UNIFIED FACILITIES CRITERIA (UFC)

STANDARD PRACTICE
MANUAL FOR
RIGID PAVEMENTS

U. S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS (Preparing Activity)

NAVAL FACILITIES ENGINEERING COMMAND

AIR FORCE CIVIL ENGINEER SUPPORT AGENCY

APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE: DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Page

Paragraph 1-1 PURPOSE .......................................................................................1-1

1-2 SCOPE.............................................................................................1-1
1-3 APPLICATION ................................................................................1-1
1-4 REFERENCES ...............................................................................1-1

CHAPTER 2 MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS

Paragraph 2-1 CEMENT..........................................................................................2-1

2-1.1 Portland Cements, Types I through V ...................................2-1
2-1.2 Other Types...............................................................................2-1
2-1.2.1 Sulfate-Resisting Cement .................................................2-1
2-1.2.2 Blended Hydrualic Cement ...............................................2-1
2-1.2.3 High-Alumina Cement .......................................................2-1
2-1.2.4 Expansive Cements ...........................................................2-2
2-1.2.5 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag .........................2-2
2-2 AGGREGATES...............................................................................2-2
2-2.1 General ......................................................................................2-2
2-2.2 Quality........................................................................................2-2
2-2.2.1 Frost Resistant Aggregate ...............................................2-3
2-2.3 Recycled Concrete As Aggregate .........................................2-3
2-2.4 Alkali-Aggregate Reactions ....................................................2-3
2-2.5 Coarse Aggregate ....................................................................2-4
2-2.5.1 Composition ........................................................................2-4
2-2.5.2 Sizes and Grading ..............................................................2-4
2-2.5.3 Deleterious Substances ....................................................2-5
2-2.5.3.1 Pavements Used By Aircraft.......................................2-5
2-2.5.3.2 Other Pavements .........................................................2-7
2-2.5.4 Slag Aggregate ...................................................................2-7
2-2.6 Fine Aggregate. .......................................................................2-7
2-2.6.1 Composition and Shape ....................................................2-7
2-2.6.2 Grading, Uniformity of Grading, and Deleterious
Substances..........................................................................2-8
2-2.7 Aggregate for Calibration Hardstands...................................2-9
2-2.8 Aggregate for Power Check Pads .........................................2-9
2-2.9 Blended Aggregates ............................................................. 2-10
2-2.10 Other Aggregates .................................................................. 2-10
2-3 CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES ...................................................... 2-10
2-3.1 General ................................................................................... 2-10
2-3.2 Air-Entraining Admixtures .................................................... 2-10
2-3.2.1 Strength Loss ................................................................... 2-11
2-3.2.2 Bleeding ............................................................................ 2-11
2-3.2.3 Batching AEA................................................................... 2-11
2-3.2.4 Dosage.............................................................................. 2-11
2-3.2.5 Effects of water content on air content ........................ 2-11

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2-3.2.6 Effects of fine aggregate grading on air content ....... 2-11
2-3.2.7 Effects of temperature on air content........................... 2-12
2-3.2.8 Effect of other admixtures on air content..................... 2-12
2-3.2.9 Effect of mixing action on air content ........................... 2-12
2-3.3 Accelerating Admixture ........................................................ 2-12
2-3.3.1 Nonchloride admixtures.................................................. 2-12
2-3.3.2 Effect on fresh concrete properties .............................. 2-13
2-3.3.3 Effect on hardened concrete properties ...................... 2-13
2-3.3.4 Other methods, accelerating strength development .. 2-13
2-3.4 Retarding admixtures............................................................ 2-13
2-3.4.1 General Uses. .................................................................. 2-13
2-3.4.2 Dosage.............................................................................. 2-14
2-3.4.3 Batching ............................................................................ 2-14
2-3.4.4 Effect on strength ............................................................ 2-14
2-3.5 Water-reducing admixtures.................................................. 2-14
2-3.5.1 Dosage.............................................................................. 2-14
2-3.5.2 Use in hot or cool weather ............................................. 2-14
2-3.5.3 Air entrainment ................................................................ 2-15
2-3.5.4 Bleeding ............................................................................ 2-15
2-3.6 High-range water-reducing admixtures.............................. 2-15
2-3.6.1 Effect on workability........................................................ 2-15
2-3.6.2 Effect on segregation and bleeding .............................. 2-16
2-3.6.3 Effect on air entrainment ................................................ 2-16
2-3.6.4 Effect on setting time ...................................................... 2-16
2-3.6.5 Compatibility with other admixtures.............................. 2-16
2-3.7 Antiwashout admixtures ....................................................... 2-16
2-3.7.1 General ............................................................................. 2-17
2-3.7.2 Batching ............................................................................ 2-17
2-3.7.3 Air entrainment ................................................................ 2-17
2-3.7.4 Bleeding ............................................................................ 2-17
2-3.7.5 Retardation....................................................................... 2-17
2-3.7.6 Compatibility..................................................................... 2-17
2-3.7.7 Dosage.............................................................................. 2-17
2-3.8 Extended set-control admixtures ........................................ 2-18
2-3.8.1 General ............................................................................. 2-18
2-3.8.1.1 Treating unhardened concrete ................................ 2-18
2-3.8.1.2 Treating the freshly mixed concrete ....................... 2-18
2-3.8.1.3 Stabilizing plastic concrete ...................................... 2-18
2-3.8.1.4 Treating wash water ................................................ 2-18
2-3.8.2 Stabilizer ........................................................................... 2-19
2-3.8.3 Activator ............................................................................ 2-19
2-3.8.4 Effect on hardened properties ....................................... 2-19
2-3.8.5 Dosage.............................................................................. 2-19
2-3.9 Antifreeze admixtures ........................................................... 2-19
2-3.9.1 Composition ..................................................................... 2-19
2-3.9.2 Batching ............................................................................ 2-19
2-3.9.3 Effect on strength ............................................................ 2-20
2-3.9.4 Effect on resistance to freezing and thawing .............. 2-20

