Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
This paper argues the importance of action research and critical reflection in the study of affective
factors and language learning strategies in foreign language teaching. The starting point is a
description of what affective factors and language learning strategies are and why Colombian EFL
teachers should address these issues. Critical reflection and action research are, then, presented
as rigorous and systematic activities that teachers could engage in to help their students deal with
the emotional difficulties of social interaction and language learning, to open their own work
to inspection and, more importantly, to construct valid accounts of their educational practices.
Finally, action research is proposed as a powerful means for developing teacher and learner
autonomy.
Key words: Action research, teacher and learner autonomy, critical reflection, affective factors,
language learning strategies (LLS)
Palabras Clave: Investigación acción, autonomía del profesor y del estudiante, reflexión crítica,
factores afectivos, estrategias de aprendizaje de lengua
* E-mail: yamithjose@gmail.com
Address: Cra 78 J Bis No. 57 B – 31 Bogotá, Colombia.
This article was received on January 30, 2008 and accepted on September 22, 2008.
196 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
(LLS). According to Oxford (1990, p. 1), beliefs and attitudes can no longer be
language learning strategies are specific denied and the inner needs of their learners
actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques can no longer be neglected (Andres, 2002).
that students (often intentionally) use Similarly, they can enhance the foreign
to improve their progress in developing language learning process by making
L2 skills and communicative ability. The students aware of LLS, helping students
past three decades have seen a growing understand good LLS, training them to
interest in studying how language learning develop them and, ultimately, encouraging
strategies help students acquire a second their use (Graham, 1997; Chamot &
or foreign language (Stawowy, 2004). LLS O’Malley, 1994). As a result, affective factors
theorists attribute students’ success rate and LLS are issues that Colombian EFL
in language learning to the varying use of teachers need to reflect on, not simply items
strategies. Furthermore, they believe that with which to improve language teaching
these strategies are teachable skills, meaning and education in the process, but, more
that teachers can help in the language importantly, means to help students live
learning process by getting students aware more satisfying lives and be responsible
of strategies and encouraging their use. members of society by exercising reflection
and autonomy.
Thus, Colombian EFL teachers can heighten
Williams & Burden (1997, p. 28)
learner awareness about affection and other
reinforce the idea of working on affective
relevant issues (memorization, cognition,
factors in language teaching when they
metacognition, etc) by providing strategy
affirm that education must focus on the
training as part of the foreign language
learner as a developing individual making
curriculum (See Appendix 1).
sense of and constructing meaning in his/
her own world. In their model, the learner
Affective Factors and Language is an individual with affective needs and
Learning Strategies as Issues for reactions which must be considered as
Colombian EFL Teachers an integral part of learning, as also must
the particular life contexts of those who
The inadequate familiarity with LLS are involved in the teaching-learning
and the negligible awareness of affective process. Tooman (2006) concurs with these
factors that EFL students have are issues that authors when she states that stimulating
Colombian EFL teachers need to address the affective dimension of learning is vital
in order to aid their students in mastering for (adult) education because learners
English successfully; indeed, it is a tool become bored and may abdicate from
that can assist them in satisfying certain sustained learning endeavors without the
personal, social, professional and cultural emotive stimuli in the affective dimension.
needs, wants, and goals. If Colombian EFL To Tooman, educators must deal with the
teachers want their students to develop their whole person in and out of the classroom
inherent potential to learn, affective factors if they want to succeed in their efforts to
such as anxiety, motivation, self-esteem, facilitate human growth and development
PROFILE 10, 2008. ISSN 1657-0790. Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 195-210 197
and the integration of the person’s mind, that educators should help students learn
body, spirit, emotions, relationships, and throughout life, which consists of helping
socio-cultural context. students learn to know, learn to do, learn to
The work on affective factors has been live together and learn to be. Accordingly,
greatly supported by humanism. Wang EFL/ESL should teach students to learn to
(2005) explains that humanism emphasizes learn in order to allow them to achieve
the importance of the inner world of the their full potential as citizens of the world.
