Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ON
“INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY”
MODULE – I
(03/10/2010 TO 20/02/2011)
COURSE MATERIAL
COURSE CO-ORDINATOR
CONDUCTED BY
Nodal Institute
Chemicals and Petrochemicals Sectors
N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Isroli-Bardoli.
&
ANCHOR INSTITUTE
1.1.1 Introduction
Practitioners of the thermal arts and sciences generally deal with four basic
thermal transport modes: conduction, convection, phase change, and radiation. The
process by which heat diffuses through a solid or a stationary fluid is termed heat
conduction. Situations in which heat transfer from a wetted surface is assisted by the
motion of the fluid give rise to heat convection, and when the fluid undergoes a liquid–
solid or liquid–vapor state transformation at or very near the wetted surface, attention is
focused on this phase-change heat transfer. The exchange of heat between surfaces, or
between a surface and a surrounding fluid, by long-wavelength electromagnetic radiation
is termed thermal heat radiation.
It is our intent in this section to describe briefly these modes of heat transfer, with
emphasis on an important parameter known as the thermal resistance to heat transfer.
Simple examples are given for illustration; detailed descriptions of the same topics are
presented in specialized chapters.
where q is the heat current, k the thermal conductivity of the medium, A the
crosssectional area for heat flow, and dT /dx the temperature gradient, which, because it
is negative, requires insertion of the minus sign in eq. (1.1) to assure a positive heat flow
q. The temperature difference resulting from the steady-state diffusion of heat is thus
related to the thermal conductivity of the material, the cross-sectional area A, and the path
length L (Fig. 1.1), according to
The form of eq. (1.2), where k and A are presumed constant, suggests that in a way that is
analogous to Ohm’s law governing electrical current flow through a resistance, it is
possible to define a conduction thermal resistance as
number of generic streams is possible (and most have in fact been proposed to transfer
heat), only some of the more important applications will be notedhere.
Solid–solid transfer processes are not covered, nor are high-temperature situations
included where radiative heat transfer is important. Open cooling towers are not
discussed here to any great extent, even though they are the single most widely applied
type of direct contact heat exchangers. Although some information related to cooling
towers is provided in the Section 19.4, this will by no means cover a very significant
fraction of the total literature on the subject. The previous work on cooling towers is
voluminous and tends s to use quite specialized design approaches. Interested readers can
find current overviews by ASHRAE (2000) and Mills (1999). An earlier review of the
literature on the numerical modeling developed to predict cooling tower performance was
given by Johnson et al. (1987). The literature contains reports of studies of interaction
between different substances as well as the same substances. For example, a great deal of
interest has been directed to the use of water in phase-change situations, particularly the
condensation of steam on liquid water. On the other hand, interest has also been directed
to the use of fluids of different types. For example, a great deal of literature on heat
transfer in immiscible liquids was cited years ago by Sideman (1966), and many studies
on this topic have appeared since then.
Generally, the prediction of mass transfer has been given more attention over the
years than has the fieldof direct contact heat transfer. Because of mass transfer and heat
transfer analogies, some information from the mass transfer literature can be used in
direct contact heat transfer design. This analog is exposed minimally here, however.
Emphasis here is on surveying predictions and applications, the main thrusts of benefit to
designers.
isobar in Fig. 19.1. These are normally considered to occur when the vapor is cooler than
the liquid, and this region is denotedas cold condensation (lower left). Clearly, the liquid
source or sink available for evaporation or condensation is limited in real situations.
Hence the finite heat capacity of the liquid is a critical element in the determination of the
amount of heat and mass transfer that can occur. For the cool evaporation and warm
condensation regions, this can be assessed by examining the Jakob number for the liquid.
A practical issue that can arise is the presence of a non condensable gas, often air, in a
condensing or evaporating system. In evaporating systems, small amounts of a
component of this type do not cause much effect, and the phase-change processes are
relatively unimpeded. In condensing systems, the situation is quite different. Here the
film condensation, and described in most elementary heat transfer texts, the concepts
form a basis for other systems that follow below.
Consider the heat transfer processes that occur in the direct contact film condenser.
The pure saturatedv apor condenses on the liquidof the same substance. Heat then
flows by conduction through the condensed liquid to the sink liquid. Since it is
assumedhere that there is no other place for the heat to be absorbedultimately than
the sink liquid, the heat capacity of that liquid is the determining factor for the duty
possible from devices of this type.
The heat transfer processes that must be analyzedfor this type of system are the
diffusion phenomena through the two liquidfilms. For short times, the sink liquidis
consideredas being semi-infinite at the interface between it andthe condensedliquid
INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
MODULE – I
HEAT TRANSFER TECHNOLOGY
DATE: 21/11/2010 BY: L. B. Chaudhari
Conduction Mode of Heat Transfer:
Transfer of heat from one part of a body to another part of a same body or from on body to another
body which is in physical contact with it, without appreciable displacement of particles of a body.
Fourier’s Law:
The physical law governing the transfer of heat through uniform material by conduction mode is
known as Fourier’s Law.
Q ∝ A x [ dT / dx]
Q = k x A x [ dT / dx]
Where,
Q = Rate of heat transfer, W
A = Area of heat transfer, m2
dT / dx = Rate of change of temperature with distance in the direction of heat flow, oC/m
k = Thermal conductivity, W/mK
Q/A = q = k x [ dT / dx]
q = Heat Flux, W/m2
Fourier’s Law states that “the rate of heat flow by conduction through uniform material is
directly proportional to the area normal to the direction of heat flow and temperature
gradient in the direction of heat flow”.
Thermal Conductivity:
Q = k x A x [dT / dx]
k = (‐ Q x dx) / (A x dT)
k = ( W x m) / (m2 x K)
k = W / mK (Unit of Thermal Conductivity)
Thermal conductivity is defined as “the quantity of heat passing through a quantity of material
of unit thickness with unit heat flow area in unit time when unit temperature difference is
maintained across the opposite face of material”
OR
“The ability of material to conduct heat through itself is known as thermal conductivity”.
• Thermal conductivity depends on the nature of material and its temperature.
• Thermal conductivity of solids is higher then that of liquids and liquids is higher then that of
gases.
State of Matter Solids Liquids Gases
Range of Thermal Conductivity (W/mK) 2.3 to 420 0.09 to 0.7 0.006 to 0.6
The thermal conductivities of some materials at room temperature:
Thermal Conductivity Thermal Conductivity
Material Material
W/m · °C W/m · °C
Diamond 2300 Brick 0.72
Silver 429 Water (l) 0.613
Copper 401 Human skin 0.37
Gold 317 Wood (oak) 0.17
Aluminum 237 Helium (g) 0.152
Iron 80.2 Soft rubber 0.13
Mercury (l) 8.54 Glass fiber 0.043
Glass 0.78 Air (g) 0.026
The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room temperature
Classification of Materials according to thermal Conductivity:
HEAT CONDUCTORS: The materials having higher value of thermal conductivity are referred to as
heat conductors. Eg. Silver metal (k = 420 W/mK), Red Copper (k = 395 W/mK), Gold (k = 302
W/mK), Aluminums (k = 210 W/mK)
HEAT INSULATORS: The materials having low value of thermal conductivity are referred to as heat
insulators. Eg. Cork (k = 0.025 W/mK), Glass Wool (k = 0.10 W/mK), Asbestos (k = 0.024 W/mK),
85% magnesia (k = 0.04 W/mK)
Thermal Insulation:
• Process equipments such as reaction vessels, Reboilers, distillation column, evaporators etc or
steam pipe will lose heat to the atmosphere by conduction, convection and radiation.
• Thus to overcome this heat loss, some form of lagging is applied to the hot surfaces. Eg. In a
furnace surface temperature is reduced by making use of series of insulating bricks that are
poor conductor of heat (Heat Insulators).
Requirement of lagging materials:
1. It should have low thermal conductivity and
2. It should suppress convection currents.
Optimum insulation thickness:
Increasing the thickness of insulation will decrease the heat loss but at the same time it will
increase the fixed cost. Thus, optimum thickness which will help in minimum heat loss and
minimum cost is calculated.
Optimum Insulation Thickness
Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity:
Variation of the thermal conductivity with temperature
Effect on Thermal Conductivity of Cu & Al with temperature
Temperature, K Copper Aluminum
100 482 302
200 413 237
300 401 237
400 393 240
600 379 231
800 366 218
INDUSTTRIAL CHEEMICAL TTECHNOLLOGY
MODULE‐1 : HEAT TR
M RANSFER
AL RADIATTION
THERMA
DATE : 17//10/2010 B
BY : K.R.DE
ESAI
¾ HEA AT is a form
m of energyy which flo ow as a result of temperature ggradient.
¾ HEA AT TRANSFFER is the science which dealss with the rates of exchange
e o heat
of
betwween hot aand cold bo odies calleed the SOUURCE and th he RECIEVER.
¾ Heat is transfeerred by thhree primary modes:
C
CONDUCT
TION C
CONVECTION RADIATIO
ON
k = Thermal conducttivity h = Convvective heat transfer ε = Emmiisivity,
co‐efficieent σ = Stefan‐Boltzman co‐efficient
Temperaature depen
ndent Temperaature & momentum m Temperature depend dent
dependeent
RADIATION
It is the energgy transferrred in thee form of eelectromaggnetic wavves as a reesult of
t changges in the “electronic configurration” of the atom
the ms or moleecules of matter.
m
W
Whenever r a charged d particle uundergoess acceleration, energy possesseed by the p particle
is converteed into a fo orm of eneergy known n as electromagneticc radiation.
Radiation is emitted by every point on a plane surfacce in all diirections in nto the
hemispherre above the surfacee. The quantity that describes tthe magnitude of radiation
emitted or incident in a speciffied direction in spacce is the radiation in ntensity. VVarious
radiation fluxes succh as emisssive poweer, irradiation and radiosity are
a expresssed in
t
terms of inntensity.
TTHERMAL RADIATIO ON: It is th
he form off radiation
n emitted by
b bodies because of
o their
t
temperatu ure.
i) Convertiing internaal energy in owing electtromagnetic waves,
nto out‐flo
ii) Absorbing incomin ng electrom magnetic w waves whicch are converted to iinternal ennergy.
Wheere, Stefan
n‐Boltzman
nn constan 6703 x10‐8 (W/m2K4)
nt, (σ) = 5.6
BLACK BODY RADIATTION (TER
RMS INVOLLVED & RA
ADIATIVE P
PROPERTIEES)
Blackbodyy : A blackb body is deffined as a perfect em mitter and absorber of radiatio on. At a
specified temperatu ure and wavelength
w h, no surfface can emit
e moree energy than a
blackbodyy. A blackb body absorrbs all incident radiation, regaardless of wavelenggth and
direction. Also, a blaackbody emits radiation energgy uniform mly in all diirections p per unit
area normmal to direcction of em mission.
Greybody: It is defined such that the monochro omatic emmissivity (εε) of the body
b is
independeent of wave elength.
Emissivity (ε): The raatio of thee radiation emitted b by the surface at a giiven tempeerature
t
to the radiiation emittted by a b black body at the sam me temperature.
Monochro omatic em missivity (ελ): The ratiio of the m
monochrom matic emisssive powerr of the
surface too the mo onochromaatic emissive powerr of a black surfacce at thee same
t
temperatu ure and waavelength.
ελ =
λ Eλ/Ebλ
A
Absorptivi ity (α): Thee fraction o
of irradiatiion absorb bed by the surface.
• It depends sttrongly on the temp perature of
o the sou urce at whhich the inncident
radiation is originating.
Reflectivitty (ρ): The fraction off irradiatioon reflected d by the su
urface.
T
Transmiss ivity (τ): The fractionn of irradiaation transmitted by the surfacce.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof. Kartik Desai, Sr. Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
BASIC LAW’S OF RADIATION
1) Stefan‐Boltzmann law: The total radiation energy emitted by a black body per unit
time and per unit surface area was given as:
4
Total blackbody emissive power, Eb = σ *T , where σ =5.67 x10‐8 W/(m2 ∙ K4)
2) Plank’s law: Spectral(or Monochromatic) blackbody emissive power (Ebλ) :
The amount of radiation energy emitted by a blackbody at a thermodynamic
temperature (T) per unit time, per unit surface area, and per unit wavelength(λ).
Ebλ(λ,T) = C1/[λ5*(exp(C2/λ*T)‐1)
where, C1 = 2Π*h*c02, C2 = h*c0/k, h : Plank’s constant, k : Boltzmann’s constant
3) Wien’s displacement law: The wavelength at which the peak spectral blackbody
emissive power occurs for a specified temperature is
given by Wien’s displacement law.
(λ*T)max power =2897 μm*K
4) Kirchhoff’s law: The total hemispherical emissivity of a surface at temperature T is
equal to its total hemispherical absorptivity for radiation coming
from a blackbody at same temperature.
ε(T) = α(T)
QUESTIONS:
1) Why the negative sign appears in Fourier's law of heat conduction?
2) A sealed cube containing argon floating in deep space is heated on one side by a
nearby star. Will there be any heat transfer due to natural convection?
3) What is thermal radiation?
4) Define: Emmisivity, Absorptivity, Reflectivity, Transmitivity, Black body.
5) Explain Stefan‐Boltzman’s law.
Kartik R. Desai
Sr. Lecturer, N.G.Patel Polytechnic,
Isroli‐Afwa.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof. Himanshu Desai, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
MODULE – I
HEAT TRANSFER TECHNOLOGY
DATE: 24/10/2010 BY: H. S. DESAI
What Is Heat Transfer?
HEAT TRANSFER is the science which deals with the rates of exchange of heat between hot
and cold bodies called the SOURCE and the RECIEVER.
What are Heat Transfer Equipments?
A heat transfer equipments are the devices built for efficient heat transfer from one
medium to another.
Classification of Heat Transfer Equipments:
1. According to Mechanical Design:
‐ Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
‐ Shell & Tube type Heat Exchanger
‐ Plat Type Heat Exchanger
‐ Extended Surface (Fin) type Heat Exchanger
‐ Mechanically Agitated Reactor (With Jacket and / or Coil)
2. According to Nature of Flow arrangement:
‐ Parallel (Co‐current Flow)
‐ Opposite (Counter Current)
‐ Perpendicular (Cross Flow)
3. According to Number of Passes:
‐ Single Pass
‐ Multiple Pass
4. According to Physical State of Heat Exchanging Fluids:
‐ Gas to Gas
‐ Liquid to Liquid (Coolers)
‐ Gas to Liquid (Economizer)
‐ Liquid or gas to condensing vapors (Condensers)
‐ Gas to Boiling liquid (Evaporators)
5. According to Operating Pressure Range:
‐ Low Pressure (0 to 8 atm)
‐ Medium Pressure (8 to 35 atm)
‐ High Pressure (35 atm and above)
Types of Heat Transfer Equipments:
• Shell and tube
• Double pipe
• Plate
• Finned tubes/gas heaters
• spiral
• Vessel jackets
• Reboilers and vaporisers / evaporators Etc
• Agitated Vessels or Agitated Reactors.
Important Terminologies:
Range, Approach, Newton’s Law of Cooling, Heat Transfer Coefficient
Temperature Profile & Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD):
What is Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger?
A shell and tube heat exchanger is a class of heat exchanger designs. It is the most
common type of heat exchanger in oil refineries and other large chemical processes, and is
suited for higher‐pressure applications. As its name implies, this type of heat exchanger
consists of a shell (a large pressure vessel) with a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs
through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes (through the shell) to transfer
heat between the two fluids. The set of tubes is called a tube bundle, and may be composed
by several types of tubes.
Types of Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers:
Construction of Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers:
Shell & Tube heat exchangers consist of many components such as: Shell, Tube Bundle,
Baffles, Tie Rod, Tube sheet, Pass, Inlet & Outlet Nozzles.
Baffles: Baffles are metal discs cut to certain area. They are used to increase the
residence time of shell side fluid, to increase the turbulence and to support
the tubes.
Tube Sheet: Tube bundle is welded to the tube sheet.
Pass: It is a metal plate used to create multiple passes in the flow.
Tie Rod: They are used to keep the baffles at the prescribed positions.
Nozzles: They are standard pipes used for entry and exit of shell and tube side fluids.
Working of Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger:
• In the shell and tube heat exchanger shown above, the shell side fluid flows once
through the shell and the tube side fluid flows twice through the tube bundle.
• In this type of heat exchangers the tube side fluid flows in co‐current and counter
current fashion with respect to shell side fluid.
INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
MODULE – I
HEAT TRANSFER TECHNOLOGY
Date: 05/12/2010 By: H. S. Desai
CONDENSERS & STEAM TRAP
CONDENSER:
• A condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance from its gaseous to
its liquid state, typically by cooling it.
• In doing so, the latent heat is given up by the substance, and will transfer to the
condenser coolant. Condensers are typically heat exchangers which have various
designs and come in many sizes ranging from rather small to very large industrial‐
scale units used in plant processes.
• Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes such
as distillation, steam power plants and other heat‐exchange systems. Use of cooling
water or surrounding air as the coolant is common in many condensers.
Types of Condensers:
Surface Condensers:
Surface condenser is the commonly used term for a water‐cooled shell and tube heat
exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power
stations. These condensers are heat exchangers which convert steam from its gaseous to its
liquid state at a pressure below atmospheric pressure. Where cooling water is in short
supply, an air‐cooled condenser is often used. An air‐cooled condenser is however
significantly more expensive and cannot achieve as low a steam turbine exhaust pressure
as water cooled surface condenser.
Contact condenser:
Contact Condenser is a device in which a vapor is brought into direct contact with a
cooling liquid and condensed by giving up its latent heat to the liquid. In almost all cases
the cooling liquid is water, and the condensing vapor is steam. In this type of condenser the
steam and cooling water are mixed in a condensing chamber and withdrawn together.
STEAM TRAP:
A steam trap is a device used to discharge condensate and non condensable gases with a
negligible consumption or loss of live steam. Most steam traps are nothing more than
automatic valves. They open, close or modulate automatically.
The three important functions of steam traps are:
1. Discharge condensate as soon as it is formed.
2. Have negligible steam consumption.
3. Have the capability of discharging air and other non‐condensable gases.
Types of Steam Trap:
1. Mechanical traps. They have a float that rises and falls in relation to condensate
level and this usually has a mechanical linkage attached that opens and closes the
valve. Mechanical traps operate in direct relationship to condensate levels present
in the body of the steam trap. Inverted bucket and float traps are examples of
mechanical traps.
2. Temperature traps. They have a valve that is driven on / off the seat by either
expansion / contraction caused by temperature change. They differ from
mechanical traps in that their design requires them to hold back some condensate
waiting for it to cool sufficiently to allow the valve to open. In most circumstances
this is not desirable as condensate needs to be removed as soon as it is
formed. Thermostatic traps, BiThermostatic traps and bimetallic traps are
examples of temperature operated traps.
3. Thermodynamic (TD) traps. Thermodynamic traps work on the difference in
dynamic response to velocity change in flow of compressible and incompressible
fluids. As steam enters, static pressure above the disk forces the disk against the
valve seat. The static pressure over a large area overcomes the high inlet pressure
of the steam. As the steam starts to condense, the pressure against the disk lessens
and the trap cycles. This essentially makes a TD trap a "time cycle" device: it will
open even if there is only steam present, this can cause premature wear. If non
condensable gas is trapped on top of the disc, it can cause the trap to be locked shut.
PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT AND
ENERGY
CONSERVATION
APPROACH FOR
INDUSTRIAL BOILER
Performance Assess.& Energy conservation approach for industrial boiler‐H.R.Jivanramjwala‐N.G.Patel Polytechnic
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof. H.R. Jivanramjiwala, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli ‐ 1 ‐
1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................1
2. TYPE OF BOILERS.......................................................................................2
3. ASSESSMENT OF A BOILER .....................................................................4
4. ENERGY EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES .......................................... 14
1. INTRODUCTION
This section briefly describes the Boiler and various auxiliaries in the Boiler Room.
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred to
water until it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under pressure is then
usable for transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and inexpensive medium for
transferring heat to a process. When water at atmospheric pressure is boiled into steam its
volume increases about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as explosive as
gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be an equipment that must be treated with utmost care.
The boiler system comprises of: a feed water system, steam system and fuel system. The feed
water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam
demand. Various valves provide access for maintenance and repair. The steam system
collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through a piping
system to the point of use. Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated using valves
and checked with steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to
provide fuel to generate the necessary heat. The equipment required in the fuel system
depends on the type of fuel used in the system.
The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feed water. The two
sources of feed water are: (1) Condensate or condensed steam returned from the processes
and (2) Makeup water (treated raw water) which must come from outside the boiler room
and plant processes. For higher boiler efficiencies, an economizer preheats the feed water
using the waste heat in the flue gas.
Performance Assess.& Energy conservation approach for industrial boiler‐H.R.Jivanramjwala‐N.G.Patel Polytechnic
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof. H.R. Jivanramjiwala, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli 2
STACK
DEAERATOR
Econo
mizer
mizer
PUMPS
VENT
BOILER
BURNER
Water Source
Water Source
BLOW DOWN
SEPARATOR FUEL
BRINE
CHEMICAL FEED
SOFTENERS
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a Boiler Room
2. TYPE OF BOILERS
This section describes the various types of boilers: Fire tube boiler, Water tube boiler,
Packaged boiler, Fluidized bed combustion boiler, Stoker fired boiler, Pulverized fuel boiler,
Waste heat boiler and Thermic fluid heater.
2.3 Packaged
To Chimney
Boiler
Performance Assess.& Energy conservation approach for industrial boiler‐H.R.Jivanramjwala‐N.G.Patel Polytechnic
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof. H.R. Jivanramjiwala, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
4
These boilers are classified based on the number of passes - the number of times the hot
combustion gases pass through the boiler. The combustion chamber is taken, as the first pass
after which there may be one, two or three sets of fire-tubes. The most common boiler of this
class is a three-pass unit with two sets of fire-tubes and with the exhaust gases exiting
through the rear of the boiler.
3. ASSESSMENT OF A BOILER
This section describes the Performance evaluation of boilers (through the direct and indirect
method including examples for efficiency calculations), boiler blow down, and boiler water
treatment.
The performance parameters of a boiler, like efficiency and evaporation ratio, reduces with
time due to poor combustion, heat transfer surface fouling and poor operation and
maintenance. Even for a new boiler, reasons such as deteriorating fuel quality and water
quality can result in poor boiler performance. A heat balance helps us to identify avoidable
and unavoidable heat losses. Boiler efficiency tests help us to find out the deviation of boiler
efficiency from the best efficiency and target problem area for corrective action.
The combustion process in a boiler can be described in the form of an energy flow diagram.
This shows graphically how the input energy from the fuel is transformed into the various
useful energy flows and into heat and energy loss flows. The thickness of the arrows indicates
the amount of energy contained in the respective flows.
Stack Stochiometric
Gas Excess Air
Un burnt
FUEL INPUT STEAM
OUTPUT
& Radiation
Blow Down
burnt parts of
Convection
Performance Assess.& Energy conservation approach for industrial boiler‐H.R.Jivanramjwala‐N.G.Patel Polytechnic
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof. H.R. Jivanramjiwala, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli 5
A heat balance is an attempt to balance the total energy entering a boiler against that leaving
the boiler in different forms. The following figure illustrates the different losses occurring for
generating steam.
12.7 %
Heat loss due to dry flue gas
8.1 % Dry
HeatFlue
loss Gas
due Loss
to steam in flue gas
100.0 % 1.7 %
Heat
Heat loss
loss due
due to
to moisture
moisture in
in fuel
fuel
0.3 %
Fuel BOILER Heat loss due to moisture in air
2.4 % Heat loss due to unburnts in residue
1.0 %
Heat loss due to radiation & other
unaccounted loss
73.8 %
Heat in Steam
The energy losses can be divided in unavoidable and avoidable losses. The goal of a Cleaner
Production and/or energy assessment must be to reduce the avoidable losses, i.e. to improve
energy efficiency. The following losses can be avoided or reduced:
Stack gas losses:
- Excess air (reduce to the necessary minimum which depends from burner technology,
operation, operation (i.e. control) and maintenance).
- Stack gas temperature (reduce by optimizing maintenance (cleaning), load; better
burner and boiler technology).
Losses by unburnt fuel in stack and ash (optimize operation and maintenance; better
technology of burner).