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2-3.9.5 Use with reactive aggregates ........................................ 2-20
2-3.9.6 Corrosion of steel ............................................................ 2-20
2-3.9.7 Cost benefits .................................................................... 2-20
2-4 POZZOLANS ............................................................................... 2-20
2-4.1 General ................................................................................... 2-20
2-4.2 Regulations governing use of fly ash ................................. 2-21
2-4.3 Class F pozzolan................................................................... 2-21
2-4.4 Class C pozzolan .................................................................. 2-21
2-4.5 Other considerations ............................................................. 2-21
2-4.6 Class N pozzolan .................................................................. 2-21
2-4.7 Silica fume .............................................................................. 2-21
2-4.8 Substitutions ........................................................................... 2-22
2-5 WATER ......................................................................................... 2-22
2-6 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS.............................................. 2-22
2-6.1 Steel fiber reinforced concrete ............................................ 2-22
2-6.1.1 Description........................................................................ 2-22
2-6.1.2 Steel fibers........................................................................ 2-23
2-6.2 Other materials ...................................................................... 2-23
2-6.3 Welding ................................................................................... 2-23
2-6.4 Epoxy-Coated Steel .............................................................. 2-23

CHAPTER 3 PRECONSTRUCTION SAMPLING AND TESTING OF MATERIALS

Paragraph 3-1 CEMENTS, POZZOLANS, AND GGBF SLAG..........................3-1

3-2 AGGREGATES...............................................................................3-1
3-2.1 Listed Sources ..........................................................................3-1
3-2.2 Approval of Aggregates ...........................................................3-1
3-2.3 Sources for Calibration Hardstands ......................................3-1
3-2.4 Aggregate Sources Not Previously Listed............................3-2
3-2.5 Unlisted Source ........................................................................3-2
3-2.6 Aggregates for a Small Project ..............................................3-2
3-3 CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES...........................................................3-2
3-4 CURING COMPOUND ..................................................................3-2
3-5 EPOXY-RESIN MATERIAL ..........................................................3-2
3-6 DELIVERY AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS ..........................3-2
3-6.1 Cement and Pozzolan.............................................................3-2
3-6.2 Aggregates ................................................................................3-2
3-6.2.1 Control of Grading ..............................................................3-3
3-6.2.2 Moisture Control ................................................................3-3

CHAPTER 4 PROPORTIONING CONCRETE MIXTURES

Paragraph 4-1 SELECTION OF MIXTURE PROPORTIONING .......................4-1

4-1.1 General ......................................................................................4-1
4-1.2 Method .......................................................................................4-1
4-2 BASIS FOR SELECTING PROPORTIONS ...............................4-1
4-2.1 General ......................................................................................4-1
4-2.2 Economy....................................................................................4-1

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4-2.3 Strength .....................................................................................4-1
4-2.4 Durability....................................................................................4-1
4-2.5 Placeability ................................................................................4-2
4-3 CRITERIA FOR PROPORTIONING ...........................................4-2
4-3.1 General ......................................................................................4-2
4-3.2 Design Flexural Strength.........................................................4-2
4-3.3 Water-Cement Ratio ................................................................4-2
4-3.4 Required Average Flexural Strength.....................................4-2
4-3.5 Slump .........................................................................................4-4
4-3.6 Water Content ...........................................................................4-4
4-3.7 Cement Content .......................................................................4-4
4-3.7.1 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete ...............................................4-5
4-3.8 Pozzolan Content .....................................................................4-5
4-3.9 Air Entrainment .........................................................................4-5
4-3.9.1 Air Content...........................................................................4-5
4-4 MIXTURE PROPORTIONING .....................................................4-6
4-4.1 General ......................................................................................4-6
4-4.1.1 Cementitious Material........................................................4-6
4-4.1.2 Aggregate ............................................................................4-6
4-4.1.3 Admixtures...........................................................................4-6
4-4.1.4 Test Results ........................................................................4-6
4-4.1.5 Placeability ..........................................................................4-6
4-4.2 Strength Correlations ...............................................................4-6
4-5 GOVERNMENT MIXTURE PROPORTIONS ............................4-7
4-5.1 General ......................................................................................4-7
4-5.2 Sampling of Materials ..............................................................4-7
4-5.3 Adjustment of Government Mixture Proportions .................4-7
4-6 CONTRACTOR MIXTURE PROPORTIONS .............................4-8
4-6.1 General ......................................................................................4-8
4-6.2 Adjustment of Contractor Mixture Proportions .....................4-8