human being and places the individual’s In simple terms, ESL/EFL teachers need
thoughts, feelings and emotions at the to contribute to every student’s complete
forefront of all human developments. Affect development – mind and body, intelligence,
is not one of the basic needs of human sensitivity, aesthetic appreciation and
beings, but the condition and premise spirituality.
of the other physical and psychological This new role of EFL/ESL, helping
activities. To Wang, educators should focus students learn throughout life, involves a
their efforts on the development of human broader understanding of what language
values, the growth in self-awareness and in teaching means and entails. Language
the understanding of others, the sensitivity teaching should not simply be understood
to human feelings and emotions and the as a methodical effort to develop students’
active student involvement in learning communicative competence but as an
and in the way learning takes place. With educational commitment to helping
regard to humanism, Stevick claims that students learn to learn throughout life.
“in a language course, success depends less That is to say, language teaching should
on materials, techniques and linguistic help students acquire the skills, knowledge,
analyses, and more on what goes on inside attitudes and strategies they need in order to
and between the people in the classroom” interact with their learning in an informed
(1980, p. 4). and self-directed manner. In sum, language
Attention to affective factors and interest teachers should not only strive to help
in humanism show not only a desire (on students become good language users, but
the part of researchers and practitioners) also should help students become successful
to examine and adopt ideas from other learners and fulfilled individuals.
disciplines (e.g. psychology, sociology and This broader understanding of ESL/EFL,
philosophy), but also an awareness of the ESL/EFL as an educational commitment to
expanding role of EFL/ESL as a vehicle of learning throughout life, calls for critical
education and of “learning” per se. As an and systematic reflection from ESL/EFL
educational endeavor, EFL/ESL should aim teachers. Thinking over their experiences
at enabling people, without exception, to as educators can allow ESL/EFL teachers
develop all their talents to the full and to to review critically their roles, challenges
realize their creative potential, including and responsibilities, which ultimately can
responsibility for their own lives and open up space for transformation and
achievement of their personal goals. In improvement (See discussion on critical
this light, Delors et al. (1996) maintain reflection below). However, Colombian EFL
198 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
teachers should not simply reflect to provide focus on critically inquiring into their own
their students with appropriate activities, practice. In other words, teachers should use
materials and methods to understand educational research to think about their
and face up to the emotional, personal own contexts, to analyze their judgments
and sociocultural demands of foreign and interpretations and to distance
language learning. Their reflections must themselves to make the basis of their work
go beyond merely achieving instructional open to inspection.
aims. Colombian EFL teachers should One critical way to open teachers’ work
strive to observe, question and understand to inspection is what Donald Schön called
the teaching settings in which they work practice-as-inquiry. This inquiry occurs
and the teaching practices they follow. In when the practitioner reflects both while
other words, teachers’ reflections should engaged in action and, subsequently, on the
be directed toward bringing to light the action itself as an attempt to make his or
implicit rationale behind things done in her own understanding problematic to him
class and at examining the beliefs and values or herself. The teacher-researcher strives to
that form or shape actions in class. This way, test his or her constructions of the situation
Colombian EFL teachers can not only focus by bringing to the surface, juxtaposing, and
on the learner as an individual with affective discriminating alternate accounts of reality.
needs and reactions that must be considered The point is to see the taken-for-granted
integral to language learning, but can also with new eyes, to be able to come out of this
open their own work to critical inspection experience with an expanded appreciation
and to construct valid accounts of their of the complexity of learning, of teaching,
educational language practices. and of a stronger sense of how external
realities affect what the teacher-researcher
Critical Reflection can (wants to) really do (Schön, 1983).
