Distance aa’ = 6.2 2 + 4.6 2 =7.

7 m

GMR is obtained as follows:

D sa = 8.5x10 -3 x 7.7 = 0.26 m
D sb = 8.5x10 -3 x 4.6 = 0.20 m
D sc = 8.5x10 -3 x 7.7 = 0.26 m
D S = 3 0.26 x 0.20 x 0.26 = 0.24 m
So,
2π ε -12
Cn = = 19.0 x 10 F/m.
 4.5 
ln 
 0.24 
BC=2π(50)(19.0x10-12)x1000= 6.0x10-6 mho/km per phase to neutral.

3.6 EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR TRANSMISSION LINES

Three phase transmission line in balanced condition can be represented by a single phase
circuit as illustrated by example in Figure 3.22.

R1 XL1 R2 XL2

Sending end Receiving end

(Source side) YC
(Load side)

Figure 3.22. Example of single phase circuit to represent three phase line

The resistance, inductance, and capacitance in the circuit are obtained by techniques
discussed in previous sections.Normally, inductive reactance and capacitive susceptance
are used in the equivalent circuit. Resistance and inductance are series parameters while
capacitance is shunt parameter in the circuit.

Physically, all line parameters are distributed uniformly along the line. However, to
simplify the line analysis, typically the parameters are assumed as lumped elements at a
given point in the equivalent circuit. In this section we will describe modelling techniques
available to lump the line parameters based on length of the line.

63
3.6.1 Short Line Representation

Transmission line with length of less than 80 km can be categorised as short line. For this
type of line, capacitive effect is insignificant and normally not included in the equivalent
circuit. The per phase circuit for the short line representation consists of the series
parameters as shown in Figure 3.23.
IS IR
R XL

VRL
VS VR

Rajah 3.23. Per phase representation for short line

Referring to Figure 3.23, VS and IS are phase voltage and phase current, respectively, at
the sending end of the line. While VR and IR are phase voltage and current, respectively,
at receiving or load end. Total line resistance per phase (in ohm) and total inductive
reactance per phase (in ohm) are represented by the symbols R and XL, respectively.

The line impedance per phase, Z, in ohm is given as

Z = R + jX L = Z ∠θ Z (3.62)

It should be noted that currents IS and IR are the same, while voltages VS and VR are
different due to the voltage drop VRL in the line impedance. The relationships are
described by the following equations:
VS =VR + IRZ (3.63)
IS = IR = I (3.64)

Typically, the phase voltage for VR is taken as reference phasor in the analysis, i.e.
VR=VR ∠0°, where VR  is the magnitudefor VR.

Equations (3.63) and (3.64) can be represented in matrix form as

VS  1 Z VR  A B  VR 
 I  = 0 1   I  =  C D   I  (3.65)
 S   R    R 

where A, B, C, and D are known as ABCD parameters for transmission line. It can be
shown that for short line, A = 1, B = Z, C = 0, and D = 1. Furthermore, AD - BC = 1

64
Example:

A 30 km, three phase 50 Hz transmission line is transferring power to a 500 kW load with
power factor of 0.9 lagging. The load voltage is 10 kV. Given resistance and inductance
of the line per phase of 0.1 Ω per km and 0.424 mH per km, respectively, calculate (i)
current and (ii) voltage at the sending end of the line.

Solution:

The phase voltage and current at the load terminal are

10 x10 3
VR = ∠0 o V = 5773.5 ∠0° V.
3
500 x10 3
IR = 3
∠ − cos −1 0.9 = 32.1∠-25.8° A.
3 x10 x10 x0.9

The line impedance per phase is

Z=[0.1 + j(2π x 50 x 0.424 x 10-3) ] x 30 = 3 + j4 Ω = 5∠53.1° Ω.

(i) Phase current at the sending end is equal to that at the receiving end, that is
IS = 32.1∠-25.8° A.

(ii) Phase voltage at the sending end is

VS =VR + IRZ = 5773.5 ∠0° + (32.1∠-25.8° A)( 5∠53.1) = 5916.6∠0.7° V.

Line voltage at the sending end is

VSL = 3 (5916.6)∠30+ 0.7° = 10.3∠30.7° kV.

Self-assessment Question:

3.6. Solve the previous example question, with the power factor for 500 kW load is
now changed to a leading power factor of 0.8.
[36.1∠36.9° A, 10005∠31.8° V]

3.6.2 Medium-Length Line Representation

For transmission line over 80 km of length, the capacitive effect is quite significant and
cannot be neglected in the line representation. The medium-length line representation is
used for line with length of between 80 km to 240 km. All line parameters are still
represented as lumped elements. There exists two representations for the medium lines,
namely T or π−circuit representation.