CHAPTER 5 PREPARATIONS FOR CONCRETE PLACEMENT

Paragraph 5-1 SUBGRADE ....................................................................................5-1

5-2 BASE................................................................................................5-1
5-2.1 General ......................................................................................5-1
5-2.2 Construction ..............................................................................5-1
5-2.3 Drainage Layer .........................................................................5-1
5-2.4 Design Precautions ..................................................................5-2
5-2.5 Roller-Compacted Concrete ...................................................5-2
5-3 EXISTING PAVEMENT (OVERLAYS) .......................................5-2
5-3.1 Correction of Defects in Existing Pavement.........................5-2
5-3.2 Preparing the Existing Pavements .......................................5-2
5-4 FORMS AND STRING LINES......................................................5-3
5-4.1 General ......................................................................................5-3
5-4.2 Form Materials ..........................................................................5-3
5-4.3 Construction of Forms .............................................................5-3
5-4.4 Removal of Forms ....................................................................5-3

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5-4.5 Installing String Lines...............................................................5-3
5-4.6 Material and Maintenance for String Lines...........................5-4

CHAPTER 6 MIXING AND TRANSPORTATION

Paragraph 6-1 GENERAL .......................................................................................6-1

6-2 PLANT..............................................................................................6-1
6-2.1 Capacity.....................................................................................6-1
6-2.2 Batching Tolerances ................................................................6-1
6-3 CONCRETE MIXERS ....................................................................6-2
6-3.1 Truck Mixers..............................................................................6-2
6-3.2 Stationary, Central Plant Mixers ............................................6-2
6-4 MIXING STEEL-FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE ..............6-3
6-5 TRANSPORTING PLANT-MIXED CONCRETE .......................6-3
6-6 ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE ........................................6-3

CHAPTER 7 PLACEMENT

Paragraph 7-1 GENERAL .......................................................................................7-1

7-2 TIMING.............................................................................................7-1
7-3 SLIPFORM PAVING......................................................................7-1
7-4 SPREADING ...................................................................................7-2
7-5 VIBRATION .....................................................................................7-2
7-5.1 General ......................................................................................7-2
7-5.2 Surface Vibrators......................................................................7-2
7-6 STEEL REINFORCEMENT..........................................................7-2
7-7 PLACEMENT CONDITIONS ........................................................7-2
7-7.1 General .....................................................................................7-2
7-7.2 Placing During Cold Weather .................................................7-3
7-7.3 Placing During Hot Weather ...................................................7-3
7-8 PLACING SMALL AREAS ............................................................7-4
7-9 CONTROL OF CRACKING IN PAVEMENTS PLACED ON
STIFF BASES.................................................................................7-4
7-10 STEEL FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE ..............................7-5
7-11 ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE ........................................7-5

CHAPTER 8 FINISHING

Paragraph 8-1 EQUIPMENT AND METHODS ....................................................8-1

8-2 SURFACE FINISHING ..................................................................8-1
8-3 HAND FINISHING AND EDGING ...............................................8-1
8-4 TEXTURE .......................................................................................8-1
8-5 FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE ...........................................8-2

CHAPTER 9 CURING

Paragraph 9-1 CONTROL OF CRACKING ..........................................................9-1

9-2 MEMBRANE CURING...................................................................9-1

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9-3 MOIST-CURING .............................................................................9-1
9-4 IMPERVIOUS SHEET CURING ..................................................9-2
9-5 SPECIAL CURING PROVISIONS ...............................................9-2
9-6 CURING PAVEMENTS TO BE PAINTED .................................9-2
9-7 PAVEMENT PROTECTION .........................................................9-2

CHAPTER 10 RIGID OVERLAYS

Paragraph 10-1 GENERAL .................................................................................... 10-1