Blow down losses (treat fresh feed water, recycle condensate)
Condensate losses (recover the largest possible amount of condensate)
Convection and radiation losses (reduced by better insulation of the boiler).
Thermal efficiency of a boiler is defined as “the percentage of (heat) energy input that is
effectively useful in the generated steam.”
Performance Assess.& Energy conservation approach for industrial boiler‐H.R.Jivanramjwala‐N.G.Patel Polytechnic
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof. H.R. Jivanramjiwala, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli 6
Methodology
This is also known as ‘input-output method’ due to the fact that it needs only the useful
output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency can
be evaluated using the formula:
Heat Output
Boiler Efficiency (η) = x 100
Heat Input
Q x (hg – hf)
Boiler Efficiency (η) = x 100
q x GCV
Parameters to be monitored for the calculation of boiler efficiency by direct method are:
Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr.
Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr.
The working pressure (in kg/cm2(g)) and superheat temperature (oC), if any
The temperature of feed water (oC)
Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in kcal/kg of fuel
And where
hg – Enthalpy of saturated steam in kcal/kg of steam
hf – Enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg of water
Example
Find out the efficiency of the boiler by direct method with the data given below:
Type of boiler: Coal fired
Quantity of steam (dry) generated: 10 TPH
2 0
Steam pressure (gauge) / temp: 10 kg/cm (g)/ 180 C
Quantity of coal consumed: 2.25 TPH
0
Feed water temperature: 85 C
GCV of coal: 3200 kcal/kg
2
Enthalpy of steam at 10 kg/cm pressure: 665 kcal/kg (saturated)
Enthalpy of feed water: 85 kcal/kg
Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of the system is lower
Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels
Methodology
The reference standards for Boiler Testing at Site using the indirect method are the British
Standard, BS 845:1987 and the USA Standard ASME PTC-4-1 Power Test Code Steam
Generating Units.
The indirect method is also called the heat loss method. The efficiency can be calculated by
subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100 as follows:
Whereby the principle losses that occur in a boiler are loss of heat due to:
The data required for calculation of boiler efficiency using the indirect method are:
A detailed procedure for calculating boiler efficiency using the indirect method is given
below. However, practicing energy managers in industry usually prefer simpler calculation
procedures.
Performance Assess.& Energy conservation approach for industrial boiler‐H.R.Jivanramjwala‐N.G.Patel Polytechnic
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8
= O2 percent x 100
-------------
(21 - O2 percent)
= m x Cp x (Tf-Ta) x 100
----------------------------
GCV of fuel
ii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
= Total ash collected per Kg of fuel burnt x G.C.V of bottom ash x 100
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
GCV of fuel
vii. Percentage heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss
The actual radiation and convection losses are difficult to assess because of particular
emissivity of various surfaces, its inclination, airflow patterns etc. In a relatively small boiler,
with a capacity of 10 MW, the radiation and unaccounted losses could amount to between 1
percent and 2 percent of the gross calorific value of the fuel, while in a 500 MW boiler,
values between 0.2 percent to 1 percent are typical. The loss may be assumed appropriately
depending on the surface condition.
Evaporation Ratio = Heat utilized for steam generation/Heat addition to the steam
Evaporation ratio means kilogram of steam generated per kilogram of fuel consumed. Typical
Examples are:
Coal fired boiler: 6 (i.e. 1 kg of coal can generate 6 kg of steam)
Oil fired boiler: 13 (i.e. 1 kg of oil can generate 13 kg of steam)
However, the evaporation ratio will depend upon type of boiler, calorific value of the fuel and
associated efficiencies.
Example
Performance Assess.& Energy conservation approach for industrial boiler‐H.R.Jivanramjwala‐N.G.Patel Polytechnic
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m x Cp x (Tf – Ta ) x 100
= -----------------------------
GCV of fuel
m = 21.35 kg / kg of oil
= 9.29 percent
Performance Assess.& Energy conservation approach for industrial boiler‐H.R.Jivanramjwala‐N.G.Patel Polytechnic
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A simpler method can also be used: Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas
m x Cp x (Tf – Ta ) x 100
= -----------------------------
GCV of fuel
= 20.19 + 1 = 21.19
= 9.22 percent
9 x H2 {584+0.45 (Tf – Ta )}
= ---------------------------------
GCV of fuel where H2 = percentage of H2 in fuel
9 x 12 {584+0.45(220-27)}
= --------------------------------
10200
= 7.10 percent
= 0.317 percent
ii. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel : 7.10 percent
iii. Heat loss due to moisture present in air : 0.317 percent
iv. Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses : 2 percent
= 100- [9.29+7.10+0.317+2]
Evaporation Ratio = Heat utilized for steam generation/Heat addition to the steam
A complete mass and energy balance can be obtained for each individual stream, making
it easier to identify options to improve boiler efficiency
Time consuming
Requires lab facilities for analysis
This section includes energy efficiency opportunities related to combustion, heat transfer,
avoidable losses, auxiliary power consumption, water quality and blow down.
Energy losses and therefore energy efficiency opportunities in boilers can be related to
combustion, heat transfer, avoidable losses, high auxiliary power consumption, water quality
and blow down.
The various energy efficiency opportunities in a boiler system can be related to:
1. Stack temperature control
2. Feed water preheating using economizers
3. Combustion air pre-heating
4. Incomplete combustion minimization
5. Excess air control
6. Radiation and convection heat loss avoidance
7. Automatic blow down control
8. Reduction of scaling and soot losses
9. Reduction of boiler steam pressure
10. Variable speed control for fans, blowers and pumps
11. Controlling boiler loading
12. Proper boiler scheduling
13. Boiler replacement
Performance Assess.& Energy conservation approach for industrial boiler‐H.R.Jivanramjwala‐N.G.Patel Polytechnic
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof.Latesh Chaudhari, Asst. Prof.,F.E.T.R., Bardoli
CONVECTION
Convection
C ti i th
is the
transfer of heat by the
actual movement of the
warmed matter.
•Convection is the
transfer of heat energy
in a gas or liquid by
movement off currents.
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CONVECTION
CONVECTION
CONDUCTION
• Conduction is the
transfer of energy
through matter from
particle to particle.
• It is the transfer and
distribution of heat
energy from atom to
atom within a
substance.
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RADIATION
Sunlight is a form of
radiation that is radiated
through space to our planet
without
ith t th
the aid
id off fluids
fl id or
solids.
Since there are no fluids in
space, convection is not
responsible for transferring the
heat. Thus, radiation brings
heat to our planet.
RADIATION
RADIATION AMONG
OBJECTS
HEAT TRANSFER
Prof. Latesh B.
Prof B Chaudhari
Asst. Professor
Faculty
l off Engg. Tech.
h & Research
h
Isroli-Bardoli
Examples:
pp rod
How the whole copper dgget hot when we heat
a one
end
How does the heat spread throughout the whole pot of
water
t when
h we are only l hheating
t th
the b
bottom
tt
Heat Transfer
Question
What is happening?
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
CONDUCTION
STEADY STATE
THERMAL CODUCTIVITY
STEADY STAE IS THE STAE WHEN THERE IS NO MORE ABSORPTION OF HEAT AND THE TEMPERATURE BECOMES CONSTANT
DURING STEADY STAE DIFFERENT PARTICLES MAY HAVE DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES BUT DIFFERENT PARTICLES HAVE CONSTANT TEMPERATURE
Molecular Vibration
Conduction Animation
Cli k here
Click h forf animation
i ti
Conduction
This is why…
why
These parts are
made of plastic or
wood:
Conduction
The hot water carries its own thermal energy with it when it moves.
That is the process of convection. It happens in a fluid whether it is a
liquid or a gas
gas. On a large scale it happens in the oceans and in the
atmosphere, in hot water heating systems and in ventilation. Winds are
just convection currents.
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Conduction
•Conduction and
convection
co vec o both
bo need
eed
particles to carry energy
when heat is transferred
Applications of conduction
Convection
Convection Animation
Applications of convection
Convection
Temp/O
C Heating ice
150
This flat line shows where energy
is being used to push the particles
100 further apart for evaporation
50
0
Time/s
This flat line shows where energy
-50
50 is being used to break bonds –
this has to be done during melting
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Particles gain
energy and
become less
dense and rise.
They pass their
energy on and
become more
d
dense andd sink.
i k
Heat up, less
dense rise……
Current
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
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Explain.
p
When the air particles in the balloon
are heated theyy move apart.
p The air
expands and becomes less dense.
This causes the hot air to rise and
the balloon does too.
too
Radiation
The
Th EEarth
h takes
k iin the
h hheat.
It is known as an absorber.
Radiation
Black ________ infrared radiation (i.e. heat) from the sun better
than white does.
Applications of radiation
Teapots
The greenhouse
Colour and texture of clothings
Skin
Ski cancer
HEAT TRANSFER
BY
RADIATION
KARTIK R. DESAI
Sr Lecturer
Sr. Lecturer, Chemical Engineering Department
Department,
N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Isroli-Afwa
OUTLINE
9 Introduction
9 Electromagnetic Waves
9 Thermal Radiation
9 Terms involved
9 Basic Law’s of Radiation
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
¾ HEAT TRANSFER is the science which deals with the rates of exchange
of heat between hot and cold bodies called the SOURCE and the
RECIEVER.
RECIEVER
INTRODUCTION
Heat is transferred by three primary modes:
1) CONDUCTION: It is the primary mode of heat transfer through solid. Conduction occurs by two
mechanisms:
h i
i) Molecular Motion - Molecules of higher energy (motion) impart that energy to adjacent molecules
of lesser energy.
ii)) Migration
g of free electrons - This is pprimarily
y associated with ppure metals.
Where A is the cross-sectional area that the heat is flowing through the solid, ∆T is the
temperature gradient in the solid. (k) is the thermal conductivity of the material.
The thermal conductivity is a physical property of the solid. It the a measure of the materials
ability to conduct heat.
Q: Why the negative sign appears in Fourier's law of heat conduction?
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
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INTRODUCTION
2) CONVECTION: It occurs when a fluid exchanges energy with an adjacent solid. The fluid motion
adjacent to the solid surface assists in the transfer of energy.
Newton s law of cooling describes the rate of heat transfer from a solid surface into a fluid medium:
Newton's
This relationship is valid for both forced and natural convection.
(Tamb) is the ambient fluid temperature, (h) is defined as the convective heat transfer
coefficient. This proportionality constant contains all the nonlinearities associated with convection.
Q: A sealed cube containing argon floating in deep space is heated on one side by a nearby
star. Will there be any heat transfer due to natural convection?
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
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INTRODUCTION
3) RADIATION: It is the energy transferred in the form of electromagnetic waves as a result of the
changes in the “electronic configuration” of the atoms or molecules of matter. Whenever a charged
particle undergoes acceleration , energy possessed by the particle is converted into a form of energy
known as electromagnetic radiation .
THERMAL RADIATION: It is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their
temperature. i) Converting internal energy into out-flowing electromagnetic waves, ii) Absorbing
incomingg electromagnetic
g waves which are converted to internal energy.
gy
The rate of radiant thermal energy transfer between two bodies is described by the Stefan-
Boltzmann Law: “The emission of thermal radiative energy is proportional to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature (Kelvin or Rankine)”.
Where EE, is the emissive power flux of the surface (W/m2),
) (σ) is the Stefan-Boltzmann
Stefan Boltzmann
constant, and (ε) is the emissivity of the surface.
The rate of radiative heat transfer between
two surfaces, a and b is:
INTRODUCTION
Three modes of heat transfer:
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic Waves
Earth’s energy budget:
Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic wave spectrum:
Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic spectrum:
RADIATION
Types of radiation:
THERMAL RADIATION
¾ Every object emits thermal radiation from its surface due to its temperature.
Thermal radiation is continuously emitted by all matter whose temperature is
above absolute zero (0 K).
¾ Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation that is transmitted by the
electrons in the atoms of the radiating object. Everyday objects emit thermal
radiation that is in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
¾ A hot object, like the filament of a light bulb, emits infrared and visible thermal
radiation.
¾ Thermal radiation is transmitted through air or through the vacuum of space.
space
¾ Thermal radiation transports heat from a hotter surface to a cooler surface, e.g.
light from the surface of the Sun to the Earth.
¾ Th thermal
The th l radiation
di ti inside
i id an enclosed
l d oven is i att equilibrium,
ilib i b
because all
ll the
th
walls are at the same temperature.
¾ In heat transfer studies, we are interested in the energy emitted by bodies
beca se of their temperature
because temperat re only.
onl
THERMAL RADIATION
¾ It does not require the presence of a material media (solid/liquid/gas) to take place.
¾ Energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation
tt ti ini a vacuum.
¾ Radiation heat transfer can occur between two bodies which are separated by a
medium colder than both the bodies.
bodies
TERMS INVOLVED
Ie (θ,Φ) = dQe/(dA
/(dA*cosθ*dω)
cosθ dω)
dω =ds/r2
Terms Involved
Irradiation (G):
• The radiation flux incident on a surface
from all directions.
Radiosity (J):
• The rate at which radiation energy
leaves a unit area of a surface in all
directions.
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Radiative properties
Terms Involved
Properties of Opaque Surfaces : Semi-transparent surfaces:
Ii = Ir+Ia • The region into which the
ρ+α
ρ α =11 radiation is transmitted may or
τ=0 may not be part of the
computational domain.
Ii = Ir+Ia+It
ρ+α+τ=1
Types of diffusion :
The Gray body : The gray body is defined such that the monochromatic emissivity
(ελ) of the body is independent of wavelength.
wavelength
Terms Involved
View factor : The view factor from a surface i to j is
(Fij) defined as the fraction of radiation energy leaving
surface i that strikes surface j directly.
y
It is a purely geometric quantity and is independent of
surface properties and temperature.
Radiation analysis on an enclosure consisting of N
surfaces requires the evaluation of N2 view factors.
Reciprocity relation : Ai*Fij = Aj*Fji
Summation rule : ΣFij =1 , for j=1 to N
Optical Thickness : An important dimensionless number
in radiation.
Optical
O i l thickness
hi k indicates
i di how
h strongly l radiation
di i is i
absorbed (and scattered).
Optical thickness = (α + σs) L
L = Mean beam length(typically distance
between two opposing walls)
Stefan-Boltzmann law:
The total radiation energy emitted by a black body per unit time and per
unit
it surface
f area was given
i by
b ,
Total blackbody emissive power, Eb = σ *T4
where, σ =5.67 x10-8 W/(m2 · K4)
Continued…
Kirchhoff’s law:
The total hemispherical emissivity of a surface at temperature T is equal to
its total hemispherical absorptivity for radiation coming from a blackbody at
same temperature.
ε(T) = α(T)
QUESTIONS
I d i l Ch i l T h l
Industrial Chemical Technology
Module – I
Heat Transfer Technology
05/12/2010
By:
y
Himanshu S. Desai
Lecturer, Chemical Engineering Department
N G P t l P l t h i
N. G. Patel Polytechnic
Isroli – Afwa, Bardoli
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof.Latesh Chaudhari, Asst. Prof.,F.E.T.R., Bardoli
Condensers
y A condenser is a device or unit used to condense a
substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, typically by
cooling it.
it
y Condensers are typically heat exchangers which have
various designs
g and come in many y sizes.
y Condensers are used in air conditioning,
industrial chemical processes such as distillation,
steam power plants
l and
d other
h heat‐exchange
h h systems.
y Use of cooling water or surrounding air as the coolant is
common in many condensers.
condensers
Types of Condensers
y Surface condenser is the commonly used term for a
water‐cooled shell and tube heat exchanger.
y These
Th condensers
d are heat
h exchangers
h which
hi h convert
steam from its gaseous to its liquid state.
y When cooling water is in short supply,
supply an air
air‐cooled
cooled
condenser is often used.
Types of Condensers
y Contact condenser is a device in which a vapor is
brought into direct contact with a cooling liquid and
condensed by giving up its latent heat to the liquid.
liquid
y In almost all cases the cooling liquid is water, and the
condensing vapor is steam.
steam
y In this type of condenser the steam and cooling water
are mixed in a condensing g chamber and withdrawn
together.
Purpose
y Steam traps exist to discharge air and condensate while
not permitting the escape of live steam
y Their goal is to:
y Improve efficiency (Excess water or air in the system prevents
it from
f reaching
hi operating
ti temperature
t t quickly
i kl during
d i start‐up)
t t )
y Protect system (Inadequate steam trapping can lead to water
hammer, corrosion, leakage, and high maintenance costs)
y Provide maximum heat transfer (‘dry’ steam has best heat
transfer properties in equipment like a heat exchanger)
Types
1. Mechanical steam traps ‐ Have a float that rises and falls in
relation to condensate level and this usually has a mechanical linkage
attached that opens and closes the valve. Operate in direct
relationship to condensate levels present in the body of the steam
trap.
trap
Types
2. Temperature steam traps ‐ Have a valve that moves in/out of
position by either expansion/contraction caused by temperature
change. Some condensate builds up as it cools sufficiently to allow the
valve to open. In most circumstances this is not desirable as
condensate needs to be removed as soon as it is formed.
formed
Types
3. Thermodynamic steam traps ‐ Work on the difference
in response to velocity change in flow of compressible and
incompressible fluids. As steam enters, static pressure above
the disk forces the disk against the valve seat. The static
pressure over a large area overcomes the high inlet pressure of
the steam. As the steam starts to condense, the pressure
g
against the disk lessens and the trap
p opens
p to allow condensate
out.
Thank You
Industrial Chemical Technology
Module I
Module ‐
Heat Transfer Technology
Heat Transfer Technology
Thermal Conductivity & Its
y
Measurement
21st November, 2010
By
Prof. Latesh B. Chaudhari
Asst. Prof. & I/C Head
Chemical Engineering Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Technology & Research
Isroli – Afwa, Bardoli
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof.Latesh Chaudhari, Asst. Prof.,F.E.T.R., Bardoli
Contents:
• Conduction mode of heat transfer
• Fourier’s Law
• Thermal Conductivity
• Cl ifi i
Classification of Materials based on Thermal Conductivity
f i l b d h lC d i i
• Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity.
Conduction:
• Transfer of heat from one p part of a body y to another
part of a same body or from on body to another body
which is in physical contact with it, without
appreciable
i bl displacement
di l t off particles
ti l off a body.
b d
Fourier s Law:
Fourier’s Law:
Q ∝ A x [ dT / dx]
Q = k x A x [ dT / dx]
Where,
Q = Rate of heat transfer (Watts)
A = Area of heat Transfer (m2)
k = Thermal Conductivity (W/moC)
dT/dx = Rate of change of temperature with distance in the
direction of heat flow, oC/m
“The
The rate of heat flow by conduction through uniform
material is directly proportional to the area normal to
the direction of heat flow and temperature gradient in
the direction of heat flow”
Thermal Conductivity:
Q = k x A x [dT / dx]
k = ( Q x dx) / (A x dT)
Thermal Conductivities of different materials:
State of Matter Solids Liquids Gases
Thermal Conductivity (W/mK) 2.3 to 420 0.09 to 0.7 0.006 to 0.6
Thermal Conductivities of different materials at Room Temperature
Thermal Conductivity
y Thermal Conductivity
y
M
Material
i l M
Material
i l
W/m°C W/m°C
Diamond 2300 Brick 0.72
Silver 429 Water (l)
Water (l) 0 613
0.613
Copper 401 Human skin 0.37
Gold 317 Wood (oak) 0.17
Aluminum
Al i 237 H li
Helium (g)
( ) 0 152
0.152
Iron 80.2 Soft rubber 0.13
Mercury (l) 8.54 Glass fiber 0.043
Glass 0.78 Air (g) 0.026
The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room temperature
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
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Classification of Materials based on Thermal
C d i i
Conductivity:
HEAT CONDUCTORS:
The materials having higher value of thermal
conductivity are referred to as heat conductors. Eg. Silver
metal
t l (k = 420 W/mK),
W/ K) Red
R d Copper
C (k = 395 W/mK),
W/ K) Gold
G ld
(k = 302 W/mK), Aluminums (k = 210 W/mK)
HEAT INSULATORS:
The materials having low value of thermal conductivity
are referred to as heat insulators. Eg. Cork (k = 0.025
W/mK), Glass Wool (k = 0.10 W/mK), Asbestos (k = 0.024
W/mK), 85% magnesia (k = 0.04 W/mK)
Thermal Insulation:
• Process equipments such as reaction vessels, Reboilers,
distillation column, evaporators etc or steam pipe will lose heat to
the atmosphere by conduction, convection and radiation.
• Thus to overcome this heat loss, some form of lagging is applied to
the hot surfaces. Eg. In a furnace surface temperature is reduced
by making use of series of insulating bricks that are poor
conductor of heat (Heat Insulators).
Requirement of lagging materials:
• It should have low thermal conductivity and
• It should suppress convection currents.
Optimum Thickness of Insulation:
Increasingg the thickness of
insulation will decrease
the heat loss but at the
same time
ti it will
ill increase
i
the fixed cost. Thus,
optimum
p thickness which
will help in minimum heat
loss and minimum cost is
calculated.
calculated
Variation of the thermal conductivity with temperature
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Effect on Thermal Conductivity of Cu & Al with temperature
Temperature, K
T K Copper
C Al i
Aluminum
100 482 302
200 413 237
300 401 237
400 393 240
600 379 231
800 366 218
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER
• Objective: To determine thermal conductivity of insulating powder.
• Theory: Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of
hollow sphere form by the insulating powder layer packed between two
thin copper spheres. Let ri = radius of inner sphere (m), ro = radius of
outer sphere (m), Ti = avg. temperature of the inner surface (C) where,
• Similarly,
• From the experimental value of q, Ti the unknown thermal conductivity K
can be determine as,
• ri)] / [4 x Π x ri x ro x (Ti
K = [Q x (ro ‐ ri)] / [4 x Π
K = [Q x (ro x ri x ro x (Ti – To)] ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (3)
• Procedure:
• Connect the equipment with electrical supply.
q p pp y
• Adjust input equal to any value between 20 to 60 watt maximum by volt &
ammeter.
• Take thermocouple readings at frequent intervals till consecutive readings are
same indicating that steady state has been reached.
g y
• OBSERVATION:
– Radius of inner sphere, ri = ___________ mm
– Radius of outer sphere ro
Radius of outer sphere, ro =
= ___________ mm
mm
– Voltmeter reading, V = ___________ volts
– Ammeter reading, I = ___________ ampere
– Heater input (Q) = V x I = ___________ watts
•
• CALCULATION:
• K = [Q x (ro ‐ ri)] / [4 x π x ri x ro x (Ti – To)]
• =
• =
RESULT: Thermal Conductivity of the insulating powder is_____________W / moC. •
Thank You
INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
MODULE – I
HEAT TRANSFER TECHNOLOGY
Date: 21/11/2010 By: L. B. Chaudhari
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER
Objective: To determine thermal conductivity of insulating powder.
Theory: Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of hollow sphere
form by the insulating powder layer packed between two thin copper spheres. Let ri =
radius of inner sphere (m), ro = radius of outer sphere (m), Ti = avg. temperature of the
inner surface (C) where,
Ti = (T1+T2+T3+T4) / 4 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (1)
Similarly,
To = (T5+T6+T7+T8+T9+T10) / 6 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (2)
From the experimental value of q, Ti the unknown thermal conductivity K can be determine
as,
K = [Q x (ro ‐ ri)] / [4 x Π x ri x ro x (Ti – To)] ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (3)
Procedure:
1. Connect the equipment with electrical supply.
2. Adjust input equal to any value between 20 to 60 watt maximum by volt & ammeter.
3. Take thermocouple readings at frequent intervals till consecutive readings are same
indicating that steady state has been reached.
OBSERVATION:
1) Radius of inner sphere, ri = ___________ mm
2) Radius of outer sphere, ro = ___________ mm
3) Voltmeter reading, V = ___________ volts
4) Ammeter reading, I = ___________ ampere
5) Heater input (Q) = V x I = ___________ watts
OBSERVATION TABLE:
For Inner Sphere:
Thermocouple Mean temperature
T1 T2 T3 T4
No. Ti = (T1+T2+T3+T4) / 4
Temperature
(oC)
For Outer Sphere:
Thermocouple Mean temperature
T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10
No. To = (T5+T6+T7+T8 + T9 + T10) / 6
Temperature
( C)
o
CALCULATION:
K = [Q x (ro ri)] / [4 x π x ri x ro x (Ti – To)]
=
=
RESULT: Thermal Conductivity of the insulating powder is __________________W / moC.