65
A. T-circuit Representation

Figure 3.24 shows per phase circuit for T-circuit representation. Note that the series
Z R X
impedance is divided into two parts equally, each with = + j (in ohm) and the line
2 2 2
admittance, which is the capacitive susceptance (Y = jBC) is lumped to a shunt branch for
which BC = 2πfC (in mho).

Z Z
2 2
R XL R XL
IS 2
IR
2 2 2

VS Y=jBC VR

Figure 3.24. T-circuit representation

For the circuit in Figure 3.24, with voltage VR taken as the reference, the equation for
sending end voltage is
Z Z
VS = I S + IR + VR
2 2
Z Z Z
= [I R + (VR + I R )Y] + IR + VR
2 2 2
ZY 1
= (1 + ) VR + (Z + YZ 2 ) I R (3.66)
14 4244 23 1442 4 443
A B
The formula for sending end current is
Z
I S = I R + (VR + I R ) Y
2
1
= Y{ VR + (1 + YZ) I R (3.67)
C 1442244 3
D
Briefly, the ABCD matrix for T-circuit representation is
 1 1 2
VS  1 + 2 YZ Z + 4 YZ  VR 
I  =  1   (3.68)
 S  Y 1 + YZ   I R 
 2 
or

66
 -1
 1 1 
 R
V 1 + YZ Z + YZ 2  VS 
2 4
I  =  1  I  (3.69)
 R  Y 1 + YZ   S
 2 

B. π–circuit Representation

The per-phase representation for nominal π-circuit is given in Figure 3.25. In the circuit,
the series impedance is lumped together as Z = R + jXL while the line susceptance is
Y B 2π fC
divided into two shunt elements, each with admittance of =j C =j .
2 2 2
Z

IS R XL IR

VS Y Y VR
2 2

Figure 3.25. Nominal π-circuit representation

From Figure 3.25, by taking VR as the reference, one can obtain the following:

1
VS = (1 + YZ)VR + ZI
{ R (3.70)
14 42244
3 B
A
and
Y Y
IS = VS + VR + I R
2 2
1 1 1
= [(1 + YZ)VR + ZI R ] Y + YVR + I R
2 2 2
1 1
= (Y + Y 2 Z)VR + (1 + YZ)I R (3.71)
1442 4 44 3 142 2 43
C D

The parameters for the π− circuit can be expressed in matrix form as follows:

67
  1 
VS   1 + 2 YZ Z   VR 
I  =  1 1  I  (3.72)
 S Y + Y 2 Z 1 + YZ  R
 4 2 

where the ABCD parameter is given in Equations (3.70) and (3.71).

Example:

A three phase 50 Hz transmission line with a length of 160 km is connected to a load of

500 kW with unity power factor at 30 kV. The line conductor has series parameter of
-6
0.24 + j0.47 Ω/km and shunt parameter of 3.75 x 10 mho/km. Given that the conductors
of the line are arranged symmetrically with distance between phase conductors of 3.1 m,
calculate the sending end current and voltage using (i) T and (ii) π-circuit representations
for the line.

Solution:

For symmetrically constructed line, Dm = 3.1 m.

Series impedance is
Z = (0.24 +j0.47) x 160 = 38.4 + j75.2
= 84.4∠63.0° Ω.

Admittance of the line is

-6
Y = j3.75 x 10 x 160 = 0.6 x 10-3 ∠90°mho.

Phase voltage at the load terminal,

30000
VR = = 17320.5 ∠0° V,
3
And phase current of the load is
500 000
IR = = 9.6 ∠0° A.
3 x 30000 x 1

(i) Using T-circuit representation, the phase voltage at the sending end is
 (84.4∠63.0 o )(0.6 x 10 -3 ∠90 o ) 
VS = 1 + 17320.5 +
 2 
 (0.6 x 10 -3 ∠90 o )(84.4∠63.0 o ) 2 
 84.4∠63.0 o +  9.6
 4 
= 17304.7∠3.0° V,

And the line voltage is

VSL = 3 (17304.7)∠(30+ 3)° = 29972.6∠33° V.

68
The sending end current is
 (0.6 x 10 -3 ∠90 o )(84.4∠63.0 o ) 
I S = (0.6 x 10 -3 ∠90 o )17320.5 + 1 +  9.6
 2 
= 14.1∠48.2° A.

(ii) Using π-circuit representation, phase voltage of the sending end is

 (0.6 x 10 -3 ∠90 o )(84.4∠63.0 o ) 
VS = 1 + 17320.5 + (84.4∠63.0 o ) 9.6
 2 
= 17331.5∠3.0° V,

And the line voltage is

VSL = 3 (17331.5)∠(30+ 3)° = 30019∠33° V.