Another proponent of practice-as-
In the last 30 years, several authors inquiry is Whitehead. He regards it as
have assumed that teachers are researchers a way to construct a living educational
who should permanently submit their theory from practitioner’s questions of
daily practice to rigorous self-examination the kind: How do I improve my practice?
to overcome their repetitive routine by Valid accounts of a teacher’s educational
continuously reflecting on and transforming development, explains Whitehead, should
their practices (See Stenhouse, 1993; Elliot, be accepted when teachers ask themselves
1994; McKernan, 1996; Kemmis, 1998, etc.). how to improve their practices, undertake
Educational research should aim to explain to improve some aspect of their practice,
what actually happens inside the classroom, reflect systematically on such a process
the direct and indirect influence of internal and provide insights into the nature of
and external factors related to the student, their descriptions and explanations. With
the teacher and the ELT curriculum (Van this standpoint, Whitehead does not deny
Lier, 1988). At the heart of teachers’ the importance of propositional forms of
educational research, there should be a understanding. Instead, he argues for a
PROFILE 10, 2008. ISSN 1657-0790. Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 195-210 199
reconstruction of educational theory into a their practice and their students’ learning
living form of question and answer which processes. They are resorting to research as
includes propositional contributions from an informed way to lead action and change.
the traditional disciplines of education Similarly, González & Sierra (2005) assert
(Whitehead, 1988). that Colombian EFL teacher educators
In a similar vein, Restrepo (2000) rely on six main alternatives to face the
explains that teachers, in fact, do research challenges in their professional growth.
when they submit their daily practice to Among these alternatives for professional
rigorous self-examination to face and development, doing research is regarded
transform their everyday practices in ways as the most important academic activity in
that respond adequately to their working order to maintain the standards set by the
environment, the needs of their students profession since it is the bridge between
and their sociocultural agenda. To him, reality and change. Systematic reflection on
teachers as educational practitioners practice is another significant alternative
can use retrospection, introspection Colombian EFL teacher educators have to
and participative observation to clarify enhance their professional development.
guiding theories and to specify pedagogical According to González & Sierra, teacher
interventions in order to re-signify and educators report learning from their own
transform unsuccessful practices. He successes and failures and becoming better
argues that, if done systematically and teachers after confronting their ideal views
consistently, the empirical doing of and experiences.
teachers can become a reflective doing, a Cárdenas (2002, 2004) shows that
reflective practice. This “pedagogical know- critical reflection in research has a series
how” can allow teachers both to overcome of positive effects for the Colombian EFL
their repetitive routine and to objectify field. Teachers become more active and
their practices, which can ultimately interested in keeping an inquiring attitude
help them reflect on and transform their in order to give meaning to their daily
practices simultaneously. work. They look for connections between
Cárdenas & Faustino (2003) discuss theories and practice and become more
the importance of critical reflection and accurate and analytical observers. They
research when they show the necessity of also work cooperatively with students
preparing students and future teachers to and colleagues to systematically construct
possess not only linguistic competence in personal and workable theories. To
the foreign languages, but also competences Cárdenas, critical reflection and research
that allow them to reflect, analyze and empower Colombian EFL teachers because
find ways of improving their professional these allow them to become agents
practice. To them, more and more of change committed to developing a
Colombian EFL teachers are looking into pedagogically grounded understanding
their practice –both in their classrooms of their areas of concern, their working
and their educational institutions– to conditions and their everyday practices.
solve the problems they find or to improve Critical reflection is, then, a necessary
200 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
condition for teachers to understand the It is a way of ensuring that we continue to learn
underlying principles of their practices even as we teach. It helps stave off staleness and
routine.
and to open up space for professional and
personal transformation. According to McNiff (2002), AR is a term
which refers to a practical way of looking
Action Research at one’s own work in order to check that it
is as one would like it to be. Because AR is
As stated before, Colombian EFL
done by oneself, the practitioner, it is often
teachers should not simply aim at doing
referred to as practitioner based research,
research to create new or improved
because it involves one’s thinking about and
activities, practices and principles; they
reflecting on one’s work, it can also be called
should do research to bring to light the
a form of self-reflective practice. The idea
rationale behind those activities, practices
of self reflection is central because action
and principles. In particular, research
researchers enquire into their own practices.