10-2 TYPES........................................................................................... 10-1
10-3 NON-BONDED OVERLAYS ...................................................... 10-1
10-3.1 General ................................................................................... 10-1
10-3.2 Surface Preparation .............................................................. 10-1
10-3.3 Separation Course ................................................................ 10-1
10-4 PARTIALLY BONDED OVERLAYS ......................................... 10-2
10-5 BONDED OVERLAYS ................................................................ 10-2
10-5.1 General ................................................................................... 10-2
10-5.2 Surface Preparation ............................................................. 10-2
10-5.3 Bonding Agent ....................................................................... 10-3
10-5.4 Materials ................................................................................. 10-3
10-6 PLACEMENT, FINISHING, AND CURING ............................. 10-3
10-7 CONTROL OF CRACKING ....................................................... 10-3

CHAPTER 11 JOINTS

Paragraph 11-1 GENERAL .................................................................................... 11-1

11-2 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS ........................................................ 11-1
11-2.1 Longitudinal Construction Joints ......................................... 11-1
11-2.2 Transverse Construction Joints .......................................... 11-2
11-3 EXPANSION JOINTS ................................................................. 11-2
11-4 CONTRACTION JOINTS ........................................................... 11-2
11-4.1 General ................................................................................. 11-2
11-4.2 Joint Types ............................................................................ 11-2
11-4.3 Installation of Insert-Type Joints ......................................... 11-3
11-4.4 Sawing of Transverse Contraction Joints .......................... 11-3
11-4.4.1 Method .............................................................................. 11-3
11-4.4.2 Time................................................................................... 11-3
11-4.4.3 Sawing Sequence ........................................................... 11-3
11-4.4.4 Cuts ................................................................................... 11-4
11-5 SPECIAL JOINTS ....................................................................... 11-4
11-6 SEALING JOINTS ....................................................................... 11-4

CHAPTER 12 QUALITY CONTROL AND ASSURANCE

Paragraph 12-1 RESPONSIBILITIES ................................................................... 12-1

12-2 CERTIFICATION......................................................................... 12-1
12-3 TESTING BY THE GOVERNMENT......................................... 12-1
12-4 TESTING BY THE CONTRACTOR ......................................... 12-1

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12-4.1 Concrete Plant ....................................................................... 12-1
12-4.2 Inspection Before Placing Concrete ................................... 12-1
12-4.3 Slump and Air Content ......................................................... 12-2
12-4.3.1 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete ............................................ 12-2
12-4.4 Inspections During Placement ............................................ 12-2
12-4.5 Inspection of Curing Procedures ........................................ 12-2
12-5 ACCEPTANCE, REJECTION, AND PAY REDUCTION....... 12-2
12-5.1 Lot Size ................................................................................... 12-2
12-5.1.1 Partial Lots........................................................................ 12-3
12-5.2 Payments ................................................................................ 12-3
12-5.3 Failure to Meet Requirements ............................................. 12-3
12-5.4 Additional Testing .................................................................. 12-3
12-5.5 Edge Slump and Joint Face Deformation ........................ 12-3
12-5.5.1 Edge Slump ...................................................................... 12-4
12-5.5.2 Joint Face Deformation .................................................. 12-4
12-5.6 Flexural Strength ................................................................... 12-4
12-5.6.1 Compressive-to-Flexural Strength Relationship......... 12-5
12-5.6.2 Compressive Strength Test Specimens ...................... 12-5
12-5.6.3 Flexural Strength Test Specimens .............................. 12-5
12-5.6.4 Field-Cured Specimens .................................................. 12-5
12-5.7 Smoothness ........................................................................... 12-5
12-5.7.1 Requirements................................................................... 12-6
12-5.7.2 Profilograph ...................................................................... 12-6
12-5.7.3 Straightedge ..................................................................... 12-6
12-5.8 Plan grade .............................................................................. 12-7
12-5.9 Thickness................................................................................ 12-7
12-6 AREAS DEFECTIVE IN GRADE OR SMOOTHNESS ......... 12-8
12-7 REPAIRING RANDOM CRACKS............................................. 12-8

APPENDIX A REFERENCES ..............................................................................A-1

APPENDIX B ENGINEERING TECHNICAL LETTER 97-5 ............................B-1

APPENDIX C ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE .......................................C-1

FIGURES

Figure Title

7-1 Prediction of Concrete Rate of Evaporation.................................................7-6

8-1 Air Force Runway Grooving Requirements .................................................8-3
11-1 Special Joint Between New and Existing Pavements ............................. 11-5

Table Title

2-1 Coarse Aggregate Size Groups .....................................................................2-5

2-2 Grading of Coarse Aggregates ......................................................................2-5

