5, 5 µm Steel/ Steel and wear rate of
CuO
tester COF. 5 wt% 0.9mm3.
CeO2
Steel/ Steel For CeO2 nano 2 wt% od ZDDP
<50 nm
additive, the exhibit minimum
<50 nm
reduction in the COF wears scar diameter
0.1-1 wt%
is about 54% at the Karanja Oil and COF. COF is
concentration of 0.1 Four ball
ZDDP 0.0424 for 2 wt% of
wt%. tester
--- ZDDP additive.
Steel/ Steel
Palm Oil 1-5 wt% It was reported that 2
Minimum COF was wt% of ZDDP
TiO2 Four ball
obtained at 0.1 wt% improve the pour
22.97 nm tester
of the TiO2 point from -6˚C to 1˚c.
0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, Steel/ Steel
nanoparticles. 0.25wt% with
wt% Rapeseed Oil,
rapeseed oil + oleic
Chemically Oleic Acid
Wear scar diameter Four ball acid+ Lanthanum
Modified Palm Lanthanum
is reduced by 1% , tester doped TiO2 improved
Oil doped TiO2
Four ball 4.95% and 6.65 % Steel/ Steel the friction and anti-
CuO, 20 nm
tester for CuO, 1% MoS2 wear capability of the
MoS2 0-4 wt%
Steel/ Steel and 1% MoS2 + 1% lubricating oil.
127 nm Minimum COF was
Surfactant
1048 nm obtained for 0.25
respectively.
1 wt% wt% of graphite
Palm oil based COF and wear scar LB2000 particles of size 35
trimethylpropa diameter is Vegetable Oil Four ball nm. It was also
ne (TMP) ester Four ball decreased by 15% Graphite tester reported that the
s tester and 11% with the 35, 80 nm Steel/ Steel wear rate decrease
TiO2 Steel/ Steel addition of TiO2 0-0.25 vol% with an increase in
--- nanoparticles in the the concentration of
0.1 wt% base oil. the graphite
particles.
Soybean oil with Cu Di Octyl It was reported that
Soyabean Oil nano additive Sebacate the addition of MoS2
Four ball
Cu improves the Micro MoS2 particles in the Di
tester
--- tribological Nano MoS2 Four ball Octyl Sebacate
Steel/ Steel
1.5 wt% properties of the 500, 250, 125, tester improved the
lubricating oil. 100, 10 nm Steel/ Steel tribological
It was reported that 0, 0.25, 0.50, properties. Hence
the minimum COF is 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 reduce the COF and
Soyabean Oil wt% wear rate.
for soyabean oil +
ZnO Synthetic Oil
Four ball ZnO nano additive
CuO ZnO
tester followed by Four ball Improvement in the
11 nm CuO
Steel/ Steel soyabean oil + CuO tester friction and wear
4 nm 11 nm
and than for Steel/ Steel properties.
--- 4 nm
epoxidized soyabean
oil. ---
611
Mineral Oil It was reported that piston. The lubricating oil used in the blend of
ZnO the addition of the lube oil, jatropha oil methyl ester, and diesel.
Four ball
CuO nanoparticles in the
11 nm
tester
mineral oil increases The lube oil with jatropha oil exhibit good
Steel/ Steel friction and wear properties as compared to the
4 nm the wear scar
--- diameter of the balls. lube oil blended with diesel. It was reported that
Improvement in the the jatropha oil is having methyl ester double
SAE 20W40
Four ball COF, Wear
ZDDP bond which led to the improvement in the
tester properties, pour
---
Steel/ Steel point and cloud point lubricity of that lubricating oil sample. Suhane et
1-5 wt% al. [46] studied the behavior of non-edible
was reported.
vegetable coil as an alternative for the
5.2 Lubricants and nanoparticles additives automotive applications. It was reported that
for automotive application bio lubricants used as the alternative for the
automotive applications help in reducing the
Eswaraiah et al. [114] studied the tribological emission problem and also they are
properties of graphene as the antiwear, biodegradable in nature. Ting et al. [128]
antifriction and extreme pressure additive in the studied the tribological behavior of soyabean oil
engine oil. It was reported that there is an lubricant as the alternative for engine lubricant.
enhancement in all the three above-mentioned Viscosity analysis was also reported so that it