should allow teachers to engage in critical
To McNiff, AR is an enquiry conducted by
reflection about their set of beliefs or
the self into the self. One, as a practitioner,
expectations about what language learning
think about one’s own life and work, and
is, how a foreign language is learned and
this involves asking oneself why one does the
why certain practices or activities are
things that one does, and why one is the way
acceptable or not in a foreign language
one is. As concerns McNiff’s point of view,
classroom. Evidently, the integration
when one produces one’s research report, it
between teaching, researching and learning
shows how one has carried out a systematic
requires a type of research that proffers
investigation into one’s own behaviour, and
reflection and self-examination to teachers
the reasons for that behaviour. The report
and students. This integration also requires
shows the process one has gone through in
a type of research in which teachers can
order to achieve a better understanding of
search for solutions to everyday, real
oneself, so that one can continue developing
problems experienced in classrooms, or
oneself and one’s work.
look for ways to improve instruction and
Different scholars have discussed AR.
increase student achievement. Based on
In 1986, Carr & Kemmis stated that AR
these requirements, Colombian EFL studies
was a form of self-reflective enquiry that
can use action research (AR) to provide for a
participants in social situations undertook
type of research in which teaching, learning,
in order to improve the rationality and
reflection and self-actualization can take
justice of their own practices and the
place in the classroom. Rightly, Parrot
situations in which these practices were
(1996, p. 3) defined AR as follows:
carried out. In 1988, Kemmis & McTaggart
[…]not so much something that we do in
defined AR as a combination of the terms
addition to our teaching but as something that
we integrate into it. In many ways it is a state of “action” and “research” because it puts
mind – it is skepticism about assumptions and ideas into practice for the purpose of self-
a willingness to put everything to the test[…] improvement and increases knowledge
PROFILE 10, 2008. ISSN 1657-0790. Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 195-210 201
202 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
PROFILE 10, 2008. ISSN 1657-0790. Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 195-210 203
204 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
PROFILE 10, 2008. ISSN 1657-0790. Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 195-210 205
that language learning strategies in general but they can also open their own work to
and socioaffective language learning systematic inspection and construct valid
strategies in particular should be considered accounts of their educational practices.
central to studying EFL because, as he Critical reflection in general and AR in
noticed in his study, students in Colombia particular appear to be powerful means
tend to seek a mentorship relationship for developing both teacher autonomy
with their teachers and tend to learn more and learner autonomy. On the one
when they are able to share aspects of hand, critical reflection and AR projects
their personal life and form strong bonds. can develop teacher autonomy because
He regarded socio-affective strategies new methodological and pedagogical
as tactics to stimulate learning through opportunities are opened up for teachers
establishing a level of empathy between to develop an appropriate expertise of their
the instructor and student. According to own. On the other hand, learner autonomy
him, the enhancement of socio-affective is developed because students can become
strategies permits the student to eventually aware of and identify their strategies, needs
learn how to see the instructor as a resource and goals as learners in order to reconsider
for acquiring language and content and to and refashion approaches and procedures
assume greater responsibility for their own for optimal language learning. In the end,
language learning at the same time that they action research studies on language learning
are provided with options to obtain humane strategies can help Colombian EFL teachers
support. and students realize that they can and
As can be seen, critical reflection and should be active, reflective and autonomous
action research studies on language learning agents of their language teaching and
strategies and affective factors can launch learning processes.
students into generating new or improved
behaviors and ideas in their learning process References
and into availing themselves of learning
opportunities, which ultimately brings Andres, V. (2002, March). The influence of affective
variables on EFL/ESL learning and teaching.
about their own autonomy.
In The Journal of the Imagination in Language
Learning and Teaching, 7. Retrieved August 20,
Conclusion 2006 from JILLT Web site: http://www.njcu.edu/
CILL/vol7/andres.html
Colombian EFL teachers should Ariza, A. V. (2005). The process-writing approach: An
address issues of affective factors and alternative to guide the students’ compositions.
language learning strategies by engaging PROFILE, 6, 37-46.
in critical reflection and carrying out Arnold, J. (ed). (1999). Affect in language learning.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
action research projects. Not only can
Benson, P. (2000). Autonomy as a learners and
these reflections and projects provide teacher’s right. In Sinclair, B., McGrath, I. &
their students with appropriate activities Lamb, T (Eds.), Learner autonomy, teacher
to face up to the emotional difficulties of autonomy: New directions (pp. 111-117).
social interaction and language learning, London: Addison Wesley Longman.