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2-3 Deleterious Materials in Coarse Aggregates for Airfield and Heliport
Pavements.........................................................................................................2-6
2-4 Deleterious Materials in Coarse Aggregates for Other Pavements .........2-7
2-5 Grading of Fine Aggregate .............................................................................2-8
2-6 Deleterious Substances in Fine Aggregate ..................................................2-9
2-7 Aggregate Groups for Heat Resistance Concrete ......................................2-9
4-1 Approximate Relationship Between Water Cement Ratios and Strength of
Concrete (modified from ACI 211.1) (SI units) ............................................4-3
4-2 Approximate Relationship Between Water Cement Ratios and Strength of
Concrete (modified from ACI 211.1) (SAE units) ........................................4-3
4-3 Modification Factor ...........................................................................................4-4
6-1 Plant Batching Tolerances ..............................................................................6-1
6-2 Uniformity Requirements, Stationary Mixers ...............................................6-2
7-1 Maximum Allowable Concrete Placing Temperature .................................7-4
12-1 Joint Face Specification Limits.................................................................... 12-4
12-2 Profilograph Surface Smoothness Requirements .................................... 12-6
12-3 Straightedge Surface Smoothness Requirements................................... 12-7

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1-1 PURPOSE. This manual provides information on the materials and construction
procedures for concrete pavements.

1-2 SCOPE. This manual describes the constituents to be used in concrete, the
procedures to be used in manufacturing concrete, and the equipment and procedures to
place, texture, and cure concrete for pavements.

1-3 APPLICATION. The requirements described in this manual and used to

generate related guide specifications are intended to produce a pavement of the highest
quality. The most rigorous requirements apply to:

- Airfield pavements (no matter how small),

- Hangar floors,
- Organized vehicular parking greater than 2,000 m2 (2,500 yd 2) or having a
design index equal to or greater than 5,
- Roads and streets greater than 4,000 m2 (5,000 yd 2) or having a design index
greater than or equal to 5, and
- All heavy-duty pavements with design index equal to or greater than 5 (no
matter how small).

Less rigorous requirements are appropriate for minor construction where an occasional
problem can be tolerated and/or the size of the job does not warrant the additional
expense incurred by applying the more rigorous requirements. Requirements for minor
construction apply to:

- Non-organizational vehicular parking less than 2,000 m2 (2,500 yd2) and

having a design index of less than 5,
- Roads and streets less than 4,000 m2 (5,000 yd 2) with a design index less
than 5, and
- Non-heavy-duty pavement slabs less than 80 m2 (100 yd 2) in size (example
200 family housing driveways each 27 x 3 m (90 x 10 feet)).

For minor construction pavements and at the discretion of the designer, local
government specifications such as state highway specifications that can meet Corps of
Engineers requirements may be used in lieu of a Corps of Engineers specification.

1-4 REFERENCES. References used in this document are listed in Appendix A.

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CHAPTER 2

MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS

2-1 CEMENT.

2-1.1 Portland Cements, Types I through V. ASTM C 150 (CRD-C 201) provides
a detailed specification for these cements. Type I portland cement is common or
ordinary cement that is supplied unless another type is specified. Type II is modified
portland cement that provides moderate resistance against sulfate attack and a lower
heat of hydration than Type I cement. It is common for cement to be manufactured to
meet the physical and chemical requirements of both Type I and II cements.

2-1.2 Other Types. Type III cement is high early-strength cement. Ultimate
strength is about the same as Type I cement, but Type III cement has a 3-day
compressive strength approximately equal to the Type I cement’s 7-day strength. The
cost of Type III cement in lieu of Types I or II cement can only be justified when early
strength gain is needed to open pavements to traffic or the high heat of hydration is
needed for cool construction periods. The use of Type III cement will almost never be
practical for use in roller compacted concrete (RCC) due to the shortened working time
provided by this cement. Type IV cement has a low heat of hydration that may be
useful in mass concrete but is not likely to be encountered in pavement construction.
Type V sulfate -resistant cement should be used when the concrete will be exposed to
severe sulfate attack. The potential for severe sulfate attack exists when the concrete is
exposed to water-soluble sulfate (SO4 ) in soil or water (as determined by CRD-C 403
and 408) in excess of 0.20 percent or 1,500 parts per million. The potential for moderate
sulfate attack exists for sulfate contents in excess of 0.10, or 150 parts per million.

2-1.2.1 Sulfate-Resisting Cement. If moderate sulfate-resisti ng cement is not

economically available, concrete that is resistant to moderate attack may be made by
using Type I cement having not more than 10 percent C3A or Types IS or IP which
contain an adequate amount of suitable Class F pozzolon or slag or to which additional
Class F pozzolan or slag is added. Performance tests must be conducted to determine
the suitability of any substitutes for sulfate -resistant cement.

2-1.2.2 Blended Hydraulic Cement. If straight Portland cement is proposed, the

test method is described in ASTM C 452 (CRD-C 232). If a blend of Portland cement
and pozzolan or blended hydraulic cement is proposed, the test method is ASTM C
1012 (CRD-C 211). Where severe attack is to be resisted, highly sulfated-resistant
cement (Type V, Type III with 5 percent limit on C3A) should be specified and used
unless problems of cost or availability are encountered, in which case other materials as
outlined above should be taken. Additional information may be obtained from ACI
201.2R.