properties, attributed to the ball bearing can fit the viscosity as required for the engine oil
lubrication mechanism by the nano-particles. lubricant. It was reported that the soyabean oil
Maleque et al. [126,127] experimentally studied seems to be good as the base oil for engine
the tribological behavior of palm oil methyl ester application. Nagendramma et al. [129] worked
blended lubricant for steel cast iron tribopair for on the development of eco-friendly lubricants. It
cylinder liner piston ring assembly. It was was reported that synthetic lubricating oil and
reported that the corrosion wear and pit are the vegetable oil based ester offer the best choices
main reason for the wear on the mating in formulating environmental friendly lubricant
surfaces. It was observed that more than 5 % of for automotive transmission fluids or
the palm oil methyl ester in the lubricant causes automotive gear lubricants.
oxidation and corrosion. Zulkifi et al. [52]
studied the tribological behavior of Palm oil Charoo et al. [130] studied the friction and wear
based trimethylpropane (TMP) esters, as an behaviors of different concentration of IF-MoS2
engine lubricant. Four-ball tester configuration nanoparticles additive in SAE 20W40 lubricating
was used for a boundary, hydrodynamic, elastic- oil. The research experimentation was
hydrodynamics lubrication regimes. The conducted at different operating condition
blended lubricant consists of (5, 10, 15, 20 and parameters to ascertain the influence of nano
100 %) palm oil TMP ester. It was reported that additive on friction and wear of cylinder liner
the lubricant oil with palm oil TMP ester gives and piston ring trio pair. Tribometer test
better performance as compared to the ordinary revealed that Individual Fullerence-MoS2 as
oil. Bekal et al. [55] studied the behavior of the additive reduces the wear loss when compared
Pongamia oil as the alternative for the mineral to the lubricant without the nanoparticle
oil for the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) additive. It was also reported that the reduction
application. In their study, three oil samples are of friction and wear of cylinder liner and piston
prepared i.e. pure Pongamia oil, pure mineral oil ring assembly is essential not only for increasing
and a blend of both the oils. Their samples were life of the IC Engine but it also beneficial for
tested on the commercial four strokes, single reducing fuel consumption and emission in an IC
cylinder, direct injection diesel engine. It was Engine. In another study, the tribological
reported that in the Pongamia oil lubricant behavior of lubricant containing a different
friction losses were less and it eliminates the concentration of h-BN nano-particles into
emission of metal traces unlike in the mineral oil SAE20W50 engine oil was conducted. Charoo et
lubricant. Bhale et al. [62] studied the wear al. [139] in another research studies, observed
characteristics of a cylinder liner rings with that the addition of nanoparticles to engine oil
diesel and biodiesel on a pin on disc tribometer. significantly improve the tribological
The pins and the disc are prepared from the performance in ICE applications. Arumugam et
actual cylinder liner and the top ring of the al. [131,132] studied the effect of bio-lubricants
612
and biodiesel contamination lubrication on the concentrations. It was found that, at working
tribological behavior of cylinder liner piston ring temperature between 60-80 ⁰C, CuO with 0.1 %
tribopair by using a pin on disc tribometer. The based nano lubricant has performed better than
disc and pin material is white cast iron from the commercial engine oil for multi-cylinder petrol