206 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
Benson, P. & Voller, P. (1997). Autonomy and Fandiño, Y.J. (2007). The explicit teaching of
independence in language learning. London: socioaffective language learning strategies to
Longman. beginner EFL students at the Centro Colombo
Burns, A. (1999). Collaborative action research Americano: An action research study. Bogota:
for English language teachers. Cambridge: Master’s thesis. Division of advanced education,
Cambridge University Press. University of La Salle, Colombia.
Caine, R. N. & Caine, G. (1991). Making Connections: Feder, M. (1987). A skills building game for the ESL
Teaching and the human brain. Menlo Park, CA: classroom. In DiscoveryTrailTM.
Addison Wesley. Originally submitted to the School for
Candy, P. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. International Training, Brattleboro, VT.
California: Jossey-Bass. Retrieved August, 2006 from DiscoveryTrailTM
Chamot, A .U. &. O’Malley, J. M. (1994). The CALLA Web site: http://www.eslus.com/discovery/
handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic thesis.htm
language learning approach. White Plains, NY: Forero, Y. (2005). Promoting oral interaction in large
Addison Wesley Longman. groups through task-based learning. PROFILE, 6,
Cárdenas, M. L. (2000). Action research by English 73-81.
teachers: An option to make classroom research Graham, S. (1997). Effective language learning.
possible. Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal, Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
2(1), 15-26.
Griffiths, C. (2004, February). Language learning
Cárdenas, M. L. (2002). Teacher research as a means
strategies: Theory and research. In School of
to create teachers’ communities in inservice
foundations studies, Occasional paper, 1. AIS
programs. HOW. A Colombian Journal for English
St Helens, Auckland: New Zealand. Retrieved
Teachers, 9, 1-6.
August 20, 2006 from Web site: http://www.
Cárdenas, M. L. (2004). Classroom research by in-
crie.org.nz/research_paper/c_griffiths_op1.
service teachers: Which characteristics? Which
pdf
concerns? Research News, 3-7.
González, A. & Sierra, N. (2005). The professional
Cárdenas, M. L. (2006). Orientaciones metodológicas
development of foreign language teacher
para la investigación-acción en el aula. Lenguaje,
educators: Another challenge for professional
34, 187-216.
Cárdenas, R. & Faustino, C. C. (2003). Developing communities. Ikala, Revista de lenguage y cultura,
reflective and investigative skills in teacher 10(16), 11-39. Retrieved July 20, 2008 from Íkala
preparation programs: The design and Web site: http://quimbaya.udea.edu.co/ikala/
implementation of the classroom research index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id
component at the foreign language program =333&Itemid=102
of Universidad del Valle. Colombian Applied Habte-Gabr, E. The importance of socio-affective
Linguistics Journal, 5, 22-48. Retrieved July 10, strategies in using EFL for teaching mainstream
2008 from CALJ Web site: http://calj.udistrital. subjects. Humanising English Teaching, 8(5), (Sept.
edu.co/pdf_files/App_2003/Art2.pdf 2006). Retrieved August 20, 2006 from Web site:
Carr, W., & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming critical: http://www.hltmag.co.uk/sep06/sart02.htm
Education, knowledge, and action research. Lewes, Kemmis, S. (1998). El currículo más allá de la teoría
Sussex: Falmer Press. de la reproducción. Madrid: Ediciones Morata.
Delors, J. (Coord.) (1996). La educación encierra Kemmis, S. & McTaggart, R. (1988). The action
un tesoro. Informe a la UNESCO de la Comisión research planner. (3rd edition). Australia: Deakin
Internacional sobre la educación para el siglo XXI. University Press.
Madrid: Santillana. Ediciones Little, D. (1995). Learning as dialogue: The
Elliot, J. (1994). La investigación acción en educación. dependence of learner autonomy on teacher
Madrid: Ediciones Morata. autonomy. System, 23(2), 175-181.
PROFILE 10, 2008. ISSN 1657-0790. Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 195-210 207
Luna, M. & Sánchez, D. K. (2005). Profiles of Sinclair, I. McGrath, & T. Lamb, (Eds.), Learner
autonomy in the field of foreign languages. autonomy, teacher autonomy: New directions
PROFILE, 6, 133-140. (pp. 89-99). London: Addison Wesley Longman.