CONCLUSION:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Where,
AD = area of disc D.
T = temperature of enclosure.
8. The emmisivity of the D is assume to be unity the radiant energy disc D is emitting into
enclosure will be:
Where,
TD = Temperature of disc D.
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Prepared By: Prof.Latesh Chaudhari, Asst. Prof.,F.E.T.R., Bardoli
9. Net heat input to disc D per unit time is given by equation (2) – (3),
E – E1 = σ x AD x (T4 – TD4) (4)
10. If the disc D has a mass m & Specific Heat S then a short time after Disc D is inserted in A,
In this equation (dT / dt) t = 0 denotes the rate of rise of temperature of the disc D. It is clear
measure at time t=0 before heat conducted from A to D begins to have any significant effects.
This is obtaining from plot of temperature rise of disc D with respect to time and obtaining it
slop at t=0 when temperature is TD. The temperature sensor mounted on disc is to be use for
this purpose. Note that the disc D with its sleeve is placed quickly in a position & start
recording the Temperature at fixed time interval. The whole process must be completed in 30
seconds of time.
OBSERVATION:
1. Mass of disc D, (m) = __________ Kg.
2. Specific Heat of disc materials (S) = __________ Kcal/Kg x oC
3. Diameter of disc D = __________ mm = __________ m.
4. Area of disc D, AD = (Π / 4) x D2
=
= __________ m2
5. Temperature of enclosure, (T) = __________ oC = ____________ K
6. Temperature of disc D at instant when it is inserted:
TD = __________ oC = ____________ K
RESULT:
The value of Stefan Boltzman constant σ is ________________ Kcal/m2K4.
CONCLUSION: ____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
MODULE – I
PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER
Date: 05/12/2010 By: H. S. Desai
DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
AIM: To determine log mean temperature difference (LMTD) for Horizontal double pipe
heat exchanger, vertical double pipe heat exchanger using co‐current and counter current
flow.
APPARATUS: Horizontal double pipe heat exchanger, Vertical double pipe heat exchanger,
Bare & lagged pipe apparatus, stop watch, measuring cylinder, etc.
PROCEDURE:
1) Allow the cold water to flow through pipe of exchanger and maintain the steady flow of
water.
2) Allow the steam to flow through Heat Exchanger at constant pressure.
3) Note down the inlet & outlet temperature & flow rate of water at the steady state
condition.
4) Also note down the flow rate & temperature of condensate at steady state condition.
5) Perform the experiment in co‐current and counter current flow.
OBSERVATION:
1. Inner diameter of annulus (Di) = __________ inch = __________ meter
2. Outer diameter of annulus (Do) = __________ inch = __________ meter
3. Length of pipe = __________ inch = __________ meter
OBSERVATION TABLE:
STEAM COLD WATER
Sr. Type of Inlet Outlet Flow Inlet Outlet Flow
Pressure
No. Flow Temp. Temp. Rate Temp. Temp. Rate
(Kg/cm2)
(oC) (oC) (Kg/S) (oC) (oC) (Kg/S)
FOR HORIZONTAL DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER:
1 Co current Flow
2 Counter Current
FOR VERTICA DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER:
1 Co current Flow
2 Counter Current
CALCULATION:
LOGERATHMIC MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE:
FOR HORIZONTAL DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER:
• FOR COCURRENT FLOW:
LMTD = (∆T2 ∆T1) / ln (∆T2/∆T1)
=
=
• FOR COUNTER CURRENT FLOW:
LMTD = (∆T2 ∆T1) / ln (∆T2/∆T1)
=
=
FOR VERTICAL DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER:
• FOR COCURRENT FLOW:
LMTD = (∆T2 ∆T1) / ln (∆T2/∆T1)
=
=
• FOR COUNTER CURRENT FLOW:
LMTD = (∆T2 ∆T1) / ln (∆T2/∆T1)
=
=
RESULT:
Type of Heat Exchanger Type of Flow LMTD
Co‐current Flow
Horizontal Double Pipe H.E.
Counter Current Flow
Co‐current Flow
Vertical Double Pipe H.E.
Counter Current Flow
CONCLUSION: _______________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
MODULE – I
PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER
Date: 05/12/2010 By: H. S. Desai
BARE & LAGGED PIPE
AIM: To determine heat losses through the bare and lagged pipe
APPARATUS: Measuring cylinder, stop watch, Bare & lagged pipe, thermometer, etc.
PROCEDURE:
1. Allow the steam to flow through bare pipe at constant pressure & measure the outlet
temperature of condensate & flow rate of condensate by using the measuring cylinder
& stop watch.
2. Allow the steam to flow through lagged pipe by operating the valve & after sometimes
measure the temp. & flow rate of condensate.
3. Measure the outside diameter of pipe by vernier caliper.
4. Calculate heat losses by radiation through bare & lagged pipe & compare the result.
OBSERVATION:
1. Outer diameter of bare pipe = __________ cm
2. Thickness of bare pipe = __________ cm
3. Inner diameter of bare pipe = __________ cm
4. Inlet Temperature of steam in bare & lagged pipe = __________ oC
5. Specific Heat at steam at pressure _________ Kg/cm2 = __________ J/kg. k
OBSERVATION TABLE:
BARE PIPE LAGGED PIPE
Inlet Outlet Flow Inlet Outlet Flow
Pressure Pressure
Temp. Temp. Rate Temp. Temp. Rate
(Kg / cm2) (Kg / cm2)
(oC) (oC) (LPM) (oC) (oC) (LPM)
CALCULATION:
[A] FOR BARE PIPE:
Heat loss from bare pipe :
QB = mB x Cp x ∆T
Where,
mB = Mass flow rate of condensate for bare pipe
Cp = Specific heat of steam for bare pipe
QB =
=
[B] FOR LAGGED PIPE:
Heat loss from lagged pipe:
QL = mL x CP x ∆T
Where,
mL = Mass flow rate of condensate for lagged pipe
C p = Specific heat of steam for lagged pipe
QL =
=
RESULT:
• Heat loss through Bare pipe = ____________________ J/sec.
• Heat loss through Lagged pipe = ____________________ J/sec.
CONCLUSION: _______________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Long Term Training Programme on “Industrial Chemical Technology’
Chemical Engineering Department
N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Isroli
Experiment: Mechanically Agitated Jacketed Vessel with Coil
Staff: Mr. T.C. Padhiyar, I/c Head, CHED
Objective:
To study the effect of agitation, inlet temp., Flow rate of heating medium, flow rate of cooling medium
on the heat transfer characteristics when using either jacket or coil.
Theory:
Mechanically agitated vessels, equipped with cooling coils or heating jackets are in common use
throughout the chemical process industry. Heat transfer rates agitated vessel is vertical cylinder vessel
incorporation suitable type of agitator that brings even distribution of the liquid in the vessel. Agitated
vessels are commonly employed in chemical industries for different proposes such as mixing,
dissolution, dilution, neutralization, adsorption, crystallization. To done by providing a heat transfer
surface, which may be in the form of a jacket fitted outside the vessel or a coil fitted inside the vessel
depending upon the situation.
Procedure:
1. Fill the agitated vessel with predetermined amount of liquid.
2. Note down the inlet temperature of liquid.
3. Start the supply of hot water either in a coil or jacketed by switching on the pump& by setting a
derived flow rate using the given valve.
4. Note down the change in temp.
5. Change the inlet temperature of liquid with flow rate and note down the similar sets of result.
6. Perform the scheme experiment with agitation and note down the reading.
Observation:
1) For vessel:
1. Volume of liquid in vessel: 5lit.
2. Material of construction: SS‐316
3. Inside dia. of vessel: 213 mm
4. Height of vessel: 250 mm
5. Thickness of wall: 1.5 mm
2) For Jacket:
1. Material of construction: SS‐316.
2. Inner dia. of jacket: 260mm
3. Outer dia. of jacket: 310mm
3) For Coil:
1. Material of construction: copper
2. Coil length: 915 mm
3. Inner diameter of coil: 7 mm
4. Outer diameter of coil: 9 mm
5. Outer diameter of Spiral: 130 mm
Observation Table:
(A) Without agitation:
(1) Using Jacket:
Inlet temp. of
Sr. Inlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Outlet temp. of
liquid in jacket, Flow rate
No. liquid in vessel, Tc1 liquid in vessel, Tc2 liquid in jacket, Th2
Th1
1
2
(2) Using Coil:
Inlet temp. of
Sr. Inlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Outlet temp. of
liquid in jacket, Flow rate
No. liquid in vessel, Tc1 liquid in vessel, Tc2 liquid in jacket, Th2
Th1
1
2
(B) With agitation:
(1) Using Jacket:
Inlet temp. of
Sr. Inlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Flow
liquid in jacket, RPM
No. liquid in vessel, Tc1 liquid in vessel, Tc2 liquid in jacket, Th2 rate
Th1
1
2
(2) Using Coil:
Inlet temp. of
Sr. Inlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Flow
liquid in jacket, RPM
No. liquid in vessel, Tc1 liquid in vessel, Tc2 liquid in jacket, Th2 rate
Th1
1
2
Calculation:
(A) Without agitation:
1) Using Jacket:
∆T1 = Th1 – Tc1 ∆T2 = Th2 – Tc2
= =
= ___________ =___________
LMTD ∆Tlm = (∆T2 – ∆T1)
ln ∆T2
∆T1
2) Using Coil:
∆T1 = Th1 – Tc1 ∆T2 = Th2 – Tc2
= =
= ___________ =___________
LMTD ∆Tlm = (∆T2 – ∆T1)
ln ∆T2
∆T1
(A) With agitation:
1) Using Jacket:
∆T1 = Th1 – Tc1 ∆T2 = Th2 – Tc2
= =
= ___________ =___________
LMTD ∆Tlm = (∆T2 – ∆T1)
ln ∆T2
∆T1
2) Using Coil:
∆T1 = Th1 – Tc1 ∆T2 = Th2 – Tc2
= =
= ___________ =___________
LMTD ∆Tlm = (∆T2 – ∆T1)
ln ∆T2
∆T1
Result:
• LMTD using Jacket without agitation = ______________
• LMTD using Coil without agitation = ______________
• LMTD using Jacket with agitation = ______________
• LMTD using Coil with agitation = ______________
Conclusion:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Module 1
Lecture 1
Definition of Stress
Definition of Fluid
Concept of Continum
Fluid Properties
Lecture 2
Definition of Stress
Consider a small area δA on the surface of a body (Fig. 1.1). The force acting on this area is δF
This force can be resolved into two perpendicular components
The component of force acting normal to the area called normal force and is denoted by δFn
The component of force acting along the plane of area is called tangential force and is denoted
by δFt
(1.1)
(1.2)
Definition of Fluid
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously in the face of tangential or shear stress,
irrespective of the magnitude of shear stress .This continuous deformation under the
application of shear stress constitutes a flow.
In this connection fluid can also be defined as the state of matter that cannot sustain any
shear stress.
If a shear stress τ is applied at any location in a fluid, the element 011' which is initially at rest, will move
to 022', then to 033'. Further, it moves to 044' and continues to move in a similar fashion.
Solid Fluid
Attractive Forces between the molecules Attractive Forces between the molecules
are larger therefore more closely packed are smaller therefore more loosely
packed
Solids can resist tangential stresses in
static condition Fluids cannot resist tangential stresses in
static condition.
Whenever a solid is subjected to shear
stress Whenever a fluid is subjected to shear
a. It undergoes a definite stress
deformation α or breaks
b. α is proportional to shear stress a. No fixed deformation
upto some limiting condition b. Continious deformation takes
place
Solid may regain partly or fully its until the shear stress is applied
original shape when the tangential
stress is removed A fluid can never regain its original
shape, once it has been distorded by the
shear stress
Concept of Continuum
Describing a fluid flow quantitatively makes it necessary to assume that flow variables
(pressure , velocity etc.) and fluid properties vary continuously from one point to another.
Mathematical description of flow on this basis have proved to be reliable and treatment of
fluid medium as a continuum has firmly become established. For example density at a
point is normally defined as
Fluid Properties :
Characteristics of a continuous fluid which are independent of the motion of the fluid are called basic
properties of the fluid. Some of the basic properties are as discussed below.
(1.3)
The specific weight is the weight of fluid per unit volume. The specific weight is
given
Specific by γ= ρg (1.4)
γ N/m3
Weight
Where g is the gravitational acceleration. Just as weight must be clearly
distinguished from mass, so must the specific weight be distinguished from density.
The specific volume of a fluid is the volume occupied by unit mass of fluid.
Specific Thus m3
v /kg
Volume
(1.5)
For liquids, it is the ratio of density of a liquid at actual conditions to the density of
pure water at 101 kN/m2 , and at 4°C.
Specific
Gravity
s
The specific gravity of a gas is the ratio of its density to that of either hydrogen or
air at some specified temperature or pressure. -
However, there is no general standard; so the conditions must be stated
while referring to the specific gravity of a gas.
Viscosity ( μ ) :
Viscosity is a fluid property whose effect is understood when the fluid is in motion.
In a flow of fluid, when the fluid elements move with different velocities, each element will feel
some resistance due to fluid friction within the elements.
Therefore, shear stresses can be identified between the fluid elements with different velocities.
Consider a flow (Fig. 1.5) in which all fluid particles are moving in the same direction in such a way that
the fluid layers move parallel with different velocities.
The upper layer, which is moving faster, tries to draw the lower slowly moving layer along with it
by means of a force F along the direction of flow on this layer. Similarly, the lower layer tries to
retard the upper one, according to Newton's third law, with an equal and opposite force F on it
(Figure 1.6).
Such a fluid flow where x-direction velocities, for example, change with y-coordinate is called
shear flow of the fluid.
Thus, the dragging effect of one layer on the other is experienced by a tangential force F on the
respective layers. If F acts over an area of contact A, then the shear stress τ is defined as
τ = F/A
Viscosity ( μ ) :
Newton postulated that τ is proportional to the quantity Δu/ Δy where Δy is the distance of
separation of the two layers and Δu is the difference in their velocities.
In the limiting case of , Δu / Δy equals du/dy, the velocity gradient at a point in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the layer.
(1.7)
defining the viscosity of a fluid, is known as Newton's law of viscosity. Common fluids, viz. water, air,
mercury obey Newton's law of viscosity and are known as Newtonian fluids.
Other classes of fluids, viz. paints, different polymer solution, blood do not obey the typical linear
relationship, of τ and du/dy and are known as non-Newtonian fluids. In non-newtonian fluids viscosity
itself may be a function of deformation rate as you will study in the next lecture.
Causes of Viscosity
Due to strong cohesive forces between the molecules, any layer in a moving fluid tries to drag the
adjacent layer to move with an equal speed and thus produces the effect of viscosity as
discussed earlier. Since cohesion decreases with temperature, the liquid viscosity does likewise.
moving layers
Molecules from layer aa in course of continous thermal agitation migrate into layer bb
Momentum from the migrant molecules from layer aa is stored by molecules of layer bb by way of
collision
Every such migration of molecules causes forces of acceleration or deceleration to drag the
layers so as to oppose the differences in velocity between the layers and produce the effect of
viscosity.
As the random molecular motion increases with a rise in temperature, the viscosity also increases
accordingly. Except for very special cases (e.g., at very high pressure) the viscosity of both
liquids and gases ceases to be a function of pressure.
For Newtonian fluids, the coefficient of viscosity depends strongly on temperature but varies very
little with pressure.
For liquids, molecular motion is less significant than the forces of cohesion, thus viscosity of
liquids decrease with increase in temperature.
For gases,molecular motion is more significant than the cohesive forces, thus viscosity of gases
increase with increase in temperature.
It has been established through experimental observations that the relative velocity between the
solid surface and the adjacent fluid particles is zero whenever a viscous fluid flows over a solid
surface. This is known as no-slip condition.
The wetting property results from surface tension, whereas the no-slip condition is a
consequence of fluid viscosity.
Ideal Fluid
Consider a hypothetical fluid having a zero viscosity ( μ = 0). Such a fluid is called an ideal fluid
and the resulting motion is called as ideal or inviscid flow. In an ideal flow, there is no
existence of shear force because of vanishing viscosity.
All the fluids in reality have viscosity (μ > 0) and hence they are termed as real fluid and their
motion is known as viscous flow.
Under certain situations of very high velocity flow of viscous fluids, an accurate analysis of flow
field away from a solid surface can be made from the ideal flow theory.
Non-Newtonian Fluids
There are certain fluids where the linear relationship between the shear stress and the
deformation rate (velocity gradient in parallel flow) as expressed by the is not valid.
For these fluids the viscosity varies with rate of deformation.
Due to the deviation from Newton's law of viscosity they are commonly termed as non-
Newtonian fluids. Figure 2.1 shows the class of fluid for which this relationship is nonlinear.
Figure 2.1 Shear stress and deformation rate relationship of different fluids
The abscissa in Fig. 2.1 represents the behaviour of ideal fluids since for the ideal fluids the
resistance to shearing deformation rate is always zero, and hence they exhibit zero shear stress
under any condition of flow.
The ordinate represents the ideal solid for there is no deformation rate under any loading
condition.
The Newtonian fluids behave according to the law that shear stress is linearly proportional to
velocity gradient or rate of shear strain . Thus for these fluids, the plot of shear
stress against velocity gradient is a straight line through the origin. The slope of the line
determines the viscosity.
Many mathematical models are available to describe the nonlinear "shear-stress vs deformation-
rate" relationship of non Newtonian fluids. But no general model can describe the constitutive
equation ("shear stress vs rate of deformation" relationship) of all kinds of non-Newtonian fluids.
However, the mathematical model for describing the mechanistic behaviour of a variety of
commonly used non-Newtonian fluids is the Power-Law model which is also known as
Ostwald-de Waele model (the name is after the scientist who proposed it). According to
Ostwald-de Waele model
(2.1)
where m is known as the flow consistency index and n is the flow behavior index.
When n = 1, m equals , the model identically satisfies Newtonian model as a special case.
When n < 1, the model is valid for pseudoplastic fluids, such as gelatine, blood, milk etc.
When n > 1, the model is valid for dilatant fluids, such as sugar in water, aqueous suspension of rice
starch etc.
There are some substances which require a yield stress for the deformation rate (i.e. the flow) to
be established, and hence their constitutive equations do not pass through the origin thus
violating the basic definition of a fluid. They are termed as Bingham plastic. For an ideal
Bingham plastic, the shear stress- deformation rate relationship is linear.
Compressibility
Compressibility of any substance is the measure of its change in volume under the action of
external forces.
The normal compressive stress on any fluid element at rest is known as hydrostatic pressure p
and arises as a result of innumerable molecular collisions in the entire fluid.
(2.3)
Where Δ and Δp are the changes in the volume and pressure respectively, and is the initial
volume. The negative sign (-sign) is included to make E positive, since increase in pressure
would decrease the volume i.e for Δp>0 , Δ <0) in volume.
For a given mass of a substance, the change in its volume and density satisfies the relation
(2.4)
using
we get
(2.5)
Values of E for liquids are very high as compared with those of gases (except at very high
pressures). Therefore, liquids are usually termed as incompressible fluids though, in fact, no
substance is theoretically incompressible with a value of E as .
For example, the bulk modulus of elasticity for water and air at atmospheric pressure are
approximately 2 x 106 kN/m 2 and 101 kN/m 2 respectively. It indicates that air is about 20,000
times more compressible than water. Hence water can be treated as incompressible.
(2.6)
p = ρRT (2.7)
where T is the temperature in absolute thermodynamic or gas temperature scale (which are, in
fact, identical), and R is known as the characteristic gas constant, the value of which depends
In order to know, if it is necessary to take into account the compressibility of gases in fluid flow
problems, we need to consider whether the change in pressure brought about by the fluid motion
causes large change in volume or density.
p + (1/2)ρV2= constant (V being the velocity of flow), change in pressure, Δp, in a flow field, is of
the order of (1/2)ρV2 (dynamic head).
Invoking this relationship into
we get ,
(2.12)
So if Δρ/ρ is very small, the flow of gases can be treated as incompressible with a good
degree of approximation.
For compressible fluid, if the flow velocity is small as compared to the local acoustic velocity,
compressibility of gases can be neglected. Considering a maximum relative change in density
of 5 per cent as the criterion of an incompressible flow, the upper limit of Mach number
becomes approximately 0.33. In the case of air at standard pressure and temperature, the
acoustic velocity is about 335.28 m/s. Hence a Mach number of 0.33 corresponds to a velocity of
about 110 m/s. Therefore flow of air up to a velocity of 110 m/s under standard condition can be
considered as incompressible flow.
The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the two kinds of intermolecular forces
(i) Cohesion : The force of attraction between the molecules of a liquid by virtue of which they are
bound to each other to remain as one assemblage of particles is known as the force of cohesion.
This property enables the liquid to resist tensile stress.
(ii) Adhesion : The force of attraction between unlike molecules, i.e. between the molecules of
different liquids or between the molecules of a liquid and those of a solid body when they are in
contact with each other, is known as the force of adhesion. This force enables two different
liquids to adhere to each other or a liquid to adhere to a solid body or surface.
The magnitude of surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting across imaginary short
and straight elemental line divided by the length of the line.
Surface tension is a binary property of the liquid and gas or two liquids which are in contact with
each other and defines the interface. It decreases slightly with increasing temperature. The
surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is about 0.073 N/m.
It is due to surface tension that a curved liquid interface in equilibrium results in a greater
pressure at the concave side of the surface than that at its convex side.
Capillarity
The interplay of the forces of cohesion and adhesion explains the phenomenon of capillarity.
When a liquid is in contact with a solid, if the forces of adhesion between the molecules of the
liquid and the solid are greater than the forces of cohesion among the liquid molecules
themselves, the liquid molecules crowd towards the solid surface. The area of contact between
the liquid and solid increases and the liquid thus wets the solid surface.
The reverse phenomenon takes place when the force of cohesion is greater than the force of
adhesion. These adhesion and cohesion properties result in the phenomenon of capillarity by
which a liquid either rises or falls in a tube dipped into the liquid depending upon whether the
force of adhesion is more than that of cohesion or not (Fig.2.4).
The angle θ as shown in Fig. 2.4, is the area wetting contact angle made by the interface with the
solid surface.
For pure water in contact with air in a clean glass tube, the capillary rise takes place with θ = 0 .
Mercury causes capillary depression with an angle of contact of about 1300 in a clean glass in
contact with air. Since h varies inversely with D as found from Eq. ( ), an
appreciable capillary rise or depression is observed in tubes of small diameter only.
Vapour pressure
All liquids have a tendency to evaporate when exposed to a gaseous atmosphere. The rate of
evaporation depends upon the molecular energy of the liquid which in turn depends upon the type
of liquid and its temperature. The vapour molecules exert a partial pressure in the space above
the liquid, known as vapour pressure. If the space above the liquid is confined (Fig. 2.5) and the
liquid is maintained at constant temperature, after sufficient time, the confined space above the
liquid will contain vapour molecules to the extent that some of them will be forced to enter the
liquid. Eventually an equilibrium condition will evolve when the rate at which the number of vapour
molecules striking back the liquid surface and condensing is just equal to the rate at which they
leave from the surface. The space above the liquid then becomes saturated with vapour. The
vapour pressure of a given liquid is a function of temperature only and is equal to the saturation
pressure for boiling corresponding to that temperature. Hence, the vapour pressure increases
with the increase in temperature. Therefore the phenomenon of boiling of a liquid is closely
related to the vapour pressure. In fact, when the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the
total pressure impressed on its surface, the liquid starts boiling. This concludes that boiling can
be achieved either by raising the temperature of the liquid, so that its vapour pressure is
elevated to the ambient pressure, or by lowering the pressure of the ambience (surrounding gas)
to the liquid's vapour pressure at the existing temperature.
where, h = depth of flow, α = angle of inclination of the channel to the horizontal, u = velocity at a
depth h below the free surface, ρ = density of liquid, μ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Calculate
the shear stress: (a) at the bottom of the channel (b) at mid-depth and (c) at the free surface. The
coordinate y is measured from the free surface along its normal
2. Two discs of 250 mm diameter are placed 1.5 mm apart and the gap is filled with an oil. A
power of 500 W is required to rotate the upper disc at 500 rpm while keeping the lower one
stationary. Determine the viscosity of the oil.