actual engine liner and piston ring. Four engine and hence the friction and wear of engine
different lubricant samples were taken i.e. 10% was found reduced. SAE15W40 with CuO nano
bio-lubricant with SAE 20W40, 10 % B2OR with lubricant have good anti-wear properties with
SAE 20W40, 10 % diesel with SAE 20W40 and wear scar diameter of 0.13 mm. But punga oil
SAE 20W40. 10 % bio-lubricant with SAE with CuO has better anti-friction properties than
20W40 gives the best results for friction and SAE15W40-CuO lubricant.
wear as these lubricating oil samples exhibit
better lubricity than other samples. It was
observed that the engine’s oil generated from 6. GLOBAL STATUS OF LUBRICATING OILS
the vegetable oil is eco-friendly biodegradable
renewable and exhibit low volatility. It was During the last decade, there is a continuous rise
reported that the COF is reduced by 23 % but in the demand for lubricant in the global market.
the wear rate is increased by 12 % when It was reported that the global demand of
compared to commercially synthetic oil lubricant in the year 1991 is approximately 35
lubricant. Sgroi et al. [153] experimentally million tons per year which rose up to 37.4, 37.9
investigate the anti-friction and anti-wear and 41.8 million tons for the year 2004, 2005
properties of MoS2 and WS2 in the fully and 2007 respectively [133]. The main
formulated engine oil (SAE 5W30) to improve contributors to lubricant consumption were
the performance of the lubricants. It was automotive lubricants with 53 % followed by 32
reported that MoS2 nano-particles integrated % industrial lubricants, 10 % process oils, and 5
into the additive package of engine oil showed a % marine oil. In the year 2014, the global
reduction of 50% in COF. The characterization market of the lubricants was 88,230.8 million
was done on a bench test to simulate the real dollar and it is expected to grow by 2.6 % by
tribological conditions in the valve train diesel 2020 [134]. It was observed that the rapid
engine. Reduction in COF is reported in all the industrialization in the Asia-Pacific region leads
lubrication regimes. Lubrication mechanism was to the growth in the demand for lubricants. In
reported to the mechanical exfoliation action of the year 2017, the demand of the lubricant
a tribo-film on the contact surface. It was also increases by 2.3 % and reach 43.9 million metric
reported that the engine head bench test was an tons [135]. In the global market, it was also
unfired apparatus so it is difficult to account the observed that the demand of biolubricants as an
effect of nanoparticles in an oxidizing alternative for engine oils, hydraulic oils, marine
atmosphere commonly present in Internal oils are growing at the rapid pace. In the year
Combustion Engine. Nallusamy et al. [147] in 2015, 56 % of the demand for bio-lubricant
their study reported that the nanoparticles are comes from the engine oil and commercial
extensively used to increase the thermal automotive demand was about 43 % [136].
conductivity, heat transfer rate and tribological
properties of the engine lubricant by adding
nano-additives to form nanofluids. In order to
reduce the friction and wear, lubricants are
used, but still, the fuel consumed for frictional
losses is about ten to twenty percentages of the
total fuel supply. In this study, they prepare
nanolubricants by selecting suitable commercial
engine oil, biodegradable oil, and nanoparticles
based on tribological performance for multi-
cylinder petrol engine applications. The copper
oxide nanoparticles and SAE15W40 commercial
engine oil and punga oil as biodegradable oil
used. The nanolubricants were prepared by
adding nanoparticles to the base oils with 0.1 %
613
6.1 Current status of nano-additives in