Madrid, D. (2000). Observation and research in Retrieved August 20, 2007 from Web site: http://
the classroom. Teaching English as a Foreign www.warwick.ac.uk/~elsdr/Teacher_autonomy.
Language, 1-100. pdf
McKernan, J. (1996). Curriculum action research. Stenhouse, L. (1993). La investigación como base de la
A handbook of methods and resources for the enseñanza. Madrid: Ediciones Morata.
reflective practitioner (2nd ed.). London: Stevick, E. (1980). Teaching language: A way and
Kogan. ways. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House.
McNiff, J. (2002). Action research for professional Stawowy D. M. (2004). Learning strategies in the
development: Concise advice for new action secondary foreign language classroom: An
researchers. Jean McNiff, booklet 1(6). Retrieved essential curriculum component for beginning
August 20, 2006 from http://www.jeanmcniff. students. Master’s Project in Curriculum
com/booklet1.html#6 and Instruction. The College of William
Oatley, K. & Jenkis, J. (1996). Understanding and Mary: School of Education. Retrieved
Emotions. Oxford: Blackwell. July 10, 2006 from Web site: http://web.
Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What wm.edu/education/599/04projects/Diaz.
every teacher should know. New York: Newbury pdf?&=&svr=www
House. Thanasoulas, D. (2000, November). What is learner
Parrot, M. (1996). Tasks for language teachers: A autonomy and how it can be fostered? The
resource book for training and development. UK: Internet TESL journal, 6(11). Retrieved July 17,
Cambridge University Press. 2007 from Web site: http://iteslj.org/Articles/
Pineda, D. & Frodden, C. (2008). The development Thanasoulas-Autonomy.html
of a novice teacher’s autonomy in the context of Tooman, T. (2006). Affective Learning: Activities
EFL in Colombia. PROFILE, 9, 143-162. to promote values comprehension. Soultice
Rathbone, C. H. (1971). Open Education: The Training. Retrieved August 20, 2008 from
Informal Classroom. New York: Citation Press. Web site: http://www.soulsticetraining.com/
Restrepo, B. (2000). Maestro investigador, Escuela commentary/affective.html
investigadora e Investigación. Cuadernos Usma, J. (2007). Teacher autonomy: A critical review
Pedagógicos, 14, 97-106. of the research and concept beyond applied
Ríos, S. R. & Valcárcel, A. M. (2005). Reading: A linguistics. IKALA Revista del lenguage y cultura,
meaningful way to promote learning English in 12(18), 245-275. Retrieved July 20, 2008 from
high school. PROFILE 6, 37-46. Íkala Web site: http://quimbaya.udea.edu.co/
Rubin, J. & Thompson, I. (1994). How to be a more ikala/index.php?option=com_content&task=vie
successful language learner (2nd ed.). Boston, w&id=333&Itemid=102
MA: Heinle & Heinle. Van Lier, L. (1988). The classroom and the language
Sheerin, S. (1997). An exploration of the relationship learner. Ethnography and second language
between self-access and independent learning. classroom research. Harlow: Longman.
In P. Benson & P. Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and Wang, G. (2005). Humanistic approach and affective
independence in language learning (pp. 54-65). factors in foreign language teaching. Sino-US
London: Longman. English Teaching, 2(5), 1-5. Retrieved August
Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How 10, 2006 from http://www.linguist.org.cn/doc/
professionals think in action. New York: Basic su200505/su20050501.pdf
books. Whitehead, J. (1988). Creating a living educational
Smith, R. (2000). Starting with ourselves: Teacher- theory from questions of the kind, How do
learner autonomy in language learning. In B. I improve my practice? Cambridge Journal
208 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
of Education, 19(1), 41-52. Retrieved August Williams, M. & Burden, R. L. (1997). Psychology for
20, 2006 from Web site: http://www.bath. language teachers: A social constructivist approach.
ac.uk/%7Eedsajw/writings/livtheory.html Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
PROFILE 10, 2008. ISSN 1657-0790. Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 195-210 209
210 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras