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community, where there is more than succulent plants to thrive mangrove (Ceriops Yellow
salt water than fresh, is likely to here. The resilient grey mangrove tagal), club mangrove
be dominated by a fringe of may appear again while less saline mangrove
grey mangroves soils may be covered with a thick (Aegialitis
(Avicennia marina). This forest of orange mangroves annulata) and
tough species is (Bruguiera species). grey
Australia’s most mangrove
widespread due to its A number of factors may (Avicennia
ability to tolerate low determine what happens to the landward marina) grow.
temperatures and a side of this zone. In conditions of high
variety of conditions. rainfall, such as exist in north Queensland, There is a similar change of species along
Grey A pioneer, it is likely particularly in the Daintree, regular rivers, the zones corresponding roughly
mangrove to be the first flooding may lead to freshwater swamp to decreasing salinity levels and ranges of
species to grow on areas dominated by the less salt-tolerant salinity (among other factors). The ever-
newly-emerged mangrove species (such as adaptable grey mangrove tends to be
mud banks, putting up its distinctive peg freshwater mangrove found throughout river systems, including
roots. Mangrove apple (Barringtonia the upper limit of tidal influence where
(Sonneratia alba) often acutangula) and fresh water is abundant. The greatest
grows in this zone too. cottonwood concentration of mangrove species is
(Hibiscus usually at the mouth of tidal creeks and
The red (stilt or spider) tiliaceus). Behind rivers where salt and fresh water mix in
mangrove (Rhizophora this may be a zone ideal proportions and floodwaters deposit
stylosa) is usually of paperbarks and plenty of material to build up the banks.
found behind this the beautiful flaky- Red mangroves are
zone where its long barked red beech or frequently found
prop roots give it a golden guinea tree here.
firm foothold in wind (Dillenia alata), as
and waves. littoral (shore) While there are Red
vegetation merges certain patterns to mangrove
The next zone may be inundated only by into rainforest. the development of
periodic spring tides at the time of the new mangrove zones, it must be remembered
and full moon. As a result the soil In areas of very that local conditions will always dictate
will be firmer but more saline seasonal rainfall, such which mangroves are
due to the evaporation of as those in the found where.
water leaving behind salt Cottonwood
Gladstone to
which will not be Townsville region, the reverse
diluted until the may be the case, evaporation and little
next spring tide. fresh water input leading to an increase in Grey
The tough yellow salinity. This may be a salt marsh or salt mangrove
Yellow mangrove
Mangrove uses Mangroves at sea
The mangroves have long functioned as a storehouse of materials Mangroves occur not just on the coast
of the mainland. They also pop up, where
providing food, medicines, shelter and tools. conditions are suitable, on the fringes of
continental islands and on wooded coral
Fish, crabs, shellfish, prawns as well as islands of the reef. In these situations
edible snakes and worms are found among rainfall and nutrient levels are likely to be
the mangroves. The fruit of certain Blind-your-eye low so these communities generally lack
mangrove
species, including the Nypa palm, can be the diversity and luxuriance of those on
eaten after preparation along with the the mainland. (Very large islands, such as
nectar of some of the flowers. The best Hinchinbrook, are an exception.)
honey is considered to be that produced
from mangroves, particularly the river Mangroves of coral islands grow in an
mangrove (Aegiceras corniculatum) environment where the main sediment
(below). comes from coral and is thus high in
chemicals in it can be used on sores calcium carbonate but low in the
and to treat marine stings. They are also nutrients which come from the land. The
used for fishing; when leaves are crushed more mature mangrove communities tend
and dropped in water fish are stupefied to become established on the sandier lee
and float to the surface. This sap is side, usually the northwest, while
currently being tested for its medical stunted forms of some species may grow
properties and may play a part in western elsewhere. Naturally, those species
medicine. which require a greater degree of fresh
water, are absent at sea.
Certain tree species, notably the cedar
mangrove and the cannonball mangrove
(relatives of the red cedar) as well as the
grey mangrove are prized for their hard
Numerous medicines are derived from wood and used for boat building and
mangroves. Skin disorders and sores, cabinet timber as well as for tools such as
including leprosy, may be treated with digging sticks, spears and boomerangs.
ashes or bark infusions of certain species. The fronds of the Nypa palm are used for
Headaches, rheumatism, snakebites, boils, thatching and basket weaving. Various
ulcers, diarrhoea, haemorrhages... and barks are used for tanning,
many more conditions are traditionally pneumatophores (peg roots) make good
treated with mangrove plants. The latex fishing floats while the wood from yellow
from the leaf of the blind-your-eye mangroves (Ceriops species) has a
mangrove (Excoecaria agallocha) can reputation for burning even when wet.
indeed cause blindness but the powerful
Roots
Roots perform a number of functions for a plant. They support it and they obtain essential nutrients and oxygen.