[ 0. 71 kg/ms]
[ 5.95]
Recap
In this chapter you have learnt the following
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to even an infinitesimal
shear stress. Solids can resist tangential stress at static conditions undergoing a definite
deformation while a fluid can do it only at dynamic conditions undergoing a continuous
deformation as long as the shear stress is applied.
The concept of continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter
Viscosity is a property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to flow. The shear
stress at a point in a moving fluid is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. For a
The relationship between the shear stress and the rate of shear strain is known as the
constitutive equation. The fluids whose constitutive equations are not linear through
origin (do not obey the Newton's law of viscosity) are known as non-Newtonian fluids.
For a Newtonian fluid, viscosity is a function of temperature only. With an increase in
temperature, the viscosity of a liquid decreases, while that of a gas increases. For non-
Newtonian fluid, the viscosity depends not only on temperature but also on the
deformation rate of the fluid. Kinematic viscosity v is defined as .
A flow is said to be incompressible when the change in its density due to the change in
pressure brought about by the fluid motion is negligibly small. When the flow velocity is
equal to or less than 0.33 times of the local acoustic speed, the relative change in
density of the fluid, due to flow, becomes equal to or less than 5 per cent respectively,
and hence the flow is considered to be incompressible
The force of attraction between the molecules of a fluid is known as cohesion, while that
between the molecules of a fluid and of a solid is known as adhesion. The interplay of
these two intermolecular forces explains the phenomena of surface tension and capillary
rise or depression. A free surface of the liquid is always under stretched condition
implying the existence of a tensile force on the surface. The magnitude of this force per
unit length of an imaginary line drawn along the liquid surface is known as the surface
tension coefficient or simply the surface tension.
Module 1
Lecture 1
Definition of Stress
Definition of Fluid
Concept of Continum
Fluid Properties
Lecture 2
Definition of Stress
Consider a small area δA on the surface of a body (Fig. 1.1). The force acting on this area is δF
This force can be resolved into two perpendicular components
The component of force acting normal to the area called normal force and is denoted by δFn
The component of force acting along the plane of area is called tangential force and is denoted
by δFt
(1.1)
(1.2)
Definition of Fluid
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously in the face of tangential or shear stress,
irrespective of the magnitude of shear stress .This continuous deformation under the
application of shear stress constitutes a flow.
In this connection fluid can also be defined as the state of matter that cannot sustain any
shear stress.
If a shear stress τ is applied at any location in a fluid, the element 011' which is initially at rest, will move
to 022', then to 033'. Further, it moves to 044' and continues to move in a similar fashion.
Solid Fluid
Attractive Forces between the molecules Attractive Forces between the molecules
are larger therefore more closely packed are smaller therefore more loosely
packed
Solids can resist tangential stresses in
static condition Fluids cannot resist tangential stresses in
static condition.
Whenever a solid is subjected to shear
stress Whenever a fluid is subjected to shear
a. It undergoes a definite stress
deformation α or breaks
b. α is proportional to shear stress a. No fixed deformation
upto some limiting condition b. Continious deformation takes
place
Solid may regain partly or fully its until the shear stress is applied
original shape when the tangential
stress is removed A fluid can never regain its original
shape, once it has been distorded by the
shear stress
Concept of Continuum
Describing a fluid flow quantitatively makes it necessary to assume that flow variables
(pressure , velocity etc.) and fluid properties vary continuously from one point to another.
Mathematical description of flow on this basis have proved to be reliable and treatment of
fluid medium as a continuum has firmly become established. For example density at a
point is normally defined as
Fluid Properties :
Characteristics of a continuous fluid which are independent of the motion of the fluid are called basic
properties of the fluid. Some of the basic properties are as discussed below.
(1.3)
The specific weight is the weight of fluid per unit volume. The specific weight is
given
Specific by γ= ρg (1.4)
γ N/m3
Weight
Where g is the gravitational acceleration. Just as weight must be clearly
distinguished from mass, so must the specific weight be distinguished from density.
The specific volume of a fluid is the volume occupied by unit mass of fluid.
Specific Thus m3
v /kg
Volume
(1.5)
For liquids, it is the ratio of density of a liquid at actual conditions to the density of
pure water at 101 kN/m2 , and at 4°C.
Specific
Gravity
s
The specific gravity of a gas is the ratio of its density to that of either hydrogen or
air at some specified temperature or pressure. -
However, there is no general standard; so the conditions must be stated
while referring to the specific gravity of a gas.
Viscosity ( μ ) :
Viscosity is a fluid property whose effect is understood when the fluid is in motion.
In a flow of fluid, when the fluid elements move with different velocities, each element will feel
some resistance due to fluid friction within the elements.
Therefore, shear stresses can be identified between the fluid elements with different velocities.
Consider a flow (Fig. 1.5) in which all fluid particles are moving in the same direction in such a way that
the fluid layers move parallel with different velocities.
The upper layer, which is moving faster, tries to draw the lower slowly moving layer along with it
by means of a force F along the direction of flow on this layer. Similarly, the lower layer tries to
retard the upper one, according to Newton's third law, with an equal and opposite force F on it
(Figure 1.6).
Such a fluid flow where x-direction velocities, for example, change with y-coordinate is called
shear flow of the fluid.
Thus, the dragging effect of one layer on the other is experienced by a tangential force F on the
respective layers. If F acts over an area of contact A, then the shear stress τ is defined as
τ = F/A
Viscosity ( μ ) :
Newton postulated that τ is proportional to the quantity Δu/ Δy where Δy is the distance of
separation of the two layers and Δu is the difference in their velocities.
In the limiting case of , Δu / Δy equals du/dy, the velocity gradient at a point in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the layer.
(1.7)
defining the viscosity of a fluid, is known as Newton's law of viscosity. Common fluids, viz. water, air,
mercury obey Newton's law of viscosity and are known as Newtonian fluids.
Other classes of fluids, viz. paints, different polymer solution, blood do not obey the typical linear
relationship, of τ and du/dy and are known as non-Newtonian fluids. In non-newtonian fluids viscosity
itself may be a function of deformation rate as you will study in the next lecture.
Causes of Viscosity
Due to strong cohesive forces between the molecules, any layer in a moving fluid tries to drag the
adjacent layer to move with an equal speed and thus produces the effect of viscosity as
discussed earlier. Since cohesion decreases with temperature, the liquid viscosity does likewise.
moving layers
Molecules from layer aa in course of continous thermal agitation migrate into layer bb
Momentum from the migrant molecules from layer aa is stored by molecules of layer bb by way of
collision
Every such migration of molecules causes forces of acceleration or deceleration to drag the
layers so as to oppose the differences in velocity between the layers and produce the effect of
viscosity.
As the random molecular motion increases with a rise in temperature, the viscosity also increases
accordingly. Except for very special cases (e.g., at very high pressure) the viscosity of both
liquids and gases ceases to be a function of pressure.
For Newtonian fluids, the coefficient of viscosity depends strongly on temperature but varies very
little with pressure.
For liquids, molecular motion is less significant than the forces of cohesion, thus viscosity of
liquids decrease with increase in temperature.
For gases,molecular motion is more significant than the cohesive forces, thus viscosity of gases
increase with increase in temperature.
It has been established through experimental observations that the relative velocity between the
solid surface and the adjacent fluid particles is zero whenever a viscous fluid flows over a solid
surface. This is known as no-slip condition.
The wetting property results from surface tension, whereas the no-slip condition is a
consequence of fluid viscosity.
Ideal Fluid
Consider a hypothetical fluid having a zero viscosity ( μ = 0). Such a fluid is called an ideal fluid
and the resulting motion is called as ideal or inviscid flow. In an ideal flow, there is no
existence of shear force because of vanishing viscosity.
All the fluids in reality have viscosity (μ > 0) and hence they are termed as real fluid and their
motion is known as viscous flow.
Under certain situations of very high velocity flow of viscous fluids, an accurate analysis of flow
field away from a solid surface can be made from the ideal flow theory.
Non-Newtonian Fluids
There are certain fluids where the linear relationship between the shear stress and the
deformation rate (velocity gradient in parallel flow) as expressed by the is not valid.
For these fluids the viscosity varies with rate of deformation.
Due to the deviation from Newton's law of viscosity they are commonly termed as non-
Newtonian fluids. Figure 2.1 shows the class of fluid for which this relationship is nonlinear.
Figure 2.1 Shear stress and deformation rate relationship of different fluids
The abscissa in Fig. 2.1 represents the behaviour of ideal fluids since for the ideal fluids the
resistance to shearing deformation rate is always zero, and hence they exhibit zero shear stress
under any condition of flow.
The ordinate represents the ideal solid for there is no deformation rate under any loading
condition.
The Newtonian fluids behave according to the law that shear stress is linearly proportional to
velocity gradient or rate of shear strain . Thus for these fluids, the plot of shear
stress against velocity gradient is a straight line through the origin. The slope of the line
determines the viscosity.
Many mathematical models are available to describe the nonlinear "shear-stress vs deformation-
rate" relationship of non Newtonian fluids. But no general model can describe the constitutive
equation ("shear stress vs rate of deformation" relationship) of all kinds of non-Newtonian fluids.
However, the mathematical model for describing the mechanistic behaviour of a variety of
commonly used non-Newtonian fluids is the Power-Law model which is also known as
Ostwald-de Waele model (the name is after the scientist who proposed it). According to
Ostwald-de Waele model
(2.1)
where m is known as the flow consistency index and n is the flow behavior index.
When n = 1, m equals , the model identically satisfies Newtonian model as a special case.
When n < 1, the model is valid for pseudoplastic fluids, such as gelatine, blood, milk etc.
When n > 1, the model is valid for dilatant fluids, such as sugar in water, aqueous suspension of rice
starch etc.
There are some substances which require a yield stress for the deformation rate (i.e. the flow) to
be established, and hence their constitutive equations do not pass through the origin thus
violating the basic definition of a fluid. They are termed as Bingham plastic. For an ideal
Bingham plastic, the shear stress- deformation rate relationship is linear.
Compressibility
Compressibility of any substance is the measure of its change in volume under the action of
external forces.
The normal compressive stress on any fluid element at rest is known as hydrostatic pressure p
and arises as a result of innumerable molecular collisions in the entire fluid.
(2.3)
Where Δ and Δp are the changes in the volume and pressure respectively, and is the initial
volume. The negative sign (-sign) is included to make E positive, since increase in pressure
would decrease the volume i.e for Δp>0 , Δ <0) in volume.
For a given mass of a substance, the change in its volume and density satisfies the relation
(2.4)
using
we get
(2.5)
Values of E for liquids are very high as compared with those of gases (except at very high
pressures). Therefore, liquids are usually termed as incompressible fluids though, in fact, no
substance is theoretically incompressible with a value of E as .
For example, the bulk modulus of elasticity for water and air at atmospheric pressure are
approximately 2 x 106 kN/m 2 and 101 kN/m 2 respectively. It indicates that air is about 20,000
times more compressible than water. Hence water can be treated as incompressible.
(2.6)
p = ρRT (2.7)
where T is the temperature in absolute thermodynamic or gas temperature scale (which are, in
fact, identical), and R is known as the characteristic gas constant, the value of which depends
In order to know, if it is necessary to take into account the compressibility of gases in fluid flow
problems, we need to consider whether the change in pressure brought about by the fluid motion
causes large change in volume or density.
p + (1/2)ρV2= constant (V being the velocity of flow), change in pressure, Δp, in a flow field, is of
the order of (1/2)ρV2 (dynamic head).
Invoking this relationship into
we get ,
(2.12)
So if Δρ/ρ is very small, the flow of gases can be treated as incompressible with a good
degree of approximation.
For compressible fluid, if the flow velocity is small as compared to the local acoustic velocity,
compressibility of gases can be neglected. Considering a maximum relative change in density
of 5 per cent as the criterion of an incompressible flow, the upper limit of Mach number
becomes approximately 0.33. In the case of air at standard pressure and temperature, the
acoustic velocity is about 335.28 m/s. Hence a Mach number of 0.33 corresponds to a velocity of
about 110 m/s. Therefore flow of air up to a velocity of 110 m/s under standard condition can be
considered as incompressible flow.
The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the two kinds of intermolecular forces
(i) Cohesion : The force of attraction between the molecules of a liquid by virtue of which they are
bound to each other to remain as one assemblage of particles is known as the force of cohesion.
This property enables the liquid to resist tensile stress.
(ii) Adhesion : The force of attraction between unlike molecules, i.e. between the molecules of
different liquids or between the molecules of a liquid and those of a solid body when they are in
contact with each other, is known as the force of adhesion. This force enables two different
liquids to adhere to each other or a liquid to adhere to a solid body or surface.
The magnitude of surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting across imaginary short
and straight elemental line divided by the length of the line.
Surface tension is a binary property of the liquid and gas or two liquids which are in contact with
each other and defines the interface. It decreases slightly with increasing temperature. The
surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is about 0.073 N/m.
It is due to surface tension that a curved liquid interface in equilibrium results in a greater
pressure at the concave side of the surface than that at its convex side.
Capillarity
The interplay of the forces of cohesion and adhesion explains the phenomenon of capillarity.
When a liquid is in contact with a solid, if the forces of adhesion between the molecules of the
liquid and the solid are greater than the forces of cohesion among the liquid molecules
themselves, the liquid molecules crowd towards the solid surface. The area of contact between
the liquid and solid increases and the liquid thus wets the solid surface.
The reverse phenomenon takes place when the force of cohesion is greater than the force of
adhesion. These adhesion and cohesion properties result in the phenomenon of capillarity by
which a liquid either rises or falls in a tube dipped into the liquid depending upon whether the
force of adhesion is more than that of cohesion or not (Fig.2.4).
The angle θ as shown in Fig. 2.4, is the area wetting contact angle made by the interface with the
solid surface.
For pure water in contact with air in a clean glass tube, the capillary rise takes place with θ = 0 .
Mercury causes capillary depression with an angle of contact of about 1300 in a clean glass in
contact with air. Since h varies inversely with D as found from Eq. ( ), an
appreciable capillary rise or depression is observed in tubes of small diameter only.
Vapour pressure
All liquids have a tendency to evaporate when exposed to a gaseous atmosphere. The rate of
evaporation depends upon the molecular energy of the liquid which in turn depends upon the type
of liquid and its temperature. The vapour molecules exert a partial pressure in the space above
the liquid, known as vapour pressure. If the space above the liquid is confined (Fig. 2.5) and the
liquid is maintained at constant temperature, after sufficient time, the confined space above the
liquid will contain vapour molecules to the extent that some of them will be forced to enter the
liquid. Eventually an equilibrium condition will evolve when the rate at which the number of vapour
molecules striking back the liquid surface and condensing is just equal to the rate at which they
leave from the surface. The space above the liquid then becomes saturated with vapour. The
vapour pressure of a given liquid is a function of temperature only and is equal to the saturation
pressure for boiling corresponding to that temperature. Hence, the vapour pressure increases
with the increase in temperature. Therefore the phenomenon of boiling of a liquid is closely
related to the vapour pressure. In fact, when the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the
total pressure impressed on its surface, the liquid starts boiling. This concludes that boiling can
be achieved either by raising the temperature of the liquid, so that its vapour pressure is
elevated to the ambient pressure, or by lowering the pressure of the ambience (surrounding gas)
to the liquid's vapour pressure at the existing temperature.
where, h = depth of flow, α = angle of inclination of the channel to the horizontal, u = velocity at a
depth h below the free surface, ρ = density of liquid, μ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Calculate
the shear stress: (a) at the bottom of the channel (b) at mid-depth and (c) at the free surface. The
coordinate y is measured from the free surface along its normal
2. Two discs of 250 mm diameter are placed 1.5 mm apart and the gap is filled with an oil. A
power of 500 W is required to rotate the upper disc at 500 rpm while keeping the lower one
stationary. Determine the viscosity of the oil.
[ 0. 71 kg/ms]
[ 5.95]
Recap
In this chapter you have learnt the following
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to even an infinitesimal
shear stress. Solids can resist tangential stress at static conditions undergoing a definite
deformation while a fluid can do it only at dynamic conditions undergoing a continuous
deformation as long as the shear stress is applied.
The concept of continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter
Viscosity is a property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to flow. The shear
stress at a point in a moving fluid is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. For a
The relationship between the shear stress and the rate of shear strain is known as the
constitutive equation. The fluids whose constitutive equations are not linear through
origin (do not obey the Newton's law of viscosity) are known as non-Newtonian fluids.
For a Newtonian fluid, viscosity is a function of temperature only. With an increase in
temperature, the viscosity of a liquid decreases, while that of a gas increases. For non-
Newtonian fluid, the viscosity depends not only on temperature but also on the
deformation rate of the fluid. Kinematic viscosity v is defined as .
A flow is said to be incompressible when the change in its density due to the change in
pressure brought about by the fluid motion is negligibly small. When the flow velocity is
equal to or less than 0.33 times of the local acoustic speed, the relative change in
density of the fluid, due to flow, becomes equal to or less than 5 per cent respectively,
and hence the flow is considered to be incompressible
The force of attraction between the molecules of a fluid is known as cohesion, while that
between the molecules of a fluid and of a solid is known as adhesion. The interplay of
these two intermolecular forces explains the phenomena of surface tension and capillary
rise or depression. A free surface of the liquid is always under stretched condition
implying the existence of a tensile force on the surface. The magnitude of this force per
unit length of an imaginary line drawn along the liquid surface is known as the surface
tension coefficient or simply the surface tension.
FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 2: Fluid Statics
Objectives
2.1 Pressure
2 2 Ab
2.2 Absolute
l t and dGGauge PPressure
2.3 Variation of Pressure with Elevation
2.3.1 Pressure and Head
2.3.2 Equality of pressure at the same level in static fluid
2.3.3 Pascal’s Paradox
2.4 Pressure Measurement
2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surface
2.6 Hydrostatic
y Buoyant
y Force
Summary
Introduction
• Fluid static is the study of pressures throughout a fluid at
rest and the pressure forces on finite surface.
• The general rule applies to fluid at rest:
1. No shears stress /force acting on it.
2. Any force between the fluid and the boundary must be acting at
right angles to the boundary (normal to the surface).
F F
Objectives
1. Define the relationship between absolute pressure, gauge
pressure and atmospheric pressure.
2. Define the relationship between change in elevation and
change in pressure.
3. Describe pressure measurements.
4. Compute the hydrostatic pressures and forces on
submerged surfaces on static fluid.
5. Use the principle of static equilibrium to solve for the
forces involves in buoyancy problems.
6. Define the condition for stability of submerged and
floating bodies.
2.1 Pressure
The basic property of a static fluid is pressure.
Pressure is defined as the amount of surface force exerted
by a fluid on any boundary it is in contact with. It can be
written as:
Force
Pr essure =
Area of which the force is applied
F
P= (2.1)
A
Faculty
ArchofDam
Engineering and
Technical Studies Dams
Gravity Dam
Hydrostatic forc
Turbine
Energy conversion Hydrostatic uplift
Bernoulli equation
Tank area A
Fluid surfaces
10
11
Atmospheric pressure
• refers to the prevailing pressure in the air around us.
us
• It varies somewhat with changing weather conditions, and it
decreases with increasing altitude.
• At sea level, average atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa
(abs), 14.7 psi (abs), or 1 atmosphere (1 bar = 1x105 Pa).
• This is commonly referred to as ‘standard atmospheric
pressure’.
pressure
13
14
Example 2.1
Express a pressure of 155 kPa (gauge) as an absolute
pressure.
Express a pressure of –31 kPa (gauge) as an absolute
pressure.
The local atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa (abs).
Solution:
Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
Pabs = 155 + 101 = 256 kPa
Pabs = -31 + 101 = 70 kPa
15
P2, A
Area, A
Z1
P1, A
Reference/datum
(↑)∑F=0
P1A – P2A - ρgA(Z2-Z1) = 0
P1 – P2 = ρg (Z2-Z1) = ρgh (2.3)
or P2 – P1 = - ρg(Z2-Z1) = - ρgh (2.3a)
17
ya h
P1
y
From the above equations, it can be concluded that the change in pressure
is directly proportional to the specific weight of the liquid, and pressure
varies linearly with the change of elevation or depth.
The linear variation with depth below the free surface is known as
hydrostatic pressure distribution.
Hydrostatic pressure increases with the depth of fluid. Notice that in
Figure 2.5 below, the reading on the pressure gauge of tank A is lower
than the reading of tank B. The gauges show the pressure created by the
depth and specific weight of the liquid.
Tank A Tank B
liquid
liquid
Figure 2.6:
Different pressure
due to different depth
PA < PB
19
20
Figure 2.8:
Two tanks of different
cross-section connected
by a pipe
Figure 2.9:
h h
Illustration of
Pascal’s Paradox
Pressure is the same at the bottom of container: P=ρgh
25
Example 2.2
What will be the gauge pressure and absolute pressure of
water at a depth 12m below the surface? Take ρwater = 1000
kg/m3 and Patm = 101 kN/m2
Solution:
Pgauge = ρgh
= 1000 x 9.81 x 12
= 117.7 kN/m2 (kPa)
Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
= (117.7 + 101) kN/m2
= 218.7
218 7 kN/m
kN/ 2
26
Example 2.3
A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 200 kN/m2.
Express this pressure in terms of
head of water (ρ =1000
1000 kg/m3)
head of mercury (SG=13.6)
What would be the absolute pressure if the atmospheric
pressure is, Patm = 101.3 kN/m2.
Solution:
h= P/ρg
a) for water: h = 200x103/(1000x9.81)
= 20.39 m of water.
b) for mercury h = 200x103/(13.6x1000x9.81)
= 1.5 m of mercury
Absolute pressure = Patm + Pgauge
= 101.3 + 200 = 301.3 kN/m2.
27
Example 2.4
Figure below shows a tank with one side open to the
atmosphere and the other side sealed with air above the oil
(SG=0.90). Calculate the gauge pressure at points A,B,C,D,E.
1m A
3m
Oil (SG = 0.90)
B D
2m
C
28
Solution:
At point A, the oil is exposed to the atmosphere
thus PA=Patm = 0 (gauge)
Point B is 3 m below point A,
Thus PB = PA + ρoilgh
= 0 + 0.9x1000x9.81x3
= 26.5 kPa (gauge)
Point C is 5 m below point A,
Thus PC = PA + ρoilgh
= 0 + 0.9x1000x9.81x5
= 44.15 kPa (gauge)
Point D is at the same level of point B,
thus PD = PB
= 26.5 kPa (gauge)
Point E is higher by 1 m from point A,
Thus PE = PA - ρoilgh
= 0 - 0.9x1000x9.81x1
= -8.83 kPa (gauge).
29
Patm = ρgh.
30
Piezometer tube
A simple vertical tube open at the top, which is attached to
the system containing the liquid where the pressure (higher
p
than atmospheric pressure)) to be measured.
p
As the tube is open to the atmosphere, the pressure
measured is the gauge pressure.
U-tube Manometer
One end of the U-tube is connected to the pressure that is to be
measured, while the other end is left open to atmosphere.
The tube contains a liquid, which is called the manometric fluid,
which does not mix with the fluid whose pressure is to be
measured.
The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a lesser
density than the manometric fluid. (ρ < ρman )
Pa
PA Figure 2.12:
U-tube manometer
h2
h1
Fluid density, ρ B C
Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,
Pressure at B = Pressure at C
P B = Pc (1)
For the left hand arm:
Pressure at B = Pressure at A + pressure due to h1
PB = PA + ρgh1 (2)
For right hand arm:
Pressure at C = Pressure at D + pressure due to height h2
PC = PD + ρmangh2
but PD = Patm (atmospheric pressure due to open end)
As we are measuring gauge pressure, Patm = 0
PC= ρmangh2 (3)
But PC = PB, substitute in (3); will give;
PB = ρmangh2 (4)
Equating (2) and (4);
PA + ρgh1= ρmangh2
PA = ρmangh2 - ρgh1 (2.9)
33
Differential Manometer
In some cases, the different
between the pressures at two
different points is desired rather
than the actual value of the
pressure at each point.
A manometer to determine this
pressure difference is called the
differential manometer (see figure
below).
The liquids in manometer will rise
or fall as the pressure at either end
(or both ends) of the tube changes.
Figure 2.13:
Differential manometer
34
35
Pressure Gauges
The pressure to be measured is
applied to a curved tube, oval in cross
section.
