HAWASSA UNIVERSITY INSTISTUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

School of Electrical & Computer

Engineering
Post graduate program in Control & Instrumentation Engineering

Course title: Analytical Instrumentation

Assignment -3

Title: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Submitted by ID No.
YESHIWAS FETENE ……………………………….. PGConR/009/10

Submitted to: Mr. Dessie Fentaw

Submitted on: JAN 27/2019 G.C.
Hawassa, Ethiopia

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Contents Page

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
2. Principle Operation of the MRI ............................................................................................... 2
2.1. The components of an MRI system.................................................................................. 3
2.2. Image formation ............................................................................................................... 6
2.3. Physical bases of NMR .................................................................................................... 8
3. Applications ........................................................................................................................... 10
4. Advantages and disadvantages .............................................................................................. 11
5. Summary................................................................................................................................ 11

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 1. Introduction
When a doctor suspects a medical problem that is difficult to detect by a routine physical
examination, he or she uses ultrasound, conventional radiography and computed tomography.
Now, it's technologies cannot provide specific diagnostic data. Which led to the invention of MRI

Historical perspective about MRI:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a relatively new technique since it only appeared in the
medical field in the early 80s. Although its use is still new, its principle is older.

Figure 1: Magnetic resonance imaging

Dr. Raymond Damadian, a physician and scientist, toiled for years trying to produce a machine
that could noninvasively scan the body with the use of magnets. Along with some graduate
students, he constructed a superconducting magnet and fashioned a coil of antenna wire. Since no
one wanted to be the first one in this contraption, Damadian volunteered to be the first patient.

When he climbed in, however, nothing happened. Damadian was looking at years wasted on a
failed invention, but one of his colleagues bravely suggested that he might be too big for the
machine. A svelte graduate student volunteered to give it a try, and on July 3,1977, the first MRI
exam was performed on a human being. It took almost five hours to produce one image, and that
original machine, named the "Indomitable," is now owned by the Smithsonian Institution. In just
a few decades, the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners has grown tremendously

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In 1938 this phenomenon was discovered by the American physicist Isidor Isaac Rabi, by
researching the interference between magnetism and atoms.

1950: Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell demonstrate, in the early 1950s, that atomic nuclei
emit radio waves after being subjected to a strong magnetic field. They received the Nobel Prize
in physics in 1952 for having discovered the principle of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.

1937: Paul Lauterbur obtains the first images from the NMR (which he calls zeugmatography)
after having realized a system allowing to capture the image of a virtual section of an object in two
dimensions.

✓ 1975: the production of the first images of the fabric by Peter Mansfield.
✓ 1977: the production of the first images of the body by Raymond Damadian.
✓ 1992: the production of the first images of the brain by Seiji Ogawa.

2. Principle Operation of the MRI

NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) is a study of the behavior of nuclei with respect to a magnetic
field. Indeed, water constitutes about 70% of the human body and the proton 1H is naturally
abundant and very sensitive in NMR. The intensity of the observed signal will thus depend on the
water concentration, but also on the relaxation time of the nuclear spins. Thus, it will be possible
to obtain an image of the water distribution in the body of the patient. The role of the contrast
agents will be to reduce this relaxation time in order to increase the intensity of the signals.
Regarding the physical side, MRI and NMR have the same principle, only MRI gives images as
output while NMR gives spectra and is used especially in chemistry. So we will study the operating
principle of the latter as being the same as that of the MRI which is applied mainly to the medical
field: NMR is a method of chemical analysis that allows you to know how the nuclei resonate with
a magnetic field. We take hydrogen which consists of a proton which has the property of turning
on itself.

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 NMR MRI

Spectra and lines Images

Applied in chemistry Applied in medicine

Same procedure

Figure 2: NMR and MRI

2.1. The components of an MRI system

MRI scanners vary in size and shape, and some newer models have a greater degree of openness
around the sides. Still, the basic design is the same, and the patient is pushed into a tube that's only
about 24 inches (60 centimeters) in diameter. But what's in there?