Breathing roots
Little oxygen is available in fine, often waterlogged, mud. The
Ground solution which many mangroves have come up with, is to raise
Grey mangrove surface
(Avicennia part of their roots above the mud. These roots are covered with
marina)
Cable root special breathing cells, called lenticels, which draw in air. They
are connected to spongy tissue within the roots. When the roots
are submerged in water, the pressure within these tissues falls as
the internal oxygen is used up by the plant. The resulting
negative pressure means that when the root is re-exposed, as the
Anchor roots tide drops, more air is drawn in through the lenticels.
There is always a danger that the breathing roots of
In unstable, sometimes semi-fluid, soil an extensive root system is mangroves may become covered as sediments accumulate.
necessary simply to keep the trees upright. As a result, most Under normal conditions sediments build up at the rate of
mangroves have more living matter below the ground than above 1.5-2cm a year. To avoid being
it. The main mass of roots, however, is generally within the top buried the roots can grow up
two metres — mangroves do not seem to grow deep tap roots, vertically. Oil, however,
probably because of the poor oxygen supply below the surface. can be fatal. Once
covered with it the
There are three types of roots with different functions. Radiating lenticels can no longer
cable roots, punctuated by descending anchor roots, provide draw in air and the plant
support. From this framework sprout numerous little nutritive may suffocate.
roots which feed on the rich soil just below the surface. The third
type of roots collects the oxygen.
Different mangrove species have developed different architectural designs to keep their roots in the air.
The species shown here typify the different root arrangements.
Red (stilt or spider) mangrove Grey mangrove
(Rhizophora stylosa) is commonly found (Avicennia marina)
close to the seaward side of mangroves. It grows a series of
is therefore subjected to high wave energy snorkels, or peg/pencil
and has developed a system of stilt, or prop, roots, known as
roots. These spread far and wide, providing pneumatophores.
numerous anchors for the tree as well as a Experiments with a
large surface area for oxygen-absorbing related Avicennia
lenticels. species have shown that
those plants growing in
In common with other species, coarse coral sand, with a
this mangrove also grows aerial good air supply to the
roots, extra stilts which arise roots, were able to survive after their pneumatophores were
from the branches or trunk. Stud- removed. However, those living in poorly aerated soil died when
ies have shown that these aerial the pneumatophores were covered. In one situation, where they
roots alter dramatically in structure were covered with oil, the plants responded by growing
when they reach the mud; above it aerial roots.
they have about 5 percent air spaces but below this changes to 50
percent.
Some other species (Avicennia, Aegialitis and Aegiceras) also Cannonball mangrove
(Xylocarpus granatum)
produce live seedlings but these are still contained within the
seed coat when it drops from the plant. The seed of Avicennia
floats until this coat drops away.
Interestingly the speed with which this
happens depends on the temperature
and salinity of the water. In water of
high or low salinity the seed coat is
slow to drop off but in brackish water it
Grey is shed quickly allowing the seedling to The seed of the looking-glass
mangrove lodge in the favoured habitat of this mangrove (Heritiera littoralis) has a
(Avicennia species. Higher temperatures also favour prominent ridge on one side. This may
marina) faster action. Avicennia seeds can stay act as a sail when the seed is in the water.
alive for only four days in the water.
Mangrove history
It is thought that mangroves Desert plants of central Australia may also be seen as relict
evolved somewhere between mangroves from the days when a vast inland sea covered the
Australia and New Guinea, about 50- area. As it dried up, the plants which had adapted to those wet
Red mangrove 60 million years ago, and spread out salty conditions found it relatively easy to adapt to a dry
from there to tropical regions worldwide. In situation; salinity, in essence, causes drought by
warmer periods of the earth’s history they probably covered a making it difficult to obtain water. As a result the
much larger area than they do now — mangroves currently water-conserving strategies of the two
growing in cool areas such as in Victoria and South Australia groups of plants, although separated by
are probably relicts of that warmer time. great distances, are remarkably similar.
Orange mangrove
Questions & Answers Facts and stats
Q Why are there more painted majority move to the outer edge of on mangrove plants
crayfish in Torres Strait than, for the Great Barrier Reef.
example, off Port Douglas and Worldwide there are 69
further south? Q Should we feed the brush turkeys recognised species of mangrove
which come into Edge Hill? What do plants belonging to 20 families.