Pressure applied to the tube tends to
cause the tube to straighten out, and
the deflection of the end of the tube
is communicated through a system of
levers to a recording needle.
This gauge is widely used for steam
and compressed gases.
The pressure indicated is the Figure 2.16:
Bourdon tube
difference between that pressure gauges
communicated by the system to the
external (ambient) pressure, and is
usually referred to as the gauge
pressure.
36
Example 2.5
What height would a barometer need to be to measure
atmospheric pressure?
Solution:
1x10 5
Mercury barometer: P
h = atm =
ρ Hg g 13.6 x1000 x9.81
= 0.75 m of mercury
37
Example 2.6
Determine the pressure at point A in the figure below if
h1 = 0.
0.2 m a d h2 = 0.3 m.. Use ρwater = 1000
and 000 kg/m
g 3.
Solution:
P2 = P1 + ρHggh2
But P1 = Patm (open to atmosphere) ==>P1 = 0 (gauge)
∴ P2 = ρHggh2
P3 = PA + ρwaterg(h1+h2)
We know that P2 = P3 (same horizontal level)
Thus Points to be selected:
38
39
The pressure at
any point on the
shape
P = P0 + ρ gh
h
= P0 + ρ gysinθ
40
FR = ∫ PdA
= ∫ ( P0 + ρgysinθ )dA
= P0 A + ρgsinθ ∫ ydA
41
1
yC =
A ∫ ydA or y C A = ∫ ydA
42
43
44
= P0 ∫ ydA + ρ gsinθ ∫ y 2 dA
= P0 y C A + ρ gsinθ I XX,0
Where is the second
= (area ∫
2
moment Iof area
XX,0 y dA moment of
inertia).
45
b hh
G G
G G
Triangle
Gh hG bh/2 bh3/36
GG h/3
h/3
b
b
Circle
πd2/4 πd4/64
dd
GG
GG
47
The area of this triangle (RST) represents the resultant force per unit width on the
vertical wall. So;
Area of pressure diagram = Therefore, the resultant force per unit width,
1
Fw = ρ gH 2 (N / m ) (2.17)
2
This
h force
f acts through
h h the
h centroid d off the
h pressure diagram.
d For a triangle,
l theh
centroid is located at 2/3 its height, thus the resultant force acts at a depth of 2/3 H
from R.
The total resultant force can be obtained by multiplying the above equation with the
width of the surface, B.
F = ½ pgH2B (2.17a)
The same pressure diagram technique can be used when combinations of liquid are
held in tanks (e.g. oil floating on water).
48
Example 2.7
A66-m
m deep tank contains 4 m of water and 2
2-m
m of oil as
shown in the diagram below. Determine the pressure at
point A and at the bottom of the tank. Draw the pressure
diagram.
oil 2m
A ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
SG of oil = 0.98
0 98
water 4m
49
Solution:
Pressure at oil water interface (PA)
PA = Patm + Poil (due to 2 m of oil)
= 0 + ρoilghoil = 0 + 0.98
0 98 x 1000 x 9
9.81
81 x 2
= 15696 Pa
PA = 15.7 kPa (gauge)
Pressure at the bottom of the tank;
PB = PA + ρwaterghwater
PB = 15.7x1000 + 1000 x 9.81 x 4
= 54940 Pa
PB = 54.9 kPa (gauge)
water
PA
4m
PB = 54.9 kPA
50
G Figure 2.21:
G
B
Volume of B
Buoyancy force
displaced
fluid
Fb= W Fb = W
51
F = ρ f gA × depth
FTOP = ρ f gAs
and
FBOTTOM = ρ f gA(s + h)
52
53
54
Summary
The chapter has summarized the important of:
1. Pressure as basic property of fluid and the equation
2. Principal of Pascal Law
3. Indicating the gauge pressure and absolute pressure
4. The variations of pressure with elevation and the
calculation involved
5. Pressure measurement of Piezometer Tube, U-tube
Manometer, Differential Manometer, Advances of U-Tube
M
Manometert and dPPressure G
Gauges
g
6. The Resultant force and the application to the pressure
diagram
7. Demonstrating the technique of determining the forces
acting on submerged or partially submerged surfaces
55
PUMPS
S l ti O
Selection Operation
ti & M
Maintenance
i t
1
1/8/2011
TYPE OF PUMPS
• Classification of pumps
• The main categories are
A) Positive Displacement type
B) R
Roto-dynamic
t d i ttype
C) Special type
2
1/8/2011
Pumps
Others (e.g.
(e g Positive
D
Dynamic
i Impulse, Buoyancy) Displacement
3
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• If pipe blocked
• Pressure rises
• Can damage pump
• Reciprocating pump
• Displacement by reciprocation of piston
plunger
• Used only for viscous fluids and oil wells
• Rotary pump
• Displacement by rotary action of gear, cam
or vanes
• Several sub-types
• Used for special services in industry
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Dynamic pumps
• Mode of operation
• Rotating impeller converts kinetic energy
into pressure or velocity to pump the fluid
• Two types
• Centrifugal pumps: pumping water in
industry – 75% of pumps installed
• Special effect pumps: specialized conditions
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Pumps
• Two types
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1/8/2011
• Differences between p
pumps,
p , fans,, compressors
p
– Pumps: move liquids
– Fans: move gases with little increase in pressure
– Compressors: move gases with greater increase in pressure
Reciprocating pump
• It consists of a cylinder barrel, piston with rings, suction valve,
delivery valve.
• Piston with ring reciprocates inside the barrel. On one side of the
barrel, suction and delivery valves are fixed. The piston is connected
with power - drive with the help of crank and a connecting rod.
rod When
the piston moves, water is sucked inside during the suction stroke
and till the delivery stroke, water is pumped out.
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1/8/2011
Roto-Dynamic Pumps
• Centrifugal Pump
– Relative simplicity
p y
– Mech. effeciency as high as 90%
– Can handle fluids containing suspended solids
– Ease of maintenance…good for food products
– 2 parts: impeller and casing
– Radial, mixed, axial flow
• These pumps can also be used for pumping thick and Viscous
liquids.
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• Jet Pumps:
These pumps work on the principle of jets and injectors. A high
velocity fluid in a channel creates vacuum which pulls up the
working fluid.
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Centrifugal Pump
• This is the most commonly used pump in industry.
• It works on the principle of centrifugal force.
• Centrifugal force is developed in a rotating body. Thus in these
pumps,
p p , the kinetic energy
gy is converted to p potential energy,
gy, which
helps to increase the delivery pressure. When the impeller rotates,
liquid is discharged by the centrifugal force from its center to the
periphery. Partial vacuum is created at the center of the impeller
which sucks fluid from the suction tank.
• Type of centrifugal pumps
a) VOLUTE type
b) DIFFUSER type
• As
A per the
th stage
t d i they
design th may be b
i) SINGLE STAGE ii) MULTI STAGE
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• a) Volute Pump:
In the case of volute pump, the impeller is surrounded by a fixed
spiral casing called the "VOLUTE CHAMBER" The large velocity of
water leaving the impeller is converted into pressure inside the
volute chamber.
• b) Diffuser pump:
• A Diffuser pump has the guide vanes fixed inside the vortex
chamber in such a way that the space between two consecutive
vanes have an increased area from the center to the circumference
When water from the impeller passes through these guide vanes,
the velocity head is converted into higher pressure head.
• Hence diffuser pumps yield higher delivery pressure compared to
the volute pumps.
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SELECTION OF PUMPS:
Pumps are selected on the basis of the following criteria.
• a) Fluid to be handled
• b) Flow Capacity
• c) Pressure head
• d) Suction data
• e) Type of the Drive- Elect. Motor Or mechanical engine
Technical Specifications:
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1/8/2011
• Out of these , the most important ones are the pressure ( Head)
and flow.
• While ordering a new pump the following data are entered in a data
sheet and sent to the manufacturer to suggest / provide a suitable
pump
• The data sheet should contain:Type of Liquid, Its viscosity & specific
gravity, working temperature, Required Pressure (Head) - Flow -
suction &- delivery details - pump type - Rpm - efficiency size/
capacity .
• Also Pipe line details - gland cooling system
• Motor, power source etc
1. Air vent :A small valve for removing air during priming operation.
2. Drive Shaft which is the central part of a pump and rotates the
impeller
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1/8/2011
8. Bearing non Drive end (NDE): The bearing farthest from the coupling
end or pulley.
9. Pump Casing: Cast housing for the pump parts. In multistage pump,
the casing includes suction casing, delivery casing and the
intermediate stage casing . The casing may be in one piece or 2
pieces- having lower & upper half
11. Coupling flexible: A device flexibly connecting -the pump shaft and
the motor shaft for transmission.
12. Foot Valve: The entry side non return valve at suction line. It
contains one strainer
• FOOT VALVE
• Foot valve is an important component of a centrifugal pump. Fixed
at the bottom of suction pipe, it keeps the pump primed and
restricts the entry of foreign matter, specially floating debris and
q
aquatic plants into the suction p
p pipe.
p
• The valve is a one way flap piece made of leather or rubber and
hinged to the valve body. When the pump is not working the valve
rests on a machine base plate and prevents the return flow of
water to the well.
• Thus water is retained in the pump casing and suction pipe. The
total area of the opening in the strainer of the foot valve should be
about 2.5
2 5 times the cross sectional area of the suction pipe.
pipe Less
than this will result in heavy friction losses and reduced pump
discharge.
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1/8/2011
• IMPELLER:-
• Impeller is the rotary element of the pump. It is a wheel or disc
mounted on the shaft and provided with a number of vanes are
arranged in a circular array around an inlet opening at the centre.
The impeller is secured on a shaft mounted on suitable bearings
g of the impeller
The design p greatly
g y influences the efficiencyy and
operating characteristic of centrifugal pump.
• SLUICE VALVE :-
• This will allow the motor to be started without load. If sluice valve is
provided, it is kept closed at the time of starting. When the pump
reaches its full speed, the sluice valve is opened gradually until the
desired quantity of water is delivered.
• Care is taken not to run the pump for a long period with the sluice
valve
l closed,
l d as this
thi may over heat
h t the
th pump.
• This fluid then is given further mechanical energy & rotated to create
centrifugal force which then sends out the fluid at high pressure out
of the pump outlet.
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• SUCTION HEAD:-
• Suction head represents the difference in level between the centre
line of the pump (also called datum or datum line) and the water
level in the source.
• The suction lift may be too high due to the clogging of the pump inlet
with mud, gravel or some other obstruction. The other reason could
be a broken disk or a clogged strainer of the foot valve in case the
pump is being started for the first time, the actual suction lift could
be excessive.
• In such a case the pump is to be lowered so that the total suction lift
is with in 6.5 meter ( preferably within 4.5m to ensure efficient
operation)
• DISCHARGE HEAD:-
• This represents the height to which the delivered water is to be lifted
on discharge side of the pump.
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1/8/2011
• PUMP CALCULATIONS
Q x Total Head (Hd- Hs) x d x g
• Hydraulic Power Ph = --------------------------------------------------
1000
Where;
• Q = Fluid Flow in M 3 / Hour
• Hd= Discharge Head in meter
• Hs = Suction Head in meter .
• d = Fluid density Kg/m3
• g = Acceleration due to gravity m/sec2
Hydraulic Power
• Pump Shaft Power Ps = --------------------------------
• Pump Efficiency
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pump
Cavitation
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PUMP INSTALLATION
Pump Foundation :-
• The foundation should be sufficiently strong to absorb any
vibration and to form a permanent rigid support for the base plate.
This is important for maintaining the alignment of a direct connected
unit.
• Pump is put on level foundation base plate with grouted bolts and is
fixed on the base, level again with the spirit level before tightening
the foundation base bolts.
• Motor is to be fixed on the base plate and the bolts put on. The
pump and couplings are to be aligned and then the base bolts are to
be tightened.
• After the alignment the coupling bolts are to be fixed with coupling
bushes.
bushes
• The Suction,, Delivery, Minimum pipe line, gland cooling water lines
are to be connected. Motor can then be electrically connected and
test run taken.
• For checking the correctness of alignment, vibration readings are
advised
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1/8/2011
PUMP ALIGNMENT :-
Type of misalignment
(a) Angular mis-alignment Shaft with axis concentric but not parallel.
(b ) Parallel mis-alignment Shaft with axis parallel but not concentric.
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1/8/2011
• Fi
Finall A
Accurate
t Ali
Alignment: t
• Requires a coupling alignment jig. The jig is to be attached to the
shafts. Double dial gauge is used to measure the clearance at four
planes 90 apart. If the difference measured does not exceed 0.04
mm both in axial and radial directions then the alignment is
considered to be accurate.
• The coupling alignment check should be repeated after the trial
run, to be sure that it is not disturbed after the starting shock.
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1/8/2011
OPERATION OF PUMP
PRIMING :-
• Filling the pump with water is called Priming. The pump should
not start without being primed. Priming is done filling the pump
casing and the suction pipe completely with water, thus ensuring
that all the air in the pump and suction pipe is removed.
removed
• The pump is started after closing the valve. The manual priming is
required
q to be done rarelyy , when either the foot valve is not
functioning properly or there is an air pocket in the suction pipe.
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1/8/2011
DIRECTION OF ROTATION :-
• The pump must be run in the direction indicated by an arrow on the
casing which is always toward the discharge nozzle. Rotation, right-
hand or left hand, is determined by facing the pump from the drive
end.
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1/8/2011
AIR LEAKAGE
• Air leakage may take place either in the stuffing box or in the suction
pipe . The stuffing box should leak a small amount of water during
pump operation First of all, one should check for the desired leakage
by making suitable adjustments. If this adjustments fails to give the
desired results, the pump should be stopped and the gland packing
checked for damage. A damaged gland packing should be replaced
b a new one, The
by Th leakage
l k f
from th stuffing
the t ffi box
b isi again
i checked
h k d
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1/8/2011
Maintenance of Pumps
• For efficient running of any pump, lot of care and regular
maintenance is required. There are two types of Maintenance
• 1. PLANNED
• 2. UNPLANNED
• Planned maintenance
• It is that which is preplanned and the activities start ahead of
the actual execution of job. All kinds of resources like Manpower,
tools spares, and other services are readily available at the time of
maintenance.
• Planned Maintenance is Subdivided into
• i) Preventive ii) Predictive iii) Corrective.
• Preventive Maintenance is the best type of Maintenance
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
• This may be ON-LINE & SHUT DOWN
• ON-LINE / ROUTINE Maintenance are activities which can be
carried out during the actual running of the equipment.
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OVERHAULING MAINTENANCE:
• It is done to take up major jobs which take long duration to
complete.
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1/8/2011
Unplanned Maintenance:
• Unplanned maintenance is done when there are unexpected
failures of pump. It is a costly type of maintenance as it directly
effects production and productivity.
• Breakdown of a pump is an Unplanned maintenance activity.
• SHUTDOWN MAINTENANCE:
• For such repairs,· which can not be carried out during normal
operation of the pump, a short shutdown is taken to repair them.
• 1. New gland packing.
• 2. Alignment.
• 3. Replacement coupling flexible elements.
• 4. Change of Bearings.
• 5. Cleaning of Suction filters / Foot valves.
• 6. Changeg of Valves / Non-return valves.
• 7. Oil / Grease replacement.
• 8. Other necessary jobs.
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WEARING RINGS :-
• Wearing ring clearances should be checked from time to time.
When the wearing ring clearance is increased, a loss in capacity
and head is caused . If the clearance is approximately twice the
original, or if the loss in capacity and head does not meet
requirements, it is time to replace the rings.
STUFFING BOX AND SHAFT PACKINGS
• Stuffing box should be carefully cleaned and the packing
placed in them.
• Generally a leakage of 15-30 drops of liquid per minute from the
stuffing box is excessive or the packing is worn, the entire packing in
the box will have to be replaced.
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1/8/2011
• PLUGGING OF IMPELLER
• In case of cavity wells, solids in the water may get a
accumulated in the impeller This may block the pump either
completely or partially.
partially Under such situation,
situation the pump casing
should be opened and all the parts of the impeller cleaned
periodically.
• BENT SHAFT
• Thermal distoration, damage during pump overhaul or wrong
assembly of the rotating assembly can cause the bent shaft. Check
the shaft deflection by means of a dial gauge by turning the shaft
between lathe centres.
• g run out of the shaft should not be more than 0.075
The average
mm and 0.150 mm for high speed and low speed pumps
respectively. The shaft deflection should be checked with a dial
gauge by turning the shaft between the lathe centres. If the shaft is
found damaged it should be replaced.
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1/8/2011
DISTORTED CASING
• . Many a time, the casing gets distorted because of poorly
aligned suction and discharge piping. This results in excessive
friction between the impeller and casing. The piping and the
alignment of the primemover should be checked. The wearing rings
should also be checked and replaced, if found damaged.
2. Insufficient Flow
Probable Causes
• 1. Pump not vented properly
• 2. Speed too low.
• 3. High back pressure.
• 4. Wearing rings worn out.
• 5. Impeller damaged.
• 6. Suction filter chocked.
3. Total head too low
Probable Causes
• 1 Speed too low.
• 2. Impeller damaged.
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41
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• Code:
• A Recommended
• B Useful resistance
• X Unsuitable
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R e cip r o cat in g P u m p
C h a r a c t e r i st i c C u r v e
N 1 N 2
P R E SSU R E H E A D
( H p = f t lb f / lb m )
CA PA CITY
( V = GPM )
A ct u al
I d eal
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1/8/2011
Blowers
Theoretical
Flow
Actual
Flow Pressure
47
Prepared by: Prof.M. Dhangar, Lecturer, N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Long Term Training Program
on
“Industrial Chemical Technology”
Fluid Flow Operation
Topic: Pressure concept & measurement
Prepared by:
M M B Dh
Mr. M. B. Dhangar
Lecturer, ChED
N. G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Date: 10th October, 2010
Date: 10 October 2010
Newtonian Fluids:
Newtonian Fluids:
Bingham
g
Pseudo Plastic
Newtonian
Dilatant
Velocityy Gradient du / dy
y
Examples:
• Newtonian
Newtonian Fluids: All gases, air, liquids such as
Fluids: All gases air liquids such as
kerosene, alcohol, glycerine, benzene etc.
• Bingham Fluids: Tooth Paste, jellies, paints etc.
Bingham Fluids: Tooth Paste jellies paints etc
• Pseudo Plastic: Blood, Polymer solutions,
muds, rubber latex etc.
d bb l
• Dilatant Fluids: Pulp in water, Starch in water
etc.
Pressure:
• The normal force exerted by a fluid per unit
area of the surface is called as the fluid
pressure.
pressure
• P = F / A
Local Atmosphere
Pressure line Patm
Vacuum Pressure
Pabs = Patm - Pg
Absolute zero line
Pressure Measurement:
Pressure Measurement:
Pressure measuring Devices
Pressure measuring Devices
A Long Term Training Program
Chemical Engineering Department
N. G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Nodal Institute
Experiment: Reynolds No. and Flow Pattern
Staff: Mr. M. B. Dhangar Date: 26th December, 2010
Objective: - To indentify the various flow pattern by calculating the Reynold’s No.
Equipment: - Water supply tank, KMnO4 solution, stop watch etc.
Experimental Set up: - Apparatus consist of storage cum supply tank which has the
provision for supplying colored dye through jet. A Perspex tube is provided to visualize the
different flow conditions. The entry of water in Perspex tube is through elliptical bell mouth to
have smooth flow at the entry. A regulating value is provided on the downstream side of the tube
to regulate the flow. The discharge must be varied vary gradually from a smaller to larger value;
A collecting tank is used to find the actual discharge though Perspex tube.
Theory: - Depending upon the relative magnitudes of viscous and inertial forces, flow can
occur in two different manner viz. Laminar flow and turbulent flow. In laminar flow viscous
effect are more predominant than the inertial effects. But when shear and normal stresses are
added with the increase in velocity of flow, the flow is turbulent. To identify the laminar and
turbulent ranges of flow a dimensionless parameter is being utilized which is a measure of the
relative importance of inertial force and viscous force prevailing in the flow of a fluid, which is
known as Reynolds number. It is equal to the ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force per
unit volume. Sir Osborene Reynolds first did the study of flow pattern in 1883.Reynold number
gives a fair idea about the flow pattern
Reynolds no. given by the formula:-
NRe = ρvd
µ
This means that a large value of Reynolds number signifies less viscous effects and vice versa.
For determining different flow conditions, equipment first used by Professor Osborne Reynolds
after whose name Reynolds’s number exists. The motion is laminar or turbulent according to the
value of NRe is less then or greater then a certain value. When a fluid flows in a pipe, the flows
are either laminar or turbulent. When a velocity of the flowing fluid is low, the fluid flows in a
pattern of parallel layers or laminar, sliding past adjacent laminar and the flow is said to be
Laminar flow when the velocity of fluid is further increased, the fluid no longer flows in parallel
layers and the layers starts intermingling/mixing with each other resulting in formation of eddy.
This type of flow is known as Turbulent flow. In between laminar flow & turbulent flow there
exists a transition flow pattern where the flow is neither laminar nor turbulent.
Procedure: -
• Note down Diameter of perspex tube, Area of collecting tank and room temperature.
• Switch on the pump and circulate the water through the Storage reservoir, supply
tank, Perspex tube and back to storage reservoir.
• Allow the flow rate to achieve steady state.
• Open the valve attached with dye supply tube carefully and introduces the dye into
the Perspex tube.
• Observe the flow pattern of dye inside Perspex tube. If the velocity of fluid is very
less it will be observed like a thread flowing at the centre of Perspex tube. This type
of flow can be described as laminar flow.
• Record the discharge of water flowing in the Perspex tube by collecting the water in
measuring tank for known time period.
• Increase the velocity of flow in the Perspex tube by operating regulating valve.
Oscillating motion of dye thread will be observed and after oscillation dye will
gradually disperse in the fluid. This flow describes transition stage between laminar
and turbulent. Again measure the flow rate by same method as that described above.
• On further increasing the flow rate, thorough mixing of dye in water will be
observed which represents turbulent flow. Repeat again the flow measurement
procedure.
• Tabulate the readings and calculate the Reynolds No. using given data of dia.,
density and viscosity. Match the calculated value of Reynolds No. with observed
flow pattern.
Observations: -
• Room temp: _________0C
• Internal dia. of pipe D= 3.2 cm =____________
• Density of water to given temp, ρ=_______gm/cm3
• viscosity of water at given temp, μ=_______gm/cm-sec
• Cross Sectional area of pipe=_____cm2
• Area of collecting tank A=________ cm2
Observation Table: -
Sr. Discharge Measurement
No. Initial Height Final Height Time Observed Flow
H1 (cm) H2 (cm) (sec) Pattern
Computation sheet: -
Calculation steps: -
Cross sectional Area (i.e. flow area) of pipe a=(π /4) x d2
v = velocity of fluid
d = dia. Of pipe
µ = viscosity of fluid
A Long Term Training Program
Chemical Engineering Department
N. G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Nodal Institute
Experiment: Rotameter
Staff: Mr. M. B. Dhangar
Theory:
Rota meter essentially consists of tapered glass tube and float along with scale meter in
tube set vertically in a piping system with its range and end at top and small at bottom.
Float:
Rota meter scale be marked on which have density higher then liquid than can be made
corrosion to any metal like Al, Ni, SS.
Scale can be marked on glass or it is mounted on to the measuring tube. A direct reading
type is used to give the actual reading. Various shapes of floats are as follows.
Procedure:
• An assembly of cooling tower / Ion exchanger unit with Rota meter arrangement..
Set the float of Rota meter arrangement up to LPM and take water in beaker of 1
min by using stop watch.
• Measure the volume by collecting in a measuring cylinder and compare it with
actual flow rate of Rota meter.
• Repeat the same procedure for other flow rates.
Result:
Conclusion:
Observation table:
Calculation:
A Long Term Training Program
Chemical Engineering Department
N. G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Nodal Institute
Experiment: U Tube Manometer
Staff: Mr. M. B. Dhangar
Objective : - To measure the differential pressure across two points in a pipe, for a
fluid flowing through it.