The biggest and most important component of an MRI system is the magnet. There is a horizontal
tube -- the same one the patient enters -- running through the magnet from front to back. This tube
is known as the bore. But this isn't just any magnet -- we're dealing with an incredibly strong
system here, one capable of producing a large, stable magnetic field

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 Figure 3: Components of MRI

A) Magnetism and atom:

The magnetic moment of 𝜇⃗ of each hydrogen nucleus (proton), placed in a static magnetic field
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵0, a field created by the different movement of protons and electrons constituting the molecules
found in the body, is oriented either parallel or anti parallel and describes a precise motion at
angular velocity 𝜔𝑜 around the direction of the field ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵0. The sum all the hydrogens in a sample,
⃗⃗⃗0 is oriented according to 𝐵
𝑀 ⃗⃗0.

𝜔0 = 𝛾𝐵0 : Lammor's relationship

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 Figure 3:

B) MRI and magnet:

The MRI machine is a tunnel with a diameter of about 60 cm, open on both sides, and into
which the patient is introduced. It consists of 3 main elements (an electromagnet, gradient
coils and antennas) each having a very precise function. There are different types of
magnets that can be used in MRI:
✓ The permanent magnet: it consists of ferromagnetic structures (that is to say that
it is very strongly magnetized under the effect of an external magnetic field). Its
main advantages are great stability and uniformity of its powerful magnetic field;
however, it will be impossible to suspend the latter in case of emergency.
✓ The resistive magnet: it consists of a copper winding crossed by an electric current
and producing a magnetic field at its center. It is inexpensive and the magnetic field
can be canceled in a few seconds thanks to the power off. But this magnet has
important defects, since it requires a very significant power consumption and the
maximum magnetic field reaches barely 0.5 T.
✓ The superconducting magnet: it is the most common type of magnet since it
makes possible to obtain a very high magnetic field.
C) Other components of MRI:
The gradient coils: named are three metal coils X, Y and Z. They are placed around the
tunnel of the magnet. When they are traversed by an electric current, each coil achieves a
variation in the intensity of the magnetic field in the tunnel. This variation will modify the
frequency of mutation and rotation of the protons. As a result, we will be able to make cuts
because only certain protons will be able to resonate with the radio wave.
➢ The X coil along the right-left axis
➢ The Y coil along the front-rear axis
➢ The Z coil according to the axis up-down.
By selecting one of these coils, we can vary these parameters:

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 ✓ the slope or intensity: it is of the order of a few tens of milliteslas per meter (mT /
m) and varies according to the imagers; its role is to control the thickness of each
cut;
✓ the ramp-up ratio: it corresponds to the maximum slope reached per meter and per
millisecond; its role is the management of the speed of acquisition;
Antennas: Antennas may be emission, receiver, or both. The aim of the emission antennas
is to excite the protons by emitting a wave (whose frequency is less than 3000 GHz) and
the reception antennas aim at receiving the response of these protons at the moment of their
excitation. They are capable of producing and / or sensing the radio frequency (RF) signal.
They are tuned to correspond to the frequency of precession resonance of the protons which
are in the magnetic field:
𝜸
𝑭𝒑 = (𝟐𝝅) ⋅ 𝑩𝟎
Where,
𝑭𝒑 : Frequency of precession
𝜸: gyromagnetic ratio
𝑩𝟎 : intensity of the main magnetic field

Which gives in the case of the nucleus of hydrogen (proton):

➢ For a field of 0.5T: R.F. wave of 21.3MHz

➢ For a 1T field: R.F. wave of 42.6 MHz
➢ For a 1.5T field: R.F. wave of 63.9 MHz.

Antennas are very variable and can be categorized in three different ways: According to their
geometry: volumic and surface. According to their mode of operation: transceiver or receiver alone
(we also speak of pure receiver). According to the association or not of different antenna elements:
linear, quadrature phase or phased array.

According to the association or not of different antenna elements: linear, quadrature phase or
phased array.

2.2. Image formation

An NMR signal is produced through an antenna by radio frequency excitation at a specific
frequency, and recorded when returning to equilibria. Il is spotted specimen thanks to additional
magnetic fields electronically controlled in the

The NMR signal is recorded after the various steps of the spatial coding. This signal must be
digitized (analog-digital converters) then digitally processed to form the image. The "raw" NMR
signal is stored in an array (a matrix) called Space K. The data of the space K (or Fourier plane,

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frequency space) will then make it possible to constitute the 2D image by means of a reverse 2D
Fourier transform.