Up to 34 mangrove species and
A Painted crayfish (also known as they eat? three hybrids are known to occur
ornate rock lobsters) prefer turbid in Queensland — although figures
(cloudy) waters such as those A It is rarely a good idea to feed may change as the definition of a
found north of Cooktown. wildlife artificially. There is always mangrove is not clearcut and some
Sediments washed out by the rivers the danger of giving them unsuitable plants, such as cottonwood, may be
of Cape York and PNG provide their food, for example bread might fill up regarded as a mangrove by some and
favoured habitat - soft corals and the animal’s stomach but might, not by others.
massive hard corals which offer because of its particular digestive
more shelter than, for example, system, give it no nourishment at all. A study of Cairns mangroves
staghorn corals. They may be found found 24 mangrove tree and
shrub species while a further 18
in a range of turbid, rocky areas on Another problem is that of making species of flowering plants were
the continental shelf including the wildlife dependent on your growing among the mangroves or
spots which are exposed to oceanic source of food and then suddenly on salt marshes. An additional 42
waters to sheltered waters of withdrawing this if you go on species of epiphytic plants and 25
lagoons and back reefs to silted holiday or move house. By attracting species of fungi were identified
rubble areas near river estuaries and wildlife to urban areas you may also growing on the mangroves.
mangroves. Depths vary from one be putting it at risk from dogs and
metre to 200 metres. cats. (This is a major problem for No mangrove species are
Interestingly, some of the cassowaries coming into gardens restricted only to Australia.
biggest crayfish but applies to possums and many Many occur widely throughout
the Indo-West Pacific region.
are found at other animals.) More specifically, Some, such as the red mangrove
the edge of brush turkeys have a tendency to (Rhizophora stylosa) are, however,
its range. kick up large amounts of leaf litter to best developed in Australia.
build nesting mounds so there is the
possibility that your neighbours The north-east coast of Australia
might dislike the visiting birds and is home to the greatest diversity
ask this Department to remove them! of mangroves and associated
plants. This is because this
The best way to attract wildlife safely region was close to the centre of
to your garden is to plant native origin and dispersal of mangroves,
because the climate is similar to
trees, shrubs, etc., which provide that under which they first evolved
From about July to November, each a source of natural food and and because the sheltered shallow
year, mature crayfish migrate to shelter. Lists are available from waters of numerous estuaries are
deep waters, sometimes in Department of Environment and ideal for growth.
aggregations of up to 60 000 Heritage offices.
individuals, for breeding purposes. Mangrove forests occupy
Tagged animals have been shown Brush turkeys eat insects and native approximately 11,600 square
to travel up to 511km. Some migrate fruits and seeds raked up from the kilometres in Australia, 4,600 of
across the Gulf of Papua while the forest floor. these being in Queensland.
These notes are from the author's own notebook, or were offered by researchers and fellow naturalists. Readers will,
inevitably, note variations between their observations and those appearing here. If you do not keep a nature diary perhaps
this will inspire you to begin one.
The showy fruit of cherry beech Also beginning to ripen this month are
(left), the only Australian member the colourful fruit of a shrub or small
of the camellia (and tea) family tree known as witches tongues, or
should be on display from small flowers of magic. This shrub
trees in rainforest understorey. (Clerodendrum tracyanum) produces
The tree produces a yellow oval quite large creamy-white flowers
fruit, about as big as a bantam's (below) followed by purple-black fruit
egg, which splits open when ripe, contrasting strongly with a red star-
revealing a few bright pink-red arils like calyx. Among the birds known to
dangling out to attract passing birds. enjoy the fruit is the strikingly
The botanical name for cherry beech is attractive purple-crowned pigeon
Ternstroemia cherryi; Ternstroem was (superb fruit dove).
a Swedish naturalist who died on (Acknowledgments to
his way to China while in Linnaeus’ Ellen Terrell,
employ and Thomas Cherry was Daintree)
Baby estuarine crocodiles should be first professor of Botany in
around this month and, like most infant Melbourne University.
animals, they can look very cute. (Acknowledgments to Baines, J.A.,
However, anyone seeing a crocodile Australian Plant Genera)
under about 30cm in length should be
very much aware of the possibility that
its large and protective mother is
concealed close by.
This newsletter was produced by the Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage (now The Environmental
Protection Agency) with funding from the Wet Tropics Management Authority.