Observation :-
1. Area of a measuring tank =
2. Density of Manometric fluid =
3. Density of Process fluid =
Observation Table :-
Calculation : Δh=_________________ m
ρM = _________________ kg/m3
ρ =__________________kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/sec2
Δh=
Result : -
A Long Term Training Program
Chemical Engineering Department
N. G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Nodal Institute
Experiment: Rectangular and V notch
Staff: Mr. M. B. Dhangar
Notches are those overflow structures whose length of crest in the direction of
flow is accurately shaped. They may be rectangular, trapezoidal, v-notch etc. The
v-notch is one of the most precise discharge-measuring devices suitable for a
wide range of flow.
A triangular or v notch is having a triangular or ‘v’ shaped opening provided in its
body so that water is discharged through this opening only. The line which
bisects the angle of the notch should be vertical and at the same distance from
both sides of the channel. The discharge coefficients Cd of a V notch may be
determined by applying formula:
Cd = ________Q____________
(8/15)(√ 2g) H5/2 tan θ/2
Cd= _____Q______
2/3(√2g) B H3/2
Where,
Q = Discharge over a rectangular notch,
B = Width of notch,
H= Head over the crest of the notch, and g is
acceleration due to gravity.
Experimental setup: -
The experimental set up consists of a tank where inlet section is provided with 2
nos. of baffles for streamline flow. While at the upstream portion of the tank one
can fix a notch of rectangular notch, trapezoidal notch or ‘v’-notch. A hook gauge
is used to measure the head of water over the model. A collecting tank is used to
find the actual discharge through the notch.
Experimental Procedures: -
• Position the notch under test at the end of the tank, in a vertical
plane, and with the sharp edge on the upstream side.
• Fill the tank with water up to the crest level and subsequently note
down the crest level of the notch by the help of the point gauge.
• Adjust the flow regulating valve to give the maximum possible
discharge without flooding the notch.
• Allow the conditions to attain steady state.
• Measure the head over the notch, i.e.’H2’ with the help of point
gauge.
• Reduce the flow rate in stages and the readings of discharge and
H2 were taken.
• Repeat the procedure for other type of notch.
Calculations steps :-
log Q 5/2
c
log H
Cd = 10c .
8/15 (√ 2g) tan θ/2
Calculations steps :-
log Q 3/2
c
log H
Cd = 10c___
2/3 (√ 2g)B
Result: -
‘V’ Notch Recatngular
Notch
Co efficient of
Discharge(Analytically)
Co efficient of
Discharge(Graphically)
Conclusion: -
NODAL INSTITUTE
N. G. PATEL POLYTECHNIC
LONG TERM TRAINING PROGRAMME ON INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL
TECHNOLOGY (MODULE-I)
MTT
Lecture-1
Introduction
` Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location to other.
` Some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water from a
pond to the atmosphere, the diffusion of chemical impurities in lakes, rivers, and oceans
from natural or artificial point sources, separation of chemical components in distillation
columns. In cooling towers, hot water flows down over the fill material as air flows up
and contact between water and air evaporates some of the water. Evaporation requires
heat; the heat is removed from the remaining water lowering its temperature.
Methods of operation
` Non steady state – concentration changes with time e.g. batch processes
` Steady state
` Stage
` Differential contact
Page 1 Prepared By: JMV
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Distillation
` Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in
a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process,
and not a chemical reaction.
` It is used to separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport,
power generation and heating.
` Batch Columns In batch operation, the feed to the column is introduced batch-wise. That
is, the column is charged with a 'batch' and then the distillation process is carried out.
When the desired task is achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced.
Gas Absorption
` Gas absorption (also known as scrubbing) is an operation in which a gas mixture is
contacted with a liquid for the purpose of preferentially dissolving one or more
components of the gas mixture and to provide a solution of them in the liquid.
` We will focus on the analysis for gas absorption, for the simple case whereby only one
component of the gas solute is being absorbed. The other components of the gas are
assumed to be non-soluble in the liquid (i.e. the other gas components are inert
components),
Page 2 Prepared By: JMV
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
` The liquid is non-volatile, which means that there is no transfer of molecules from the
liquid to the gas phase.
` In addition, we assume there is no chemical reaction in the system and that it is operating
at isothermal condition.
` The process of gas absorption thus involves the diffusion of solute from the gas phase
through a stagnant or non-diffusing liquid.
` There are 2 types of absorption processes: physical absorption and chemical absorption,
depending on whether there is any chemical reaction.
Liquid-Liquid Extraction
` Liquid-liquid extraction, also known as solvent extraction and partitioning, is a
method to separate compounds based on their relative solubility in two different
immiscible liquids, usually water and an organic solvent. It is an extraction of a substance
from one liquid phase into another liquid phase. Liquid-liquid extraction is a basic
technique in chemical laboratories, where it is performed using a separatory funnel. This
type of process is commonly performed after a chemical reaction as part of the work-up.
` Solvent extraction is used in nuclear reprocessing, ore processing, the production of fine
organic compounds, the processing of perfumes, and other industries.
` Example: Acetic Acid &Water/Isopropyl ether(Solvent)
Adsorption
` Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions, biomolecules or molecules of gas, liquid, or
dissolved solids to a surface. This process creates a film of the adsorbate (the molecules
or atoms being accumulated) on the surface of the adsorbent. It differs from absorption,
in which a fluid permeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid. The term sorption
encompasses both processes, while desorption is the reverse of adsorption.
` The most common industrial adsorbents are activated carbon, silica gel, and alumina,
because they present enormous surface areas per unit weight.
` Used in many industrial processes:
` dehumidification
` odour/colour/taste removal
` gas pollutant removal (H2S)
` water softening and deionisation
` hydrocarbon fractionation
` pharmaceutical purification
Nature of Adsorbents
` Porous material - Large surface area per unit mass – size, shape, polarity cause certain
particles to be held more strongly in these pores than others
` Rate of mass transfer is dependent on the void fraction within the pores
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Types of Adsorption
` Physical Adsorption
◦ Result of intermolecular forces causing preferential binding of certain substances
to certain adsorbents
◦ Reversible by addition of heat (via steam, hot inert gas, oven)
◦ Attachment to the outer layer of adsorbent material
` Chemisorption
◦ Result of chemical interaction
◦ Large amount heat released
◦ Irreversible
◦ Mainly found in catalysis
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Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
ANCHOR INSTITUTE – N. G. PATEL POLYTECHNIC
Module – I (Mass transfer operations)
Lecture – I (Mr. R. M. Patel) Date: 10-10-2010
1. Fick’s Law:
The rate of mass transfer is directly proportional to the concentration gradient, dCA/dz
(concentration difference divided by time). This law is called Fick’s Law for z direction.
The proportionality constant, DAB is called Diffusivity.
If two components A and B are flowing with same rate but in opposite direction,
JA=-JB, CA+CB=constant, DAB =DBA
If two components A and B are flowing with same rate but in same direction,
JA=JB, CA+CB=constant, DAB =DBA
Considering molecular diffusion of gases (Ideal Gas) and substituting the following into
equation (3),
C A PA n P
= = y A and C = = T
C PT V RT
NA DAB PT ⎡ ( N A /( N A + N B )) − y A 2 ⎤
NA = ln ⎢ ⎥ − − − − − − − − − −(4)
N A + N A RTz ⎣ ( N A /( N A + N B )) − y A1 ⎦
PT PT PT PT
PA 2
PA1 PB 2
PA1
PB1
PB 2 PB1 PA 2
Distance, z Distance, z
Mass transfer coefficient for steady state equimolal counter diffusion of A and B:
N A = − N B and N A N A + N B = ∞
N A = kG′ ( PA1 − PA 2 ) = k ′y ( y A1 − y A 2 ) = kC′ (C A1 − C A 2 ) ……………..(for gases)
N A = k x′ ( x A1 − x A 2 ) = k L′ (C A1 − C A 2 ) ……………………………….(for liquids)
When mass transfer occurs between two phases it is called interphase mass transfer.
When the molecules are transferring from one phase to another but if the net transfer of
all the molecules is zero, this condition is called dynamic equilibrium. The
concentration measured at the condition of equilibrium or dynamic equilibrium is called
equilibrium concentration of component A in both phases (xA and yA in both phases).
The equilibrium distribution of a solute between a gas and liquid phase at constant
temperature is as shown in figure below (Equilibrium curve).
Mole
fraction
of A in
gas = yA
Mole fraction of A in
liquid = xA
kx and ky are the liquid- and gas-phase mass transfer coefficients, Kx and Ky are the
liquid- and gas-phase overall mass transfer coefficients [kmol m–2 s–1], NA* is the molar
flux [kmol m–2 s–1], xs is the equilibrium mole fraction of the liquid at the interface, x∞ is
the mole fraction of the bulk liquid, x* is the mole fraction of the liquid in equilibrium
with the bulk gas, ys is the equilibrium mole fraction of the gas at the interface, y∞ is the
mole fraction of the bulk gas, and y* is the mole fraction of the gas in equilibrium with
the bulk liquid
Equilibrium curve
Slope = -kx/ky
P
y∞ D
Slope = m”
ys
M
Slope = m’
y*
C
x∞
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical xs
Technology" x*
Hence, from the above graph, the relationship between overall mass transfer coefficient
(Ky) and individual phase mass transfer coefficient of liquid phase (kx) and gas phase (ky)
can be found as,
1 1 m′ 1 1 1
= + and = + .
K y ky kx K x m′′k y k x
R2
RS
,x2
R1 moles total material / time X2
RS moles of non-diffusing material / time
,x1 mole fraction solute
X1 mole ratio solute
R
RS
B ,x
X
P
Equilibrium curve, Yi = f(Xi)
Q
Concentration in phase E, Y2
moles A / moles non-A = Y
Y1 P
X2* Xe X2 X1
Concentration in phase R,
moles A / moles non-A = X
R2
RS
,x2
R1 moles total material / time X2
RS moles of non-diffusing material / time
,x1 mole fraction solute
X1 mole ratio solute
R
RS
B ,x
X
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LONG TERM TRAINING PROGRAMME ON INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL
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Lecture-3
Drying
Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water moisture or moisture
from another solvent, by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid (hereafter
product). To be considered "drying", the final product must be a solid, either as a
continuous sheet (e.g., paper), as long pieces (e.g., wood), particles (cereal grains, corn
flakes) or in powder form (sand, salt, washing powder, milk powder). To achieve this,
there must be a source of heat, and a sink of the vapor thus produced. In bioproducts
(food, grains, vaccines), and pharmaceuticals, the solvent to be removed is almost
invariably water.
In the most common case, a gas stream, e.g., air, applies the heat by convection and
carries away the vapor as humidity. Other possibilities are vacuum drying, where heat is
supplied by conduction or radiation (or microwaves) while the vapor thus produced is
removed by the vacuum system. Another indirect technique is drum drying (used, for
instance, for manufacturing potato flakes), where a heated surface is used to provide the
energy and aspirators draw the vapor outside the room.
Crystallization
The crystallization process consists of two major events, nucleation and crystal growth.
Nucleation is the step where the solute molecules dispersed in the solvent start to gather
into clusters, on the nanometer scale (elevating solute concentration in a small region),
that becomes stable under the current operating conditions. These stable clusters
constitute the nuclei. However when the clusters are not stable, they redissolve.
Therefore, the clusters need to reach a critical size in order to become stable nuclei. Such
critical size is dictated by the operating conditions (temperature, supersaturation, etc.). It
is at the stage of nucleation that the atoms arrange in a defined and periodic manner that
defines the crystal structure — note that "crystal structure" is a special term that refers to
the relative arrangement of the atoms, not the macroscopic properties of the crystal (size
and shape), although those are a result of the internal crystal structure.
The crystal growth is the subsequent growth of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the
critical cluster size. Nucleation and growth continue to occur simultaneously while the
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Leaching
In general, leaching is the extraction of certain materials from a carrier into a liquid
(usually, but not always a solvent). Specifically, it may refer to:
• Leaching (agriculture), the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soil; or
applying a small amount of excess irrigation to avoid soil salinity
• Leaching (chemical science), the process of extracting minerals from a solid by
dissolving them in a liquid
• Leaching (metallurgy), a widely used extractive metallurgy technique which
converts metals into soluble salts in aqueous media
o Dump leaching, an industrial process to extract metals from ore taken
directly from the mine and stacked on the leach pad without crushing
o Heap leaching, an industrial process to extract metals from ore which has
been crushed into small chunks
o Tank leaching, a hydrometallurgical method of extracting valuable
material from ore
o In-situ leaching, a process of recovering minerals such as copper and
uranium through boreholes drilled into the deposit
• Leaching (pedology), the loss of mineral and organic solutes due to percolation
from soil
• Bioleaching, the extraction of specific metals from their ores through the use of
bacteria
• In cooking, leaching generally refers to Parboiling.
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Tray Dryer
A tray Dryer is an enclosed insulated chamber in which trays are placed on top of each
other in trolleys. Tray Dryer are used where heating and drying are essential parts of
manufacturing process in industries such as Chemicals, Dye stuff, Pharmaceutical, Food
Products, Colours etc. The material to be dried either wet or solids are placed in the trays.
Heat transfer is by circulation of hot air by electric heaters or steam in radiator coils.
Blower fans are installed inside to ensure proper circulation and transfer of heat. A
control panel to control the temperature and other parameters is fixed outside the dryer.
These dryers are available in Mild Steel, Stainless Steel or construction. Tray dryer is
used for drying of pigments, food, bakery, electrodes, chemical and plastic powders.
DESCRIPTION: The Drying ovens are normally available with choice of heating mode,
as electrically heated / steam heated & thermic fluid heated. In electrically heated model,
digital temperature controller provided with digital timer to facilitate working day and
night. In steam & thermic fluid heated model, digital temperature indicator is provided
with digital timer , but the temperature controller is not supplied with the machine. AIR
CIRCULATION A highly effective recirculating air system is provided. The heated air,
is recirculated with fresh air in selected proportions for optimum drying. The system is
designed so that the materials at the top & the bottom dry simultaneously. Uniform air
circulation, controlled temperature, sturdy construction and large working space are the
valuables of the oven which is suitably designed to cover wide temperature range,
loading and unloading is faster and simple. In higher capacities trays trolley rolls in and
out of the chamber. For continuous operation a spare trolley can be had for loading while
the drying cycle is taking place. CONTROLLED TEMPERATURE & TIME Digital
temperature controller with digital timer are supplied to facilitate working day and night.
Rotary Dryer
Rotary dryers which are generally used in various industries, especially in the mineral
industry. In mineral industry, the equipment is used for drying commodity such as clay,
kaolin, gypsum, mineral sand, limestone, potash and silica sand. This equipment is
suitable for evaporating and drying of wide range of material of variegated sizes and
composition. To lift, distribute and transport the material some internal lifters or flights
are used. We offer co-current direct-heat rotary dryer which is the most common
equipment available in the market. In this equipment, the initial heat transfer level is very
high which creates a considerable drop in temperature and prevents over heating of the
dryer as well as the material. Apart from this, counter current dryers that we provide
are ideal for the materials that need to be dried to very low moisture contents. It is further
helps for the material in which last traces of moisture are hard to remove.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: JMV
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Application:
The wet slurry comes in contact with the hottest drying gases which is supplied from an
external source and the heat transfer is done by convection. This equipment find
application in the production process of the following products:
• floatation concentrates
• coal/coke
• clays, phosphates
• suifilter cakes
• minerals, fertilizers
• beet pulp
• germ, stillage
• sludges
• animal feeds
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: JMV
Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli MTT
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: JMV
Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli MTT
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: JMV
Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli MTT
Cooling tower
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the
atmosphere. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process
heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or rely solely on air
to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature. Common applications
include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries, chemical plants, power
stations and building cooling. The towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very
large hyperboloid structures that can be up to 200 metres tall and 100 metres in diameter,
or rectangular structures that can be over 40 metres tall and 80 metres long. Smaller
towers are normally factory-built, while larger ones are constructed on site. They are
often associated with nuclear power plants in popular culture.
Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources such as
machinery or heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers
is to remove the heat absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in power
plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants, food
processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and for other industrial facilities such as in
condensers of distillation columns, for cooling liquid in crystallization, etc. The
circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MW coal-fired power plant with a
cooling tower amounts to about 71,600 cubic metres an hour (315,000 U.S. gallons per
minute) and the circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5
percent (i.e., 3,600 cubic metres an hour).
If that same plant had no cooling tower and used once-through cooling water, it would
require about 100,000 cubic metres an hour and that amount of water would have to be
continuously returned to the ocean, lake or river from which it was obtained and
continuously re-supplied to the plant. Furthermore, discharging large amounts of hot
water may raise the temperature of the receiving river or lake to an unacceptable level for
the local ecosystem. Elevated water temperatures can kill fish and other aquatic
organisms. A cooling tower serves to dissipate the heat into the atmosphere instead and
wind and air diffusion spreads the heat over a much larger area than hot water can
distribute heat in a body of water. Some coal-fired and nuclear power plants located in
coastal areas do make use of once-through ocean water. But even there, the offshore
discharge water outlet requires very careful design to avoid environmental problems.
Petroleum refineries also have very large cooling tower systems. A typical large refinery
processing 40,000 metric tonnes of crude oil per day (300,000 barrels (48,000 m3) per
day) circulates about 80,000 cubic metres of water per hour through its cooling tower
system.
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The world's tallest cooling tower is the 200 metre tall cooling tower of Niederaussem
Power Station.
• Natural draft, which utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air
naturally rises due to the density differential to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm
moist air is less dense than drier air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy
produces a current of air through the tower.
• Mechanical draft, which uses power driven fan motors to force or draw air
through the tower.
o Induced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge which
pulls air through tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge.
This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the
possibility of recirculation in which discharged air flows back into the air
intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as draw-through.
o Forced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the
intake. The fan forces air into the tower, creating high entering and low
exiting air velocities. The low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to
recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is more susceptible to
complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is that a
forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than an
equivalent induced draft design. The forced draft benefit is its ability to
work with high static pressure. They can be installed in more confined
spaces and even in some indoor situations. This fan/fill geometry is also
known as blow-through.
• Fan assisted natural draft, A hybrid type that appears like a natural draft though
airflow is assisted by a fan.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: JMV
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Some commonly used terms in the cooling tower industry
• Drift - Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the exhaust
air. Drift droplets have the same concentration of impurities as the water entering
the tower. The drift rate is typically reduced by employing baffle-like devices,
called drift eliminators, through which the air must travel after leaving the fill and
spray zones of the tower. Drift can also be reduced by using warmer entering
cooling tower temperatures.
• Blow-out - Water droplets blown out of the cooling tower by wind, generally at
the air inlet openings. Water may also be lost, in the absence of wind, through
splashing or misting. Devices such as wind screens, louvers, splash deflectors and
water diverters are used to limit these losses.
• Plume - The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving the cooling tower. The plume
is visible when water vapor it contains condenses in contact with cooler ambient
air, like the saturated air in one's breath fogs on a cold day. Under certain
conditions, a cooling tower plume may present fogging or icing hazards to its
surroundings. Note that the water evaporated in the cooling process is "pure"
water, in contrast to the very small percentage of drift droplets or water blown out
of the air inlets.
• Blow-down - The portion of the circulating water flow that is removed in order to
maintain the amount of dissolved solids and other impurities at an acceptable
level. It may be noted that higher TDS (total dissolved solids) concentration in
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solution results in greater potential cooling tower efficiency. However the higher
the TDS concentration, the greater the risk of scale, biological growth and
corrosion.
• Leaching - The loss of wood preservative chemicals by the washing action of the
water flowing through a wood structure cooling tower.
• Noise - Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower and heard (recorded) at a given
distance and direction. The sound is generated by the impact of falling water, by
the movement of air by fans, the fan blades moving in the structure, and the
motors, gearboxes or drive belts.
• Range - The range is the temperature difference between the water inlet and
water exit.
• Fill - Inside the tower, fills are added to increase contact surface as well as contact
time between air and water. Thus they provide better heat transfer. The efficiency
of the tower also depends on them. There are two types of fills that may be used:
o Film type fill (causes water to spread into a thin film)
o Splash type fill (breaks up water and interrupts its vertical progress)
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: JMV
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NODAL INSTITUTE
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Lecture-4
Therefore we can see that there is a mass transfer of the component of the
gas from the gas phase to the liquid phase. The solute so transferred is
said to be absorbed by the liquid.
We will focus on the analysis for gas absorption, for the simple case
whereby only one component of the gas solute is being absorbed. The
other components of the gas are assumed to be non-soluble in the liquid (i.e.
the other gas components are inert components), and the liquid is non-
volatile, which means that there is no transfer of molecules from the liquid
to the gas phase.
The process of gas absorption thus involves the diffusion of solute from the
gas phase through a stagnant or non-diffusing liquid.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: Jignesh M.Vasoya
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Method of Operation
Two methods of contacting the gas and liquid are possible: counter-current
operation and co-current operation. We will focus principally on the counter-
current gas absorption, as it was widely used in the industry. The main
differences between the two configurations will be highlighted. Note that for
counter-current operation, the gas enters the column or tower from below as
leaves at the top, while liquid enters from the top and flows in opposite
direction and exits from the bottom.
Absorption Equipment
Absorption and stripping are conducted in tray (or plate or stage) columns,
packed columns, spray towers, bubble columns, and centrifugal contactors.
In general, operating pressure should be high and temperature low for an
absorber, to minimize stage requirements and/or absorbent flow rate to lower
the equipment volume required accommodating the gas flow. The reverse is
true for stripping. However, the operating pressure should not be too high
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: Jignesh M.Vasoya
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and the operating temperature should not be too low as to condense the feed
gas.
Tray Column
The types of trays used in absorption include: sieve tray, valve tray and
bubble-cap trays. These internals are the same as those covered in
"Distillation".
Packed Column
Both random and structured packings had been used. Again, please refer to
the topics covered in "Distillation".
Spray Column
Bubble Column
The gas is forced under pressure through perforated pipes submerged in the
scrubbing liquid. As such the gas phase is dispersed and the liquid phase is
continuous. As the bubbles rise through the liquid, absorption of the gas
occurs. This type of device suffers from the high pressure drop due to the
liquid hydrostatic head.
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higher than ambient pressure. Operating temperature is kept low, but not to
condense the feed gas.
In the absorber, H2S is removed from the incoming sour gas by contacting it
with liquid amine (DEA or MEA) in a counter-current manner. The amine
solution (known as lean amine) enters the column at the top. The gas leaves
the absorber as sweet gas with the H2S removed. The amine solution that
leaves the bottom of the column is rich in absorbed H2S (known as rich
amine) and is feed to the stripper or regenerator.
In the regenerator, the opposite process takes place whereby H2S is removed
from rich amine by counter-current contact with steam. The amine stripped
of H2S leaves the bottom of the regenerator is send back to the scrubber as
lean amine for more absorption. The entire process takes place essentially in
a closed loop.
Note that in this case, the liquid entering the absorber is no longer pure (i.e.
x2 is not 0) as it may contain traces of H2S in the entering liquid amine.
Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: Jignesh M.Vasoya
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NODAL INSTITUTE
N. G. PATEL POLYTECHNIC
LONG TERM TRAINING PROGRAMME ON INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MODULE-I)
MTT
Lecture-4
Therefore we can see that there is a mass transfer of the component of the
gas from the gas phase to the liquid phase. The solute so transferred is
said to be absorbed by the liquid.
We will focus on the analysis for gas absorption, for the simple case
whereby only one component of the gas solute is being absorbed. The
other components of the gas are assumed to be non-soluble in the liquid (i.e.
the other gas components are inert components), and the liquid is non-
volatile, which means that there is no transfer of molecules from the liquid
to the gas phase.
The process of gas absorption thus involves the diffusion of solute from the
gas phase through a stagnant or non-diffusing liquid.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: Jignesh M.Vasoya
Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli MTT
Method of Operation
Two methods of contacting the gas and liquid are possible: counter-current
operation and co-current operation. We will focus principally on the counter-
current gas absorption, as it was widely used in the industry. The main
differences between the two configurations will be highlighted. Note that for
counter-current operation, the gas enters the column or tower from below as
leaves at the top, while liquid enters from the top and flows in opposite
direction and exits from the bottom.
Absorption Equipment
Absorption and stripping are conducted in tray (or plate or stage) columns,
packed columns, spray towers, bubble columns, and centrifugal contactors.
In general, operating pressure should be high and temperature low for an
absorber, to minimize stage requirements and/or absorbent flow rate to lower
the equipment volume required accommodating the gas flow. The reverse is
true for stripping. However, the operating pressure should not be too high
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: Jignesh M.Vasoya
Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli MTT
and the operating temperature should not be too low as to condense the feed
gas.
Tray Column
The types of trays used in absorption include: sieve tray, valve tray and
bubble-cap trays. These internals are the same as those covered in
"Distillation".
Packed Column
Both random and structured packings had been used. Again, please refer to
the topics covered in "Distillation".
Spray Column
Bubble Column
The gas is forced under pressure through perforated pipes submerged in the
scrubbing liquid. As such the gas phase is dispersed and the liquid phase is
continuous. As the bubbles rise through the liquid, absorption of the gas
occurs. This type of device suffers from the high pressure drop due to the
liquid hydrostatic head.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: Jignesh M.Vasoya
Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli MTT
higher than ambient pressure. Operating temperature is kept low, but not to
condense the feed gas.
In the absorber, H2S is removed from the incoming sour gas by contacting it
with liquid amine (DEA or MEA) in a counter-current manner. The amine
solution (known as lean amine) enters the column at the top. The gas leaves
the absorber as sweet gas with the H2S removed. The amine solution that
leaves the bottom of the column is rich in absorbed H2S (known as rich
amine) and is feed to the stripper or regenerator.
In the regenerator, the opposite process takes place whereby H2S is removed
from rich amine by counter-current contact with steam. The amine stripped
of H2S leaves the bottom of the regenerator is send back to the scrubber as
lean amine for more absorption. The entire process takes place essentially in
a closed loop.
Note that in this case, the liquid entering the absorber is no longer pure (i.e.
x2 is not 0) as it may contain traces of H2S in the entering liquid amine.
Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: Jignesh M.Vasoya
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1. Distillation
Distillation is a unit operation in which 2 or more miscible substances are separated to
relatively pure products by using vaporization and condensation of the mixture. The
liquid with lower boiling point is vaporized and condensed in a separate flask.
2. Theory of distillaiton
A. Vaporization and Condensation
a) For any liquid, the individual molecules within the liquid are continuously in
motion
b) A small percentage of these molecules attain enough kinetic energy to leave the
liquid phase
c) This exerts an opposing pressure on the atmosphere above the solution known as
the vapor pressure, P
Vapor Pressure, P
d) When enough energy, in the form of heat, is imparted to the solution the vapor
pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure and the liquid begins to
boil
3. Types of distillation
a) Simple (Differential) distillation
b) Fractional distillation
Batch distillation: The feed to this type of distillation is fed initially only and then the
distillation is operated. At the time of distillation process, there is no supply of feed or
removal of product. (Above figures are batch distillation operations)
Continuous distillation: This type of distillation consists of continuous supply of feed and
continuous removal of products.
b) Distillation stage
c) Rectifying section:
d) Stripping section
f) Overhead product (Light component with low boiling point) and Reflux
Prepared by:
Jignesh Vasoya
Lecturer
N.G.POLYTECHNIC,ISROLI
,
Total condenser
Distillation
Reflux drum
Overhead vapor
Boilup
Stripping section stages N
Partial reboiler
Bottoms
` Physical Adsorption
◦ Result of intermolecular forces causing preferential
binding of certain substances to certain adsorbents
◦ Reversible by addition of heat (via steam, hot inert gas,
oven)
◦ Attachment to the outer layer of adsorbent material
` Ch i
Chemisorption
ti
◦ Result of chemical interaction
◦ Large amount heat released
◦ Irreversible
◦ Mainly found in catalysis
Fundamentals of Mass
T
Transfer
f Operations
O i
Mr. R. M. Patel
Lecturer,
Chemical engineering Department,
N G
N. G. PPatell Polytechnic,
P l h i
Bardoli.
Fick’s
Fick s Law
Rate or molar Flux is of two types:
yp
Flux relative to a fixed location, NA
Flux relative to the average molar velocity of all components, JA.
Th unit
The i off b
both
h fl
fluxes is
i moles/(time.
l /( i area).
)
dC A
J A = − DAB − − − − − − − − − (1)
d
dz
xA = C A / C
If two components A and B are flowing with same rate but in opposite
direction, -
di i JA= JB, CA+CB=constant, DAB =D
DBA
If two components A and B are flowing with same rate but in same direction,
diffusion of NA and NB in z-
z-
direction
N A DABC ⎡ ( N A /( N A + N B )) − (C A2 / C ) ⎤
NA = ln ⎢ ⎥ − − − − − − − − − −(3)
NA + NA z ⎣ A
( N /( N A + N B )) − (C A1 / C ) ⎦
where,
PA= partial pressure of component A in gas
PT= Total pressure of gas mixture
R is universal gas constant
T is absolute temperature of gas
yA1 mole fraction of component A at location z=1
yA2 mole fraction of component A at location z=2
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DAB PT
NA = ( PA1 − PA 2 ) − − − − − − − − − − − −(5)
RTz PB ,M
Where, PB 2 − PB1
PB , M =
ln( PB 2 / PB1 )
N A = k x′ ( x A1 − x A2 ) = k L′ (C A1 − C A 2 ) (For Liquids)
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kα D 0.5
AB
Equilibrium Curve
kx, ky = liquid
liquid- and gas-phase
gas phase mass transfer coefficients,
coefficients
Kx, Ky = liquid & gas-phase overall mass transfer coefficients,
[kmol m–2 s–1],
NA* is the molar flux [kmol m–2 s–1],]
xS is the equilibrium mole fraction of the liquid at the interface,
x∞ is the mole fraction of the bulk liquid,
x* is the mole fraction of the liquid in equilibrium with the bulk gas,gas
yS is the equilibrium mole fraction of the gas at the interface,
y∞ is the mole fraction of the bulk gas,
y** is the mole
m le fraction
fr ti n off the gass in eq
equilibrium
ilibri m with
ith the bulk
b lk liquid
liq id
1 1 m′ 1 1 1
= + = +
K y ky kx K x m′′k y k x
Steady state co
co--current processes
Equation
q of a straight
g line on X,, Y coordinates with slope
p = -RS //ES.
Operating Line – Co
Co--current
Processes
Counter-current processes
Counter-
(Operating Line)
MASS TRANSFER
TECHNOLOGY
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Chemical Engineer(Gold Medalist)
Lecturer
N.G.POLYTECHNIC,ISROLI
Drying
• Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the
removal of water moisture or moisture from
another
th solvent,
l t by b evaporationti fromf a solid,
lid semi-i
solid or liquid (hereafter product). To be considered
"drying"
drying , the final product must be a solid, solid either as
a continuous sheet (e.g., paper), as long pieces
((e.g.,
g , wood),), pparticles ((cereal ggrains,, corn flakes)) or
in powder form (sand, salt, washing powder, milk
powder). To achieve this, there must be a source of
heat, and a sink of the vapor thus produced. In
bioproducts(food,grains,vaccines),and
pharmaceuticals the solvent to be removed is
almost invariably water.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
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Crystallization
• C
Crystallization
t lli ti is i the
th (natural
( t l or artificial)
tifi i l) process off
formation of solid crystals precipitating from a
solution melt or more rarely deposited directly from a
solution,
gas. Crystallization is also a chemical solid-liquid
separation technique, in which mass transfer of a
solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid
crystalline phase occurs.
• The crystallization process consists of two major
events, nucleation and crystal growth. Nucleation is
th step
the t whereh th solute
the l t molecules
l l dispersed
di d in
i the
th
solvent start to gather into clusters, on the nanometer
scale (elevating solute concentration in a small
region), that becomes stable under the current
operating conditions.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
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• Leachingg ((metallurgy),
gy) a widelyy used extractive
metallurgy technique which converts metals into
soluble salts in aqueous media
– Dump leaching,
leaching an industrial process to extract
metals from ore taken directly from the mine and
stacked on the leach pad without crushing
– Heap
H l hi
leaching, an industrial
i d t i l process to
t extract
t t
metals from ore which has been crushed into small
chunks
– Tank leaching, a hydrometallurgical method of
extracting valuable material from ore
– In-situ
In situ leaching,
leaching a process of recovering minerals
such as copper and uranium through boreholes
drilled into the deposit
• Leachingg (p
(pedology),
gy), the loss of mineral and organic
g
solutes due to percolation from soil
• Bioleaching, the extraction of specific metals from
their ores through the use of bacteria
• In cooking, leaching generally refers to Parboiling.
Tray Dryer
• A tray
t D
Dryer i an enclosed
is l d insulated
i l t d chamber
h b in i
which trays are placed on top of each other in
trolleys. Tray Dryer are used where heating and
drying are essential parts of manufacturing process in
industries such as Chemicals, Dye stuff,
Pharmaceutical,, Food Products,, Colours etc. The
material to be dried either wet or solids are placed in
the trays. Heat transfer is by circulation of hot air by
electric heaters or steam in radiator coils. Blower
fans are installed inside to ensure proper circulation
and transfer of heat. A control panel to control the
temperature and other parameters is fixed outside the
dryer. These dryers are available in Mild Steel,
Stainless Steel or construction. Tray dryer is used for
drying of pigments,
pigments food,food bakery,
bakery electrodes,
electrodes
chemical and plastic powders.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
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Rotary Dryers
• Rotary dryers which are generally used in various
industries, especially in the mineral industry. In
mineral industry, the equipment is used for drying
commodity
dit suchh as clay,
l k li gypsum, mineral
kaolin, i l
sand, limestone, potash and silica sand. This
equipment is suitable for evaporating and drying of
wide
id range off material i l off variegated
i d sizes
i andd
composition. To lift, distribute and transport the
material some internal lifters or flights
g are used. We
offer co-current direct-heat rotary dryer which is
the most common equipment available in the market.
In this equipment,
q p , the initial heat transfer level is veryy
high which creates a considerable drop in temperature
and prevents over heating of the dryer as well as the
material.
This equipment
q p find application
pp in the pproduction
process of the following products:
• floatation concentrates
• coal/coke
• y , pphosphates
clays, p
• suifilter cakes
• minerals,, fertilizers
• beet pulp
• germ stillage
germ,
• sludges
• animal feeds
Rotary Dryer
Cooling tower
• Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to
transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere. Cooling
towers mayy either use the evaporation
p of water to
remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near
the wet-bulb air temperature or rely solely on air to
cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air
temperature. Common applications include cooling the
circulating water used in oil refineries,
refineries chemical
plants, power stations and building cooling. The
towerss va
towe vary
y in ssizee from
o ssmall
a roof-top
oo top uunits
ts to ve
veryy
large hyperboloid structures (as in Image 1) that can be
up to 200 metres tall and 100 metres in diameter, or
rectangular structures (as in Image 2) that can be over
40 metres tall and 80 metres long.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
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THANK YOU
THANK YOU
MASS TRANSFER
TECHNOLOGY
Prepared by:
Jignesh Vasoya
Chemical Engineer(Gold Medalist)
Lecturer
N.G.POLYTECHNIC,ISROLI
Drying
• Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the
removal of water moisture or moisture from
another
th solvent,
l t by b evaporationti fromf a solid,
lid semi-i
solid or liquid (hereafter product). To be considered
"drying"
drying , the final product must be a solid, solid either as
a continuous sheet (e.g., paper), as long pieces
((e.g.,
g , wood),), pparticles ((cereal ggrains,, corn flakes)) or
in powder form (sand, salt, washing powder, milk
powder). To achieve this, there must be a source of
heat, and a sink of the vapor thus produced. In
bioproducts(food,grains,vaccines),and
pharmaceuticals the solvent to be removed is
almost invariably water.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Crystallization
• C
Crystallization
t lli ti is i the
th (natural
( t l or artificial)
tifi i l) process off
formation of solid crystals precipitating from a
solution melt or more rarely deposited directly from a
solution,
gas. Crystallization is also a chemical solid-liquid
separation technique, in which mass transfer of a
solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid
crystalline phase occurs.
• The crystallization process consists of two major
events, nucleation and crystal growth. Nucleation is
th step
the t whereh th solute
the l t molecules
l l dispersed
di d in
i the
th
solvent start to gather into clusters, on the nanometer
scale (elevating solute concentration in a small
region), that becomes stable under the current
operating conditions.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
• Leachingg ((metallurgy),
gy) a widelyy used extractive
metallurgy technique which converts metals into
soluble salts in aqueous media
– Dump leaching,
leaching an industrial process to extract
metals from ore taken directly from the mine and
stacked on the leach pad without crushing
– Heap
H l hi
leaching, an industrial
i d t i l process to
t extract
t t
metals from ore which has been crushed into small
chunks
– Tank leaching, a hydrometallurgical method of
extracting valuable material from ore
– In-situ
In situ leaching,
leaching a process of recovering minerals
such as copper and uranium through boreholes
drilled into the deposit
• Leachingg (p
(pedology),
gy), the loss of mineral and organic
g
solutes due to percolation from soil
• Bioleaching, the extraction of specific metals from
their ores through the use of bacteria
• In cooking, leaching generally refers to Parboiling.
Tray Dryer
• A tray
t D
Dryer i an enclosed
is l d insulated
i l t d chamber
h b in i
which trays are placed on top of each other in
trolleys. Tray Dryer are used where heating and
drying are essential parts of manufacturing process in
industries such as Chemicals, Dye stuff,
Pharmaceutical,, Food Products,, Colours etc. The
material to be dried either wet or solids are placed in
the trays. Heat transfer is by circulation of hot air by
electric heaters or steam in radiator coils. Blower
fans are installed inside to ensure proper circulation
and transfer of heat. A control panel to control the
temperature and other parameters is fixed outside the
dryer. These dryers are available in Mild Steel,
Stainless Steel or construction. Tray dryer is used for
drying of pigments,
pigments food,food bakery,
bakery electrodes,
electrodes
chemical and plastic powders.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Rotary Dryers
• Rotary dryers which are generally used in various
industries, especially in the mineral industry. In
mineral industry, the equipment is used for drying
commodity
dit suchh as clay,
l k li gypsum, mineral
kaolin, i l
sand, limestone, potash and silica sand. This
equipment is suitable for evaporating and drying of
wide
id range off material i l off variegated
i d sizes
i andd
composition. To lift, distribute and transport the
material some internal lifters or flights
g are used. We
offer co-current direct-heat rotary dryer which is
the most common equipment available in the market.
In this equipment,
q p , the initial heat transfer level is veryy
high which creates a considerable drop in temperature
and prevents over heating of the dryer as well as the
material.
This equipment
q p find application
pp in the pproduction
process of the following products:
• floatation concentrates
• coal/coke
• y , pphosphates
clays, p
• suifilter cakes
• minerals,, fertilizers
• beet pulp
• germ stillage
germ,
• sludges
• animal feeds
Rotary Dryer
Cooling tower
• Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to
transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere. Cooling
towers mayy either use the evaporation
p of water to
remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near
the wet-bulb air temperature or rely solely on air to
cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air
temperature. Common applications include cooling the
circulating water used in oil refineries,
refineries chemical
plants, power stations and building cooling. The
towerss va
towe vary
y in ssizee from
o ssmall
a roof-top
oo top uunits
ts to ve
veryy
large hyperboloid structures (as in Image 1) that can be
up to 200 metres tall and 100 metres in diameter, or
rectangular structures (as in Image 2) that can be over
40 metres tall and 80 metres long.
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
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THANK YOU
THANK YOU
Distillation
R. M. Patel
Distillation in Industries
Why distillation?
• Distillation is used separate 2 or
more miscible substance substances
(Ex: Ethanol & Water)
• It increases purity of substance
present in the mixture (Both Ethanol
& Water).
• It uses vaporization
i ti and
d
condensation method for purification.
Distillation - Theory
1. For any liquid, the individual molecules within the liquid are
continuously in motion
Vapor Pressure, P
Distillation - Theory
The vapor
obtained
from a boiling
liquid, once
cooled, will
re-condense
to a liquid
known as the
distillate
The complete
process is
called
ll d a
distillation
DISTILLATION SYSTEM
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Simple (Differential)
Distillation
Fractional Distillation
Distillation separation of
Ethanol
Ethanol--water
Water
Ethanol +
Water
Movie of distillation
Vapor-Liquid
Vapor Liquid Equilibrium Relations
Raoult’s Law
p A = PA x A (1)
Where
pA is the partial pressure of component A in the vapor in Pa (atm)
PA is the vapor pressure of pure A in Pa (atm)
xA is the mole fraction of A in the liquid.
Boiling-Point
Boiling Point Diagrams and xy Plots
14
Differential distillation
Differential Distillation
The pot is filled with liquid mixture
and heated.
In a distillation column the stages (referred to as sieve plates or trays) in a distillation tower are
arranged vertically, as shown schematically in figure below.
In a distillation column the stages (referred to as sieve plates or trays) in a distillation tower are
arranged vertically, as shown schematically in figure below.
Continuous distillation
Industrial Distillation
column
Mccabe.swf
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Distillation Design
4 1 Vapor-Liquid
4.1 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium Relations
4.1.1 Raoult’s Law
p A = PA x A (1)
Where
pA is the partial pressure of component A in the vapor in Pa (atm)
PA is the vapor pressure of pure A in Pa (atm)
xA is the mole fraction of A in the liquid.
4.1.2 Boiling-Point
Boiling Point Diagrams and xy Plots
4.1.2 Boiling-Point
Boiling Point Diagrams and xy Plots
The boiling point diagram can be calculated from (1) the pure vapor-
pressure data in the table below and (2) the following equations:
p A + pB = P (4)
PA x A + PB (1 − x A ) = P
(5)
p A PA x A
yA = =
P P (6)
Where
pA, pB are the partial pressure of component A and B in the vapor in Pa (atm)
PA , PB are the vapor pressure of pure A and pure B in Pa (atm)
P is total pressure in Pa (atm)
xA is the mole fraction of A in the liquid.
6
The boiling point diagram can be calculated from (1) the pure vapor-
pressure data in the table below and (2) the following equations:
Solution: At 95ºC from Table 1 for benzene, PA = 155.7 kPa and PB = 63.3
kPa. Substituting into Eq.(5) and solving,
PA x A + PB (1 − x A ) = P
155 7( A) + 63.3(1-x
155.7(x 63 3(1 A) = 101.32
101 32 kPa
kP (760 mmHg)
H )
p A PA x A 155.7(0.411)
yA = = = = 0.632
P P 101.32
The boiling
gp point diagram
g can be calculated from the p
pure vapor-pressure
p p
data in the table below and the following equations:
4 1 Vapor
4.1 Vapor-Liquid
Liquid Equilibrium Relations
4.1.2 Boiling-Point Diagrams and xy Plots
12
V1 V2
Where
V1, V2 is a vapor
L0, L1is a liquid
L0 L1
Mass A balance: L0 x A0 + V2 y A 2 = L1 x A1 + V1 y A1 = Mx AM
14
L0 x A0 + V2 y A 2 = L1 x A1 + V1 y A1 = Mx AM
To solve equation above, the equilibrium relation between yA1 and xA1 in
figure below must be used.
First, we assume that xA1 = 0.20 and substitute into equation above to
solve for yA1.
16
4 2 1 Relative
4.2.1 R l ti Volatility
V l tilit off Vapor-Liquid
V Li id Systems
S t
Relative volatility(α AB )
It is a measure of the differences in volatility between 2 components, and hence their boiling
points. It indicates how easy or difficult a particular separation will be.
y A / xA y A / xA
α AB = =
y B / xB (1 − y A )(1 − x A )
Where αAB is the relative volatility of A with respect to B in the binary system.
P x PB xB
Raoult’s law: yA = A A yB =
P P
PA
α AB =
PB
α AB x A
yA =
1 + (α AB − 1) x A
Ex 4.3 Using data from table 1 calculate the relative volatility for the
benzene-toluene system at 85ºC (358.2K) and 105ºC (378.2K)
Similarly at 105ºC,
204.2
α= = 2.38
86.0
18
R tifi iti (f
Rectificaition (fractionation)
ti ti ) or stage
t di
distillation
till ti with fl is
ith reflux i
a series of flash-vaporization stages are arranged in a series which the vapor and liquid
products from each stage flow countercurrently to each other.
The liquid in a stage is conducted or flows to the stage below and the vapor from a stage
flow upward to the stage above.
V1 V2 V3 V2 Vn Vn+1
L0 L1 L2 L1 Ln-1 Ln
A component balance on A: Vn +1 y n +1 + Ln −1 x n −1 = Vn y n + Ln x n
19
Main assumption
1) Equimolar overflow through the tower between the feed inlet and the top tray and
the feed inlet and bottom tray.
2) Liquid and vapor streams enter a tray, are equilibrated, and leave.
20
Vn +1 + Ln −1 = Vn + Ln
A component A balance:
Vn +1 y n +1 + Ln −1 x n −1 = Vn y n + Ln x n
Where
Vn+1 is mol/h of vapor from tray n+1
Ln is mol/h liquid from tray n
yn+1 is mole fraction of A in Vn+1 and so on.
21
F = D +W (1)
A component A balance:
Fx F = Dx D + Wx w (2)
Where
F is the entering feed (mol/h)
D is the distillate (mol/h)
W is the bottoms (mol/h)
22
23
Ln Dx
yn +1 = xn + D (5)
Vn +1 Vn +1
R x
y n +1 = xn + D (6)
R +1 R +1
24
The theoretical stages are determined by starting at xD and stepping off the first
plate to x1. Then y2 is the composition of the vapor passing the liquid x1.
I a similar
In i il manner, th
the other
th ththeoretical
ti l ttrays are stepped
t d off
ff d
down th
the ttower iin
the enriching section to the feed tray.
25
Lm Dx
ym +1 = xm + D (9)
Vm +1 Vm +1
27
The theoretical stages for the stripping section are determined by starting at
xW, going up to yW, and then across to the operating line
line, etc
etc.
28
The condition of feed stream is represented by the quantity q, which is the mole
fraction of liquid in feed.
Lm = Ln + qF (10)
Vn = Vm + (1 − q) F (11)
Vn y = Ln x + Dx D (12)
Vm y = Lm x − Wx w (13)
Where
e e tthe
eyaandd x values
a ues a
are
e tthe
e po
pointt o
of
intersection of the two operating lines.
Subtracting eqn.(3) from eqn.(4),
(Vm − Vn ) y = ( Lm − Ln ) x − ( Dx D + Wx w ) (14)
29
q x
y= x− F (15)
q −1 q −1
c pL (Tb − TF ) c pV (TF − Td )
q = 1+ q = 1+
λ λ
where
CpL, CpV = specific heats of liquid and vapor, respectively
TF = temperature of feed
Tb, Td = bubble point and dew point of feed respectively
λ = heat of vaporization
30
From eqn.(15), the q-line equation and is the locus of the intersection of the two
operating lines. Setting y = x in eqn(15), the intersection of the q-line equation
with the 45º line is y=x=xF, where xF is the overall composition of the feed.
In given below the figure, the q line is plotted for various feed conditions. The
slope of the q line is q/(q-1).
q = 0 (saturated vapor)
q = 1 (saturated liquid)
q > 1(subcooled liquid)
q < 0 (superheated vapor)
0 < q < 1 (mix of liquid and
vapor)
31
1st point
2nd point
3rd point
n = 7 =number of tray + reboiler
Number of tray = 6
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"
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Slope = R/(R+1)
Slope = q/(1-q)
Slope = L/ V
Solution (a)
40 97 2
78 xD = 78 = 0.974 78
xF = = 0.440 xB = = 0.0235
40 60 97 3 2 98
+ + +
78 92 78 92 78 92
100
The average molecular weight of the feed is = 85 . 8
40 60
+
78 92
The average of heat vaporization is λ = 0 .44 ( 7 ,360 ) + 0 .56 ( 7 ,960 ) = 7 ,696 cal / gmol
q x
y= x− F
q −1 q −1
The slope of the feed line is -1.37/(1-1.37) = 3.70. When steps are drawn
for this case, as shown in Fig. below, it is found that a reboiler and 10
ideal pplates are needed and that the feed should be introduced on the
sixth plate.
One limiting values of reflux ratio is that of total reflux, or R = ∞. Since R = Ln/D
and, by eqn.(16).
Vn +1 = Ln + D (16)
Then Ln is very large, as is the vapor flow Vn. This means that the slope R/(R+1)
of the enriching operating line becomes 1.0 and the operating lines of both
sections of the column coincide with the 45º diagonol line, as shown in Fig below.