Current at the sending end is

 (0.6 x 10 -3 ∠90 o ) 2 (84.4∠63.0 o ) 
I S =  0.6 x 10 -3 ∠90 o + 17320.5 +
 4 
 (0.6 x 10 -3 ∠90 o )(84.4∠63.0 o ) 
1 +  9.6
 2 
= 14∠48.1° A.

3.6.3 Long Line Representation

The equivalent circuit for short and medium line representations are not suitable for a
very long transmission lines, that is lines over 240 km. It is due to the distributed nature
of the line parameters.

Figure 3.26 shows one part of a line with a length of dx at a distance x from the receiving
end of the line. The part has series impedance of zdx and admittance of ydx (which is the
capacitive susceptance bCdx), where z and y are impedance and admittance, respectively,
per unit length of the line.

Voltage drop along dx is

dVx = (I x + dI x )zdx
dVx ≅ I x zdx
dVx
= zIx (3.73)
dx

Charging current in the line of dx section is

dI x ≅ Vx ydx

69
 dI x
= yVx (3.74)
dx
zdx
IS Ix+dIx rdx xLdx IR

dIx
dVx
VS ydx Vx VR
Vx+dVx

Section length, x
dx
Line length, l

Figure 3.26

Integrating Equations (3.73) and (3.74) with respect to x, results into the following:
d 2 Vx dI
2
= z x (3.75)
dx dx
and
d2Ix dV
2
=y x (3.76)
dx dx

The terms dVx/dx and dIx/dx in Equations (3.76) dan (3.75) respectively are substituted
into Equations (3.73) and (3.74) to yield
d 2 Vx
= yzVx (3.77)
dx 2

and
d 2I x
= yzIx (3.78)
dx2

At the sending end (where x = 0), Vx = VR and Ix = IR .Thus, the solution of equations
(3.77) and (3.78) result into
z
V(x) = (cosh yz x)VR + ( sinh yz x)I R
14243 y
A 1442443
B
= (cosh γ x)VR + (Z C sinh γ x)I R (3.79)
and
y
I(x) = ( sinh yz x)VR + (cosh yz x)I R
z
1442443 14243
D
C

70
 = (YC sinh γ x)VR + (cosh γ x)I R (3.80)

where γ is propagation constant per unit length (γ= yz ), ZC is characteristic impedance

z y
per unit length (ZC = ) and YC is characteristic admittance per unit length (YC = ).
y z
ABCD parameter for the long line representation can also be obtained form Equation
(3.79) and (3.80).

the propagation constant γ consists of two components, that is

γ = α + jβ (3.81)

where α is attenuation constant (a measure of reduction of voltage or current magnitude

per unit length in the direction of propagation) in neper per unit length, and β is phase
constant (a measure of changes in phase angle per unit length between voltage and
current at two points on the line) inradian per unit length.

At the sending end (x = l), Equations (3.79) and (3.80) become

VS = (cosh γ l )VR + (ZCsinh γ l )I R (3.82)

and
IS = (YC sinh γ l )VR + (cosh γ l )I R (3.83)

In the matrix form, Equations (3.82) and (3.83) are as follows:

VS   cosh γ l Z C sinh γ l  VR 

 I  = Y sinh γ l cosh γ l  I 
 S  C  R
A B   VR 
=    (3.84)
 C D  I R 

where A = D = cosh γl = cosh YZ ,

B = ZC sinh γl = ZC sinh YZ , and
C = YC sinh γl = YC sinh YZ

The hyperbolic sine and cosine terms can be represented as

1
sinh γl = (eγ l - e− γ l)
2
1
cosh γl = (eγ l + e− γ l ) .
2

To simplify calculation, the following relationships are normally used for the sinh γl and
cosh γl terms.
sinh γl = sinh(αl +jβl ) = sinh αl cos βl + jcosh αl sin βl (3.85)

71
 cosh γl = cosh(αl +jβl ) = cosh αl cos βl + jsinh αl sin βl (3.86)

The line parameters are

Z = total series impedance per phase
= zl = (r + jxL)l Ω (3.87)

and
Y = total shunt admittance per phase
=yl =(jb)l . (3.88)

Example:
A 370 km three phase transmission line is utilised to deliver power to a 125 MW load
with unity power factor at voltage of 215 kV. The line has series parameter of
-6
0.52∠79.1° Ω/km and shunt parameter of 3.2 x 10 mho/km. Compute current and
voltage at the sending end of the line.

Solution:
Series impedance of the line is
z = 0.52 ∠79.1°Ω/km,

while line admittance is

y = 3.2 x 10-6 ∠90°mho/km.