2-1.2.3 High-Alumina Cement. Also known as aluminous or calcium aluminate

cement, this cement gains most of its strength in one day, has a high exotherm, is
resistant to chemical attack, and is a refractory material. When exposed to warm, moist

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conditions, it will undergo a long-term strength loss. High alumina cement may find
some specialized applications in pavement construction where its rapid strength gain,
high exotherm, or refractory properties outweigh its cost and long-term strength loss.

2-1.2.4 Expansive Cements. These cements are designated as Types K, M, and S

in ASTM C 845 (CRD-C 204). They may find some application where concrete
shrinkage needs to be minimized or avoided. However, there is little experience with
these cements, and they will require careful investigation before use in pavement
construction.

2-1.2.5 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag. At least one United States
manufacturer is actively promoting a slag cement made by grinding iron blast furnace
slag commonly known as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBF) cement. This
may be substituted for up to 50 percent of the portland cement in a pavement mixture if
tests show the required final properties are achieved in the hardened concrete.
Preblended mixes of portland -pozzolan (Type IP), and portland-slag cements (Type IS)
are described in ASTM C 595 (CRD-C 203) and are acceptable for use in pavements.

2-2 AGGREGATES.

2-2.1 General. One of the most important factors in determining the quality and
economy of concrete is the selection of a suitable aggregate source. The aggregate
should be provided in two size groups: coarse and fine. The coarse aggregate should
consist of at least 90 percent by weight retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve. The fine
aggregate should consist of at least 90 percent by weight passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4)
sieve. The two size groups will allow some flexibility in blending the aggregate to
control the combined aggregate grading while minimizing the number of aggregate
quality control checks needed. A primary consideration should be that regardless of the
grading limits imposed, the grading of the aggregate delivered to the project site be
maintained relatively consistent by restrictions on the range of fineness modulus
throughout the production of concrete. This is an important factor in maintaining control
of the workability of the concrete mixture.

2-2.2 Quality. Aggregates must generally meet the requirements of ASTM C 33

(CRD-C 133), as modified in the following paragraphs. These requirements can be
adjusted as necessary to reflect local experience with specific aggregates to insure
economical use of aggregates to meet project requirements. The magnesium or sulfate
soundness test, ASTM C 88 (CRD-C 137), required in ASTM C 33 (CRD-C 133) has not
been consistently successful in identifying frost-resistant aggregate. Consequently, if an
otherwise suitable aggregate fails this test, it should be further investigated using CRD-
C 114 soundness of aggregate by freezing and thawing in concrete. This test is similar
to ASTM C 666 (CRD-C 20), Procedure A, except that a standard concrete mixture is
used to evaluate the effect of aggregates on freezing-and-thawing resistance. This test
is more severe than the aggregates will experience in service. Nevertheless, it provides
an important measurement in relative aggregate quality in freezing-and-thawing
resistance and is the best means now available for judging the relative effect of
aggregates on frost resistance. Although this test is reasonably repeatable, it is not
possible to prevent small differences in the size and distribution of air voids caused by

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different cements and air-entraining admixtures and possible other factors; thus, it is not
possible to judge accurately the quality of protection of cement paste in each instance
even though air content for all tests is kept within a small range. The test also has
limitations on the size of aggregates that can be tested. The maximum size of
aggregate used in the test is 19 mm (3/4 inch). Therefore, the test is of limited value
when the +19 mm (+3/4 inch) aggregate varies substantially in characteristics from that
finer than 19 mm (3/4 inch).

2-2.2.1 Frost Resistant Aggregate. ASTM C 682 (CRD-C 115) evaluation of frost
resistance of coarse aggregates in air-entrained concrete by critical dilation procedures
provides another indication of aggregate quality in freezing-and-thawing resistance
when used in concrete. It measures the dilation of a specimen under slow freezing-and-
thawing cycles and is similar to ASTM C 671 (CRD-C 40) except a standard air-
entrained concrete mixture is used. In air-entrained concrete in which the paste is
adequately protected against frost action, the quality of the aggregate is the main factor
that contributes to deterioration. Results of this test are very sensitive to the moisture
condition of aggregate and concrete and should be compared carefully with conditions
in the field. Similarly, if an otherwise suitable aggregate fails the Los Angeles (LA)
abrasion test, ASTM C 131 or C 535 (CRD-C 117 or 145), it can be accepted if it has a
history of local use showing that it can be processed without unacceptable degradation
and that it is durable under weathering and traffic conditions comparable to the project
under investigation. It should be noted that there is no relationship between abrasion
loss from these tests and concrete abrasion or durability in service.