Notion of Fourier transform: The one-dimensional Fourier transform makes it possible to

represent data in frequency form. To sufficiently describe the original signal, it is necessary to
have its intensity, its frequency but also its phase, which corresponds to the shift of the signal with
respect to the origin. The Fourier transform is the mathematical operation that breaks down a signal
into its frequency components. Just as the human ear can decompose the different frequencies of
a sound, the spectrum obtained by the Fourier transform of a signal represents the intensity of the
different frequency components of a signal. The combination of these different senses of given
intensity makes it possible to reconstruct the signal (inverse Fourier Transform).

Spatial frequency concept: The Fourier transform can be used to describe images. Instead of
studying the evolution of the intensity of sound over time, we will look at the evolution of the
intensity of the gray level along the abscissa axis. The time domain becomes the spatial domain
(variable time t replaced by abscissa x) and the frequency becomes the spatial frequency. A low
spatial frequency represents a wide image pattern, and a high spatial frequency represents a closely
repeated pattern.

Reconstruction of the image: To decompose an image in 2 dimensions, a 2D Fourier transform

is performed. The first step of the 2D Fourier transform consists in applying a Fourier transform
1D in a first direction (for example line by line, x axis). A new Fourier transform is then applied
in another direction (column by column, y-axis). The result of the 2D Fourier transform of an
image is the Fourier plane. The Fourier plane comprises the intensity information of each
frequency component of the image, along the x and y axes. The inverse 2D Fourier transform then
makes it possible to convert these frequency data into spatial information to give an interpretable
image.

Image quality: The quality of an MRI image depends on several parameters: spatial resolution
and contrast and noise and artifacts. The spatial resolution corresponds to the "fineness" of the
image, that is to say to the size of the smallest detail that can be detected. The contrast of the image
has a very important role. It will be optimized to meet the objectives of the MRI sequence:
anatomical study, search for edema, blood, fat or fluid, study of vascular flow. Acquisition time
and image quality are interdependent: it must compromise between them when setting up an MRI
sequence.

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 Figure 4: A view using MRI

2.3. Physical bases of NMR

1) Nuclear spin and precession movement:

a) Spin and nuclear magnetic moment:

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) consists in studying the magnetization changes of the nuclei
of a substance under the joint action of two magnetic fields: a static and high magnetic field (B0)
and a rotating electromagnetic field or radio frequency wave (B1 or RF). The hydrogen nucleus,
consisting of a proton, has magnetic properties. We can represent the magnetic moment in the form
of a vector in rotation on itself: this characterizes the spin of the proton. In the idle state, these
vectors have a random orientation. The magnetic resultant of the set is therefore zero. Subject to
an intense magnetic field called B0, the spins are oriented in the field axis, either in the same
direction ("parallel") or in the opposite direction ("antiparallel").

b) Precession movement and Larmor frequency

The spins have a rotational movement and describe a cone around the axis of B0: this is the
precession movement. One can relate the movement of precession to the movement of a spinning

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tops that remain in equilibrium in rotation. The precession velocity is proportional to the intensity
of the magnetic field. It is characterized by the precession frequency 𝜔0 (number of revolutions
per second): 𝜔0 = 𝛾𝐵0 (where γ is the gyromagnetic ratio).

Figure 5: Representation of the nuclear magnetic moment

c Macroscopic magnetization of a set of spins

The magnetic moment of the protons can be decomposed into a longitudinal component and a
transverse component. The precession movement is thus reflected by a rotation of the transverse
component around the longitudinal axis. In a magnetic field B0, the proportion of spin in the
direction of B0 (parallel) is greater than that of the spins oriented in the opposite direction
(antiparallel): this is the Boltzmann statistic. The population gap between "parallel" and
"antiparallel" spin is proportional to the amplitude of the main magnetic field.

2) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Phenomenon:

There can be an interaction between an electromagnetic wave of radiofrequency (RF wave) and
the spinning precession: it is the resonance phenomenon, which corresponds to a transfer of energy
between two systems having the same frequency. An NMR transition corresponds to the
absorption of a photon of frequency f0 allowing the "flip-flop" of a group of nuclear spins. Indeed,
the radiofrequency wave will cause a resonance phenomenon only if its frequency is the same as
that of precession of the spins. It will bring energy to the spin system: it is the excitation phase.
When the radiofrequency emission is interrupted, the system will restore the absorbed energy to
return to the initial equilibrium state: this is the relaxation phase.

1) Excitation phase
During the excitation phase, the RF wave causes a "flip-flop" of the magnetization, resulting from
a group of spins placed in a magnetic field. This rocker is linked to a transfer of energy to the spin

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system. At the quantum level, it results in a modification of the energetic levels of the spins
(passage of the state of low energy "parallel" towards the level of high energy "antiparallel"). There
is then "rocking" of the group of nuclear spins. The tilting angle of tissue magnetization depends
on the intensity and duration during which the RF wave is applied. The tissue magnetization can
be decomposed into a longitudinal component (along the Z axis, in the B0 axis) and a transverse
component. The excitation phase, and the rocker, result in a decrease in the longitudinal
magnetization (which can go as far as reversing), and the appearance of a transverse magnetization.

2) Relaxation phase:
Relaxation is the return to equilibrium of tissue magnetization. It is accompanied by an emission
of energy in the form of RF waves which constitute the signal recorded in NMR. It breaks down
into two phenomena that follow very different mechanisms: the longitudinal relaxation that
corresponds to the regrowth of the longitudinal component, and the transverse relaxation, which
corresponds to the fall of the transverse magnetization.

3. Applications
I. Breast MRI: In recent years, breast cancer screening has been favored thanks to MRI.
Indeed, this being sensitive, it obtains very favorable results to "this exercise".
According to an American researcher, MRI may even be superior to mammography
when screening for breast abnormalities. MRI can also tell if the abnormality needs to
be treated or not.
II. Brain MRI: MRI is mainly used to detect abnormalities in the blood vessels in the
brain, but also to detect abnormalities in the brain itself. MRI allows for different
sections (transverse, longitudinal or oblique). Whenever possible, try not to inject
contrast medium. Gadolinium (contrast medium) is used exclusively for MRI because
it is injected by "intravenous". The detection of malformation of the brain structure, or
anomalies of its contour are in the majority of cases detected. The advantage is that it
allows in addition to detect its origin, as well as its nature (vascular, degenerative,
tumoral, inflammatory, or infectious).
III. MRI bone or ligament: When MRI is used for this type of "problem", it can be noted
that it is often for back problems (vertebrae) that patients come to have an MRI. In the
interview with Dr. MANGOLD, he told us that these patients made up two thirds of
the bone or ligament MRI.
IV. Hepatic MRI: The main studies of this MRI are the anatomy, as well as the
vascularization of certain organs, more particularly the liver, subject to abnormalities
such as cancer, angiomas (malformation of the vascular system of the liver), or the
adenoma (tumor benign (non-cancerous) due to the proliferation of normal glandular
tissue). A contrast product is specifically dedicated to the liver, ferrite, because it is
iron-based.

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 4. Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
➢ The radiation is safe for the
patient. It provides huge amounts
of information of all types, so it
can be said that the MRI provides
"multi-parametric" information.
➢ It performs an exploration in all
planes of space, these cuts are
widely used on brain MRI (axial,
horizontal, frontal).
➢ It provides a high-resolution
image unlike ultrasound.
Disadvantages
➢ MRI requires very powerful
magnets, heavy and very
expensive.
➢ Its cost constraint
➢ One of the other drawbacks of
MRI is the discomfort of the
patient during this examination:
the subject is kept lying inside a
narrow tube.
➢ The noise is relatively loud.
Indeed, the magnets provide
electromagnetic pulses at high
rate. But this discomfort lasts for
about fifteen minutes.

5. Summary
This course work allowed me, as well as a student in control and
instrumentation engineering, to better understand the functioning of MRI
(Magnetic Resonance Imaging), its applications in the medical dimension and
its advantages and disadvantages.

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