 90 o + 79.1o 
γl = yzl =  3.2 x 10 -6 x 0.52 ∠  x370 = 0.4773 ∠84.6°.
 2 
= 0.0449 + j0.4752 Np.

z 0.52 79.1o - 90 o
ZC = = ∠ = 403.1 ∠-5.5° Ω.
y 3.2 x 10 -6 2

215000
VR = = 124130 ∠0° V to neutral.
3
125000000
IR = = 335.7 ∠0° A.
3 x 215000 x 1

cosh γl = cosh 0.0449 cos 0.4752 + j sinh 0.0449 sin 0.4752

= 0.8901 + j0.0206 = 0.8904 ∠0.023 rad = 0.8904∠ 1.3°.

sinh γl = sinh 0.0449 cos 0.4752 + j cosh 0.0449 sin 0.4752

= 0.0400 + j0.4580 = 0.4597 ∠1.484 rad = 0.4597∠85.0°.

Sending end phase voltage is

72
 VS = (0.8904 ∠1.3°)(124130) + (403.1 ∠-5.5°)(0.4597 ∠85.0°)(335.7)
= 137468.4 ∠27.6° V,

and line voltage is

VSL = 3 (137468.4)∠30+ 27.6° = 238.1∠57.6° kV,

Current at the sending end is

1
IS = (0.4597∠85.0°)(124130) +(0.8904∠1.3°)(335.7)
403.1∠ − 5.5 o
= 332.5 ∠26.5° A.

3.7 EFFICIENCY AND REGULATION OF TRANSMISSION LINE

In general, phase voltage and current at sending end of transmission line can be
represented in phasor form as
Vs = |Vs|∠θVS and Is = |Is|∠θIS (3.89)

Similarly, phasor representations for phase voltage and current at the receiving end of the
line are
VR = |VR|∠0° and IR = |IR|∠θIR (3.90)

If all four phasors in Equations (3.89) and (3.90) are known, then power flow in the line,
as well as line efficiency, can be obtained. In most cases, phase voltage at the receiving
end is taken as a reference phasor, i.e. the angle for VR in Equation (3.9) is set to zero.

Total apparent power from the source is

SS = 3Vs (Is)* = 3(|Vs|∠θVS) (|Is|∠-θIS) = 3|Vs||Is|∠(θVS - θIS) (3.91)

While total apparent power reveived by the load is

SR = 3VR (IR)* = 3(|VR|∠0°) (|IR|∠-θIR) = 3|VR||IR|∠-θIR (3.92)

From Equations (3.91) and (3.92), the real power magnitudes delivered by the source and
that received by the load respectively, are
PS = Re[SS] = 3|Vs||Is|cos(θVS- θIS) (3.93)
PR = Re[SR]= 3|VR||IR|cosθIR (3.94)

Total real power loss in the line is

PL =PS - PR = 3|Vs||Is|cos(θVS- θIS) -3|VR||IR|cosθIR (3.95)

The efficiency of the transmission line is a ratio of the power received by the load to the
power generated by the source, i.e.
Output Power (receiving end) VR I R cosθ IR
η = = (3.96)
Input Power (sending end) VS I S cos(θ VS − θ IS )

73
The efficiency can be expressed in percentage by multiplying 100 to Equation (3.96).

Voltage regulation for transmission line is the degree of voltage rise at the receiving end
of the line when a rated load (or known as full load) is completely removed from the load
terminal, with sending end voltage is fixed. The voltage relationship to determine line
regulation can be expressed as
V - VR -FL
Voltage regulation = R - NL (3.97)
VR -FL
where VR-NL dan VR-FL are receiving end voltages without load and with full-load,
respectively.

Example:
The following results have been obtained from previous example on short line model:
Phase voltage and current at load terminal:
VR = 5773.5 ∠0° V.
IR = 32.1∠-25.8° A.
Phase voltage and current at sending end terminal:
VS = 5916.6∠0.7° V.
IS = 32.1∠-25.8° A.

Based on these data, the efficiency and voltage regulation for the line can be calculated as
follows:
VR I R cosφ R V cosφ R 5773.5 cos 25.8 O
Efficiency, η = = R =
3VS I S cosφ S VS cosφ S 5916.6 cos(0.7 + 25.8) O
= 0.98. (or 98%)

5916.6 - 5773.5
Voltage regulation = = 0.025 (or 2.5%).
5773.5

Note that the value of VR-NL is the same as the sending end voltage since current IR is zero
at no-load condition. While VR-FL is the value of receiving end voltage when the line is
loaded.

Example:
The data for T-circuit line modelling (refer to Section 3.6.2) have been obtained as
follows:
VR= 17320.5 ∠0° V dan IR = 9.6 ∠0° A.
VS = 17304.7∠3.0° V dan IS = 14.1∠48.2° A.

From the data, the efficiency for the line is

V I cosφ R 17320.5 x 9.6 cos 0 O
η= R R =
VS I S cosφ S 17304.7 x 14.1 cos(48.2 − 3.0) O
= 0.97. (or 97%)

74