2-2.3 Recycled Concrete As Aggregate. Existing concrete may be taken up,

crushed to suitable gradation, and re-used as concrete aggregate. It must meet all the
requirements for gradation and quality that conventional aggregates must meet. All
reinforcing steel should be removed. Hammermill secondary crushers tend to produce
excess fines and should not be used. The recycled concrete aggregates will not
normally require washing unless they have been contaminated with base or subgrade
material. If the original pavement that is being recycled is “D” cracked, then the concrete
should be crushed to a maximum size of 19 mm (3/4 i nch). When crushed concrete is
being used as fine aggregate, the inclusion of some natural sand may be required to
improve the new concrete mixture’s workability.

2-2.4 Alkali-Aggregate Reactions. Minerals in some aggregates can chemically

react with the cement alkalis resulting in an increase in volume that places the concrete
under expansive stresses, which may result in map cracking, popouts, strength loss,
and concrete expansion. Once started, the reaction and the resulting progressive
deterioration of the concrete cannot be stopped. These reactions are generally
associated with aggregates containing poorly ordered forms of silica, such as opal,
chalcedony, chert, or flint (alkali-silica reaction), complex layer-lattice, and silicate
minerals such as graywackes, phyllites, siltstones, or argillites (some-times
differentiated as alkali-silicate reaction), or argillaceous, dolomitic limestone (alakali-
carbonate reaction). A petrographic investigation in conjunction with results of tests in
accordance with ASTM C 227 (CRD-C 123) for alkali-silica expansion and ASTM C 586
(CRD-C 146) for alkali-carbonate expansion is the most promising approach for
identifying these problems. If possible, reactive aggregates should be avoided. If they

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cannot be avoided, low-alkali cement or and effective pozzolan, or both, should be
specified. If low-alkali cement is not available or is overly expensive, reactive aggregate
may be blended with non-reactive aggregate to lessen the effect of the reactions. Some
pozzolans and slag cements have been successful in countering alkali-silica reactions.
When consideration is given to the use of pozzolan or slag cement in lieu of low-alkali
cement, mortar-bar tests, ASTM C 1260 (CRD-C 174), should be conducted with the
aggregates in q uestion and the cementitious materials proposed for use to verify that
potentially deleterious expansion will be reduced.

2-2.5 Coarse Aggregate.

2-2.5.1 Composition. Coarse aggregate may be natural gravel, crushed gravel,

crushed stone, crushed recyc led concrete, or iron blast furnace slag. The crushing of
gravel tends to improve the quality and the bond characteristics and generally results in
a higher flexural strength of concrete than if uncrushed gravel is used. When mixture
proportioning studies or local experience indicates that a low flexural strength will be
obtained with uncrushed gravel, the possibility of obtaining higher strength by crushing
the gravel will be investigated. Particles with a width–to-thickness ratio in excess of 3
may not e xceed 20 percent by weight as determined by ASTM D 4791 (CRD-C 119).
This requirement is an attempt to avoid introducing structural planes of weakness in the
finished concrete, workability problems associated with an excess of particles of these
shapes, and durability problems that may develop if air and water are trapped under flat
and elongated particles.

2-2.5.2 Size and Grading. The maximum size of the coarse aggregate used in
pavement concrete should not exceed one-fourth of the pavement thickness. In no case
will the coarse maximum aggregate size exceed 50 mm (2 inches). However, for
pavement construction in areas where aggregate popouts have been a problem or may
occur, the coarse aggregate will not exceed 37.5 mm (1½-inch) nominal maximum size.
For RCC, the nominal maximum aggregate size should not exceed 19 mm (3/4 inch). In
areas where “D” cracking in pavements has been a problem, limestone aggregates
should not exceed 12.5 mm (½-inch) nominal maximum size and should be of low
absorption. When the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate is greater than 25
mm (1 inch), the aggregates shall be furnished in two size groups as shown in Table 2-
1, with gradings within the separated size groups conforming to the requirements of
Table 2 -2. Where local practice provides size-group separations other than as shown in
Table 2 -1, local size gradings may be specified if approximately the same size ranges
are obtained and the grading of coarse aggregate when combined and batched for
concrete is as required by mixture proportioning. For projects requiring 1,223 m3 (1,600
yd3) or less of concrete, special grading requirements for coarse aggregate according to
the local State Department of Transportation specifications or to local practice may be
substituted for the gradings shown. For overlays, the nominal maximum size of
aggregate will not exceed one-fourth the overlay thickness.

Table 2-1. Coarse Aggregate Size Groups

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Nominal Maximum Size Size Groups

4.75 mm to 19 mm
37.5 mm (No. 4 to ¾ in.)
(1 ½ in.) 19 mm to 37.5 mm
(¾ in. to 1 ½ in.)
4.75 mm to 25 mm
50 mm (No. 4 to 1 in.)
(2 in.) 25 mm to 50 mm
(1 in. to 2 in.)