commercial lubricants
Lubricants Oil Additives (LOA’s) are used to

enhance the performance of the lubricants as
well as functional fluids. Each additive is
selected as per the specific or functional
requirement. Selected additives are formulated
into packages for use with specific lubricant base
oil and for a specified application. The largest
use is in the automotive engine applications.
Some other applications are hydraulic fluid
additives, gear oil additives, coolant and
machining additives. In addition to this LOA’s
Fig 2. Classification of lubricating oil on the basis of
applications and world market segmentation by also presents in the industrial metalworking
geographical area [22]. oils/ lubricants. The major functionally used
additives types are dispersants, detergents,
Table 12. Summary of the lubricant demand growth by oxidation inhibitors, anti-wear agents, extreme
region based on the application area (2005-2015) [22]. pressure additives and viscosity index
Consumer- improvers. Some of the nano-material additives
Region/ able Commercial Indust- currently used in the commercial lubricants are
Manufacturers Automobile Automobile % rial % fullerenes; carbon-based nano additives;
%
ceramics; sulfides; oxides; polymers, etc. Current
United States/
Exxon Mobil, advances in using nanomaterials additives in
Chevron, 0.25 0.5 0.5 engine oil, industrial lubricants, and grease are
Valoviline, discussed below. Fullerenes are the cyclic
Conoco Phillips molecules that are claimed to enable rolling
China/
Petro China
10 6.5 7 lubrication mechanism. Inorganic Fullerenes
Russia/ (IF) comprises another class of nano-additives
4 3 3 with fullerenes. IF is marked as the extreme
Lukoil
Japan/
1 -2 -1.75
pressure/ anti-wear additives for engine oils,
Nippon Oil gear lubricants, and greases, yet their
India/
applications so far are very limited. Nano-
Servo, Max,
Castrol, Shell,
4 3.5 3 diamond and carbon-based additives are
Gulf, Valvoline another class of the additives that are claimed to
Germany/
-3 -4 -2 embed into the sliding surfaces rendering them
Fuchs more resistant to wear, enable rolling
Canada/
Petro Canada
1 2 1 lubrication, micro-polishing effect between the
United
surfaces, thus reducing friction and wear.
Kingdom/ -2.25 -2.1 -2 Oxides, sulfides, polymers are also the
BP, Shell commonly used additives in metalworking
fluids, engine oil, and other commercial
India is an emerging global economy to the lubricants because of their extreme pressure/
rapid growth of the industrialization. India anti-wear additives properties. By replacing
placed fifth in the lubricant market after the sulfur phosphorous and ZDDP by boric acid and
United States, China, Russia, and Japan. In India, PTFE as nano additive, it is hoped to eliminate
research on bio lubricants as an alternate for the main source of environmental hazardous
automotive applications is becoming the top emission and waste. PTFE- fortified oils and
priority as eco-friendly lubricants are greases are known to exhibit higher welding
nowadays gaining importance in the global loads, higher load wear index and reduced stick-
market. The increasing demand of the slip. Results of numerous studies combined with
lubricating oil in India will be aided by the formulation experiences strongly suggest that
ongoing expansion in the industrial nanomaterials do indeed have the potential for
manufacturing and automotive sector [137]. enhancing certain lubricant properties. Nano-
614
additives are used in a number of aftermarket applications. Moreover, for the future scope, it is
engine treatment products, yet there is a long important for the researchers to find the
way to go. sustainable solution to reduce the frictional and
wear. Future studies must be directed toward
the development of new nano additives,
chemically modified lubricants, hybrid
lubricants for various automotive and industrial
applications, new lubrication mechanism and
other various performance parameters which
affect the tribological properties of the
lubricants and nanoparticles additives are
needed to be investigated.
Acknowledgment
I gratefully acknowledge all the researchers who

Fig 3. Summary of the world consumption of have worked in the field of tribology, without
lubricating oil additives [26]. their significant contribution. This review
literature would have been difficult to
summarise. I would also want to acknowledge
7. SUMMARY AND FUTURE SCOPE my institute and supervisor for their
wholehearted support.
The paper presents the state of art related to the
tribological behavior of lubricants with nano-
additives, performance parameters for REFERENCES
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Vol. 40, No. 4 (2018) 594-623, DOI: 10.24874/ti.2018.40.04.

A Review on Tribological Characterization of

P.D. Srivyas a, M.S. Charoo a

1. INTRODUCTION the vehicles [1-3]. Effective lubrication of the

the corrosion and also sometimes serve as the 1960 Dispersants.

A Large amount of 3. NANO-PARTICLES LUBRICATION

Table 6. Summary of the size and morphology of the SiO2 365

absorbency and metallographic micrograph 2kTt

agglomeration. Surfactants are another method Ultrasonic

Liquid 5. NANOPARTICLES AS OIL ADDITIVES

Ball on Disc 3600 sec/ 50 ˚C/ 1800, 4500 sec/

Chemically Four-Ball Wear 300 sec/ 25 ˚C/ Rotary Universal

Rotary Universal Table 10. Summary of the tribological studies of base

It was reported that It was reported that

6.1 Current status of nano-additives in

Lubricants Oil Additives (LOA’s) are used to

I gratefully acknowledge all the researchers who

tribological behavior of cylinder liner–piston Journal of Applied Engineering Research, vol.

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