42
⎛ x 1 − xw ⎞
Minimum number of theoretical steps Nm log⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟
when a total condenser is used (α is constant). Nm = ⎝ 1 − x D xw ⎠
logg α av
For small variations in α, α av = (α1α w )
1/ 2
43
The minimum reflux ratio (Rm) will require an infinite number of trays for the given
separation desired of xD and xW.
If R is decreased,
decreased the slope of the enriching operating line R/(R+1) is decreased,
decreased
and the intersection of this line and the stripping line with the q line moves farther
from the 45º line and closer to the equilibrium line.
Rm x − y′
= D
Rm +1 xD − x′
44
4.3.3C Operating
p g and optimum
p reflux ratio
Total reflux = number of plates is a minimum, but the tower diameter is infinite.
This corresponds to an infinite cost of tower and steam and cooling water.
water This
is the limit in the tower operation.
Minimum reflux = number of trays is infinite, which again gives an infinite cost.
These are the two limits in operation of the tower.
Actual operating reflux ratio to use is in between these two limits. The optimum
reflux ratio to use for lowest total cost per year is between the minimum Rm and
total reflux (1.2Rm to 1.5Rm).
45
Ex 4.5 What are (a) the minimum reflux ratio and (b) the minimum
number of plates for cases (b)(i), (b)(ii), and (b)(iii) of EX 4.7 if
αavis given as 2.47.
Solution (a)
For minimum reflux ratio use eqn. (x). Here xD = 0.974. The results are
given in Table below
below.
Solution (b)
For minimum number of plates,
plates the reflux ratio is infinite,
infinite the operating
lines coincide with the diagonal, and there are no differences among
the three cases. Use the αav 2.47 and equation below we get,
⎛ x 1 − xw ⎞
log⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 − x x w ⎠ ⎛ 0.974 × 0.976 ⎞
Nm = D
= ln⎜ ⎟ −1
log α av ⎝ 0.024 × 0.026 ⎠
= 8.105 − 1 = 7
The minimum number of ideal plates is 7 plus a reboiler. 46
Homework No.6
Homework No.8
Temperature Temperature
K ºC xH yH K ºC xH yH
409.3 136.1 0 0 383.8 110.6 0.485 0.730
402.6 129.4 0.08 0.23 376.0 102.8 0.790 0.904
392.6 119.4 0.25 0.514 371.5 98.3 1.000 1.000
EXPERIMENT‐1 Date:
Mass Transfer Technology (Prepared By: Mr. J. M. Vasoya)
Tray & Rotary Dryer
Objective: ‐ To measure moisture content of the given sample by using tray
& rotary drier& Find out Drying time.
Apparatus: ‐ Tray drier, Rotary drier, weight machine, dish
Chemicals: ‐ sand, water
Theory:‐
Tray dryer : It is the simplest batch dryer. It consists of enclosed insulated
cabinet into which material to be dried is placed on a number of trays. The
tray may be fabricated from sheets or from screens. It is provided with the
inlet and outlet connection for air. A heating coil either electrical or steam
heating is incorporated in it.
The material to be dried is spread over the trays and put into the cabinet
and then it is closed. The steam is continuously passed through the coil and
fan is started. Air is heated by heating coils, its relative humidity decreases
and hot air then passes over the trays. The moisture is evaporated from
wet feed, gets added in air and finally air leaves the dryer through the
outlet.
Rotary dryer: This type of dryer, that may be directly or indirectly heated, is
adopted for drying of free flowing granular materials on large scale. It
consists of hollow cylindrical shell, set with its axis at a slight angle to the
horizontal, so that the material is consequently advanced through the dryer
from one end to another end.
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It is supported on the supporting rollers so that it can be rotated. To avoid
its slipping over the rollers, it is fitted with thrust wheels. It is fitted inside
with flights which lift the material upward and shower it down from the
top. The material to be dried is fed at the high end of the dryer by a hopper
and the product is taken out from the lower end of the dryer. The material
moves through dryer by virtue of rotation, heat effect and inclination of the
cylindrical shell.
Rate of drying:
The rate,
Nc =Ky (Ys – Y)
Where,
Nc = Rate of drying,
Ky = Gas mass transfer co – efficient,
Y = Absolute humidity
Ys = Saturated temperature at drying surface,
Temperature co –efficient; constant
Also,
Where,
Ss = mass of dry solid
A = cross section of bed
X = moisture content i.e. mass of moisture / mass of dry
solids
Drying Time:
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Drying Time= Ss/A ∫ dx/N
Procedure:‐
Tray drier
1. Take an empty pan & weigh it.
2. Put 500gm sand in it & distribute it through the X‐
surface of the pan.
3. Add 100gm of water into sand & again weight the
pan with wet solid.
4. Now start the experiment by starting the heat &
adjust temperature here about 100 0 C & wait till
steady state is achieved.
5. Put the pan in oven & note down the weigh of the
pan initially after two minutes & then after every gm
of loss of the weight.
Rotary Drier
1. Feed material in rotary drier and operate drier for 10
minutes.
2. Weigh remove sample & record data.
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Observations:‐
Tray dryer
1. Weight of empty pan = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm.
2. Weight of pan + dry solid = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm.
3. Weight of pan + dry solid + H2O = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm.
4. Temperature = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 0 C.
5. Weight of dry solid = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐gm.
Rotary dryer
1. Dry solid + H2O = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm.
2. Weight of dry solid= ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐gm.
Observation Table for Tray Dryer:‐
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Graph:‐1/N vs X
Result: ‐
Drying Time=
Conclusion:‐
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Experiment: 02
Distillation – Separation of a Mixture
Date: 31/10/10
Purpose:
a)
To purify a compound by separating it from a non-volatile or less-volatile material.
b)
To separate a mixture of two miscible liquids (liquids that mix in all proportions) with
different boiling points.
Equipment / Materials:
large test tubes(3) test tube rack (1) 10-mL graduated cylinder 50- mL round bottom
flask
clamp (1 or 2) heating mantle condenser (1 or 2) thermometer
ringstand glass adaptor grease rubber tubing (2)
boiling chips thermometer adaptor 50- mL round bottom flask unknowns ( A and
B)
In this experiment you will perform several distillations. You will compare
distillations of a mixture of Benzene and Toluene using the glassware set-up for
a simple distillation and one for fractional distillation. You will also measure the
boiling point-range for an unknown compound and use this information as an aid in its
identification from Table 1 of possible substances.
Pairs of students will perform this experiment. Each pair will conduct either the simple
distillation procedure or the fractional distillation procedure. Results will be shared
between two groups, so that everyone has data for both simple and fractional distillation.
Also remember Benzene and Toluene are flammable. Never add boiling chips to hot
liquid and never distill the flask to dryness. Some organic compounds form peroxide,
which explode upon dryness and concentration. All glassware must be clamped in place.
Experimental Procedures
Place 30 ml of an unknown liquid mixture (15ml A + 15 ml B) that is to be purified by
simple distillation and for which the boiling point range is to be determined.
Assemble the assigned distillation apparatus (simple or fractional). Transfer the unknown
liquid to a 50 mL round bottom flask (this will be the distilling pot). Add one boiling
stone, and proceed to distill the liquid into a 10 mL graduated cylinder (this will be the
receiver). Check the position of the thermometer (the bulb of the thermometer must be
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below the arm of the distillation head) and make sure that the bottom of the distillating
pot touching the heating surface of the heating mantel. Securely attach a piece of
condenser tubing to each condenser outlets. Securely connect the other end of the “water
in” tubing to the water jet in the sink (or hood). Place the other end of the “water out”
tubing in the sink (or back of the hood). Plug in the heating mantle and before heating
your distillation apparatus or turning on the water for cooling the condenser, have your
laboratory instructor check your distillation apparatus.
After your laboratory instructor has checked your apparatus, slowly turn on the water for
condenser, and begin heating. Adjust the heating mantle to maintain a distillation rate of
one drop per second. As the lower boiling component is distilled, the boiling point of the
mixture in the distillation flask will increase.
Record the temperature after the first drop is collected and again after every 2 ml of
distillate is collected. After the 10 ml of distillate has been collected, you will have to
empty the graduated cylinder into a test tube as it fills. Cover and label the test tube first
fraction (component A). KEEP IT.
Collect the next 10 ml of distillate, again recording the temperature after every 1 ml of
distillate. After the second 10 ml of distillate has been collected, you will have to empty
the graduated cylinder into a test tube as it fills and DISCARD IT in organic waste
container.
Collection of last portion of distillate should continue until the temperature remains
constant. If the distillation flask is approaching dryness, remove the heat source
immediately and after cooling, transfer the distillate and any remaining liquid from the
flask to the third test tube (component B). KEEP IT.
Determine the boiling point range of the first fraction of the collected liquid and the third
portion of the collected liquid. Identify the unknowns by their boiling points using the
possible boiling points of compounds.
Construct a table like that given below, to record the temperature at the distillation "head"
as a function of volume distilled. You will record your data in report form. Plot distillate
temperature (oC) vs. volume of distillate (ml) collected for the mixture with and without
the fractionating column and use the graph to determine the boiling points of the two
compounds in the mixture and identify the compound in the mixture.
Both sets of data will be plotted on the same graph, using different symbols (colors).
Label the two curves.
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Identity of Mixture
Compound A is _____________________
(name)
Compound B is _____________________
(name)
* Fractional Distillation experiments also done. From experiment, they were asked
to write on Fractional distillation and were assessed.
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EXPERIMENT‐3 Date:
Mass Transfer Technology (Prepared By: Mr. J. M. Vasoya)
LIQUID – LIQUID EXTRACTION
Objective: ‐ To obtain stage efficiency for liquid – liquid extraction.
Apparatus:‐Separating funnel, Burette, Pipette, Beaker, Measuring cylinder,
Flask, Thermometer, etc.
Chemicals:‐Benzene (20 ml), Acetic acid (20 ml), Water (40 ml), 0.1N NaOH
Solution, Phenolphthalein as an indicator
Theory:‐
Liquid extraction, sometimes called solvent extraction, is the separation of
the constituents of liquid solution by contact with another insoluble liquid.
If the substance constituting the originally between the two liquid phase, a
certain degree of separation will result, and this can be enhanced by use of
multiple contacts or their equivalent in the manner of gas absorption and
distillation.
If a solution of acetic acid in water is agitated with a liquid such as ethyl
acetate, some of the acid but relatively little water will enter the ester
phase. Since at equilibrium the densities of the aqueous and esters layer
are different, they will settle when agitation stops and can be decanted
from each other. Since now the ratio of acid to water in the ester layer is
different from that in the original solution and also different from that in
the residual water solution a certain degree of separation will have
occurred. This is an example of stage wise contact. In all such operations,
the solution which is to be extracted is called the Feed, and the liquid with
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which the feed is contacted is the Solvent. The solvent rich product of the
operation is called the Extract and the residual liquid from which solute has
been removed is the Raffinate stage.
When two insoluble phases are allowed to come in the contact, so that
various substances are distributed themselves into the phase and phase are
mechanically separated. The entire operation and equipment required to
carry it out is called stage.
Stage efficiency: ‐The approach to equilibrium realize in any Stage is
defining stage efficiency.
Procedure:‐
(1) Take 20 ml of acetic acid, 20 ml of Benzene in the flask with the help of
measuring cylinder in the beaker.
(2) Take 40 ml of water by measuring cylinder and add it mixture of acetic
acid and benzene.
(3) Now transfer this mixture into separating funnel and Separate the two
layers.
(4) Measure the volume of two layers.
(5) Collect the lower layer which mainly contains acetic acid
which extracted by water.
(6) Collect 10 ml lower layer and dilute it 10 times. From 100ml total
solutions collect 10 ml and titrate it against 0.1 N NaOH solutions
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Observation:‐
1. Room temperature : ______ oC
2. Volume of water taken : ______ ml
3. Volume of Benzene taken : ______ ml
4. Volume of acetic acid taken : ______ ml
5. Volume of upper layer (Raffinate) : ______ ml
6. Volume of bottom layer (Extract) :______ ml
7. Sp. Gravity of water :______ gm/cc
8. Sp. Gravity of Benzene :______ gm/cc
9. Sp. Gravity of Acetic acid :______ gm/cc
Observation Table for First Stage:‐
Burette :‐
Flask :‐
Indicator:-
Sr. Initial Final Burette Difference Mean
No. Burette Reading Difference
Reading
1.
2.
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Calculation for single stage:
(1) Normality of Acetic acid; N1V1= N2V2
N1= N2V2/V1
N1 =
N1 = Normality of Acetic acid = ________
N2 = Normality of NaoH solution = ________
V1 = Volume of Acetic acid = ________
V2 = Volume of NaoH solution = _________
(2) Concentration of gm/lit = equivalent weight × normality
=
=
(3) Mass of A.A extract = Normality × ml of A.A × Eq.Wt x Lower ext.
1000
=
=
(4) Density = mass
Volume
=
(5) % efficiency: =
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Result:‐
Stage efficiency for single stage is: _____________
Conclusion:‐
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EXPERIMENT‐4 Date:
Mass Transfer Technology (Prepared By: Mr. J. M. Vasoya)
Cooling Tower
Objective: ‐ To cool down hot stream by using air in cooling tower.
Apparatus: ‐ Cooling tower, Digital hydrometer.
Theory:‐
In cooling tower a stream of hot water is cooled by exchange of the
sensible and latent heat and water vapor with a stream of relatively
cool dry air.
The operation of a cooling tower is shown in figure which the hot
water at T2 is introduced at the top of the tower and leaves the
bottom at T1 while the air flows counter current to the water,
entering the bottom at position,
Cooling tower is square shape 250 × 250 mm sides with 800mm
height. The packing used for the cooling tower is sieve plate (total
contact area 1500 cm2)
Air is supplied form 90.5 hp centrifugal blower.
The flow rate by which may be varied. Digital hydrometer is fitted at
the inlet and outlet air to the towers. Air enters the tower through air
distributors. The cooled water is removed from the tower. The
temperature of inlet and outlet water form the tower is taken via air
distributor. The temperature of inlet and outlet water form the
tower is taken in closed proximity to the tower.
The air velocity is measured by means of manometer tapping
pressure taping are made in the tower immediately blow and above
the packing to unable pressure drop reading to be taken.
Procedure:‐
The heater to the water storage tank is set to the desired value with
the tank filled with water line. The water is pumped to the tower.
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The air blower is then started at lower air velocity and system is
allowed to run in this way for l hour to attain steady condition
It is possible to note visual examination if the water flow rate
sufficient under this condition to completely wet.
Observation:‐
Room temperature __________________
Observation Table:‐
Sr. No. Flow rate of Inlet temp. Outlet Humidity
water temp. of
of water
water
m3/sec
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Result:‐
Inlet water temperature __________
Outlet water temperature _________
Conclusion:‐
Quiz:‐
1. Write Principle of Cooling Tower.
2. Write Types of Cooling Tower.
3. What do you mean by Humidity?
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EXPERIMENT‐5 Date:
Mass Transfer Technology (Prepared By: Mr. J.M.Vasoya)
Adsorption
Objective: ‐ Adsorbing Acetic acid on Charcoal.
Apparatus: ‐Titration set, Conical flask, Funnel, Filter paper.
Chemicals: ‐Charcoal, Acetic Acid, NaOH solution, Phenolphthalein.
Theory: ‐
Adsorption is the adhesion of molecules of gas, liquid, or dissolved
solids to a surface. This process creates a film of the adsorbate (the
molecules or atoms being accumulated) on the surface of the
adsorbent. It differs from absorption, in which a fluid permeates or is
dissolved by a liquid or solid. The term sorption encompasses both
processes, while desorption is the reverse of adsorption.
Characteristics and general requirements for adsorbent:
Adsorbents are used usually in the form of spherical pellets, rods,
molding with hydrodynamic diameters between 0.5 and 10 mm. They
must have high abrasion resistance, high thermal stability and small
pore diameters, which results in higher exposed surface area and
hence high surface capacity for adsorption. The adsorbents must also
have a distinct pore structure which enables fast transport of the
gaseous vapors.
The freundlich’s adsorption isotherm
Y = m * Xn
Where,
Y = gm of solute per gm of solvent
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X = gm of solute / gm of adsorbent
N = component in isotherm
M = slope of equilibrium adsorption
isotherm
Taking log both side,
log Y = log m + n log X
Now, plot of log Y v/s log X straight – line slope is n & intercept
is log m.
Procedure:‐
1. Prepare Acetic acid solution (1 N, 0.5 N, 0.25 N, 0.125N, 0.625 N)
by dissolving required Acetic acid in 250 ml of distillate water.
2. Then 2 gm of charcoal weighted five times separately & feed it to
5 different conical flasks.
3. 100 ml Acetic acid is then added to those five conical flasks.
4. Keep for 15 min & then filter all the flasks.
5. After weighing the filtrate titrate it against 0.1 N NaOH solutions
after adding phenolphthalein.
6. The weight of acid adsorbed is calculated from the normality of
filtrate & graph of log Y v/s log X.
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Observation Tables:‐
Equivalent weight of Acetic acid = ________
Table 1:
Sr. Normality Initial Weight of Final conc. Weight of Weight
No. of Acetic conc. of Acetic acid of Acetic Acetic acid Adsorbed,
acid before Acetic in sample acid, gm/lit in sample A‐B = X
Adsorption acid, (A) after gm
gm/lit adsorption
(B)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Table 2:
Sr. Weight of
No. Adsorbent,
X/M ln X/M ln Co
M gm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Calculations:‐
Normality of filtrate:
• N1 = Normality of acetic acid in filtrate
• N2 = Normality of NaOH
• V1 = Volume of filtrate
• V2 = Volume of NaOH ( Burette Reading)
N1 = N2V2/V1
= ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐N
Weight of filtrate:
= Normality * Eq. weight
= ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm/lit
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Weight of Acetic acid in filtrate:
= (gm/lit) / Volume of sample for titration
= ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm
Result:‐
Conclusion:‐
Quiz:‐
1. Define: Adsorption & Desorption.
2. Give the classification of Adsorption.
3. Why do you heat the silica gel sample initially?
4. Give the name of industrial adsorbents with application. (Any Four)
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EXPERIMENT‐6 Date:
Chemical : - water
NA / (NA + NB ) – CA1/ C
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= Kl(CA1- CA2)
NA = Kx “(XA1- XA2)
Relative humidity:
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heating.
(6) Find dry bulb and wet bulb temperature for absolute
Observation:-
Observation table: -
1. 80
2. 50
Calculation : -
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Therefore K = Ky / 18
Conclusion :-
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Heat Engines
Heat Engines
V K Joshi
V K Joshi
Asst Prof
FETR
Contents
• Thermal prime movers
• Definitions
– Heat reservoirs
– Heat sources
– Heat sinkk
– Heat engines
– Refrigerators
– Heat pumps
Heat pumps
• Carnot Cycle
• Air standard cycles
– Otto cycle
Otto cycle
– Diesel cycle
• Rankine cycle
– Device
i
working over a cycle to convert
the heat energy (low grade)
into work energy(high grade)
into work energy(high grade)
Ob
Obey second law of thermodynamics
dl f h d i
– Kelvin Plank statement
Classification
• Internal combustion engine (I.C.)
• External combustion engine (E.C.)
External combustion engine (E.C.)
Definitions
Reservoir
– Source of infinite heat energy
– Finite amount of heat absorbed or rejected
Finite amount of heat absorbed or rejected
– Will not affects its temperature
– Ocean, Atmosphere
O At h
Definitions
Sink
‐ Absorbs heat from a system
Source
‐ Supplies heat to a system
Definitions
• Heat engine
Heat engine
– Produce work continuously
– At the expenses of heat input
At the expenses of heat input
Heat engine
Heat engine
Output
Heat Source η =
Input
T1
= Work
Heat Engine E
Energy
W = Q1‐Q2 = W
Q1
Heat Sink
= Q1 − Q2
T2 Q1
Quiz
A heat engine performs 200 J of work/cycle and
A heat engine performs 200 J of work/cycle and
is 30% efficient. How much energy is absorbed
per cycle?
per cycle?
A. 200 J B. 467 J
C 667 J
C. 667 J D 60 J
D. 60 J
Quiz
A heat engine performs 200 J of work/cycle and
A heat engine performs 200 J of work/cycle and
is 30% efficient. How much energy is absorbed
per cycle?
per cycle?
A. 200 J B. 467 J
C 667 J
C. 667 J D 60 J
D. 60 J
Quiz
A heat engine performs 200 J of work/cycle and
A heat engine performs 200 J of work/cycle and
is 30% efficient. How much energy is expelled
per cycle?
per cycle?
A. 200 J B. 467 J
C 667 J
C. 667 J D 60 J
D. 60 J
Quiz
A heat engine performs 200 J of work/cycle and
A heat engine performs 200 J of work/cycle and
is 30% efficient. How much energy is expelled
per cycle?
per cycle?
A. 200 J B. 467 J
C 667 J
C. 667 J D 60 J
D. 60 J
Quiz
A heat engine takes in 1000 J of energy at 1000
A heat engine takes in 1000 J of energy at 1000
K and exhausts 700 J at 400 K. What is the
actual efficiency of this heat engine?
actual efficiency of this heat engine?
A. 30 % B. 40 %
C 60 %
C. 60 % D 70 %
D. 70 %
Quiz
A heat engine takes in 1000 J of energy at 1000
A heat engine takes in 1000 J of energy at 1000
K and exhausts 700 J at 400 K. What is the
actual efficiency of this heat engine?
actual efficiency of this heat engine?
A. 30 % B. 40 %
C 60 %
C. 60 % D 70 %
D. 70 %
Quiz
What is the theoretical maximum efficiency of
What is the theoretical maximum efficiency of
this heat engine?
A 30 %
A. 30 % B 40 %
B. 40 %
C. 60 % D. 70 %
Quiz
What is the theoretical maximum efficiency of
What is the theoretical maximum efficiency of
this heat engine?
A 30 %
A. 30 % B 40 %
B. 40 %
C. 60 % D. 70 %
C. 60 %
C
Quiz
How should you set the operating temperatures
How should you set the operating temperatures
in order to maximize the efficiency of a heat
engine?
A. Make TL as warm as possible.
B Make ΔT as large as possible.
B. Make ΔT as large as possible
C. Make ΔT as small as possible.
D Make TH as cool as possible.
D. Make T as cool as possible
Quiz
How should you set the operating temperatures
How should you set the operating temperatures
in order to maximize the efficiency of a heat
engine?
A. Make TL as warm as possible.
B Make ΔT as large as possible.
B. Make ΔT as large as possible
C. Make ΔT as small as possible.
D Make TH as cool as possible.
D. Make T as cool as possible
Definitions
• Refrigerator
– Operating in a cycle
– Absorbs heat from a low temperature body
Absorbs heat from a low temperature body
– Rejects heat to high temperature body
– At the expenses of heat input
At th fh ti t
Refrigerator
Refrigerator
Output
COP= Input
= Energy
W k
Work
= Q2
W
= Q1
Q1 − Q2
Quiz
How should you set the operating temperatures
How should you set the operating temperatures
in order to maximize the performance of a
refrigerator?
A. Make TL as warm as possible.
B Make ΔT as large as possible.
B. Make ΔT as large as possible
C. Make ΔT as small as possible.
D Make TH as cool as possible.
D. Make T as cool as possible
Quiz
How should you set the operating temperatures
How should you set the operating temperatures
in order to maximize the performance of a
refrigerator?
A. Make TL as warm as possible.
B Make ΔT as large as possible.
B. Make ΔT as large as possible
C. Make ΔT as small as possible.
D Make TH as cool as possible
D. Make T as cool as possible
Quiz
Can the coefficient of performance of a
Can the coefficient of performance of a
refrigerator be greater than one?
A Yes
A. Yes B No
B. No
Quiz
Can the coefficient of performance of a
Can the coefficient of performance of a
refrigerator be greater than one?
A Yes
A. Yes B No
B. No
Good COP values for actual refrigerators can be
3 or more.
Quiz
An ideal refrigerator runs between 0
An ideal refrigerator runs between 0°C
C and 25
and 25°C
C.
It removes 8000 kJ/h from the cold region.
What minimum power is required?
What minimum power is required?
A. 204 W B. 320 W
C 400 W
C. 400 W D 733 W
D. 733 W
Quiz
An ideal refrigerator runs between 0°C and 25°C.
It removes 8000 kJ/h from the cold region.
What minimum power is required?
A. 204 W B. 320 W
C. 400 W D. 733 W
Thermal Process
Quiz
Quiz