Table 2-2. Grading Of Coarse Aggregate

Percentage by Weight Passing Individual Sieves

Sieve Size U.S. 4.75 mm to 4.75 mm to 19 mm to 25 mm to
Standard Square 19 mm 25 mm 37.5 mm 50 mm
Mesh (No. 4 to 3/4 in.) (No. 4 to 1 in.) (3/4 in. to 1-1/2 in.) (1 in. to 2 in.)
63 mm (2-1/2 in.) -- -- -- 100
50 mm (2 in.) -- -- 100 97 ? 3
37.5 mm (1-1/2 in.) -- 100 95 ? 5 50 ? 20
25 mm (1 in. ) 100 97 ? 3 37 ? 17 7? 7
19 mm (¾ in.) 95 ? 5 -- 7±7 --
12.5 mm (½ in.) -- 43 ? 20 -- 3? 3
9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 37 ? 17 -- 3? 3 --
4.75 mm (No. 4) 5? 5 5? 5 -- --
2.36 mm (No. 8) 3? 3 3? 3 -- --

2-2.5.3 Deleterious Substances.

2-2.5.3.1 Pavements Used By Aircraft. The performance history of local

aggregates contributing to pavement defects will be the determining factor in setting the
limits for deleterious substances. Table 2-3 lists the common deleterious substances
and specifies limits for these materials. These limits are intended to eliminate popouts
and weather-outs in airfield pavements. The contracting officer will identify other
deleterious substances known to contribute to popouts, and suitable limits will be
specified. Calcium oxide (CaO) and magnesium oxide (MgO) or a mixture thereof, in
lumps, representing the hard burned oxides from fluxing stone or refractory brick should
be added to the list of deleterious substances if air-cooled blast furnace slag is used as
the aggregate. Since the types of materials producing popouts will vary for different
areas, some adjustments of the limits may be desirable for individual projects.
Reductions in specified limits may be made as necessary, but increases to permit the
use of local aggregates that have an acceptable experience record will be governed by
the following procedures. Air Force Regional Civil Engineers (AFRCE) have been
authorized to instruct division engineers to waive Table 2 -3 requirements for Air Force
pavements. Upon request, the AFRCE and the using command will be furnished
available

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Table 2-3. Deleterious Materials In Coarse Aggregates For Airfield And Heliport Pavements

Areas with Popouts

a a
Materials Severe Weather Moderate Weather
Clay lumps 0.2 0.2
b
Shale 0.1 0.2
c
Material finer than No. 200 sieve 0.5 0.5
d
Lightweight particles 0.2 0.2
e
Clay ironstone 0.1 0.5
Chert and/or cherty stone (less than 2.50 sp. gr. 0.1 0.5
f
SSD)
g
Claystone, mudstone, and/or siltstone 0.1 0.1
h
Shaly and/or argillaceous limestone 0.2 0.2
Other soft particles 1.0 1.0
Total of all deleterious substances exclusive of 1.0 2.0
material finer than No. 200 sieve
a
Severe, moderate, and mild weather are defined as follows:

Average Precipitation for a Single Month During

Air Freezing Index for Period—1 Month Before Average Date of First
Weather Severity Coldest Year in 30* Killing Frost to Average Date of Last Killing Frost

Moderate 500 or less Any Amount

Moderate** 501 or more Less than 1 inch
Severe 501 or more 1 inch or more
__________________________________________________________________________________
*Calculated as described in TM 5-818-2/AFM 88-6, Chapter 4.
**In poorly drained areas, the weather should be considered severe even though the other criteria
indicate a rating of moderate.
b
Shale is defined as a fine-grained thinly laminated or fissile sedimentary rock. It is commonly composed of clay or silt
or both. It has been indurated by compaction or by cementation, but not so as to have become slate.
c
Limit for material finer than No. 200 sieve will be increased to 1.5 percent for crushed aggregates if the fine material
consists of crusher dust that is essentially free from clay or shale.
d
The separation medium shall have a specific gravity of 2.0. This limit does not apply to coarse aggregate
manufactured from blast-furnace slag unless contamination is evident.
e
Clay ironstone is defined as an impure variety of iron carbonate, iron oxide, hydrous iron oxide, or combinations
thereof, commonly mixed with clay, silt, or sand. It commonly occurs as dull, earthy particles, homogeneous
concretionary masses, or hard shell particles with soft interiors. Other names commonly used for clay ironstone are
“chocolate bars” and limonite concretions.
f
Chert is defined as rock composed of quartz, chalcedony, or opal, or any mixture of these forms of silica. It is variable
in color. The texture is so fine that the individual mineral grains are too small to be distinguished by the unaided eye.
Its hardness is such that it scratches glass but is not scratched by a knife blade. It may contain impurities such as
clay, carbonates, iron oxides, and other minerals. Other names commonly applied to varieties of chert are flint, jasper,
agate, onyx, hornstone, porcellanite, novaculite, sard, carnelian, plasma, bloodstone, touchstone, chrysoprase,
heliotrope, and petrified wood. Cherty stone is defined as any type of rock (generally limestone) which contains chert
as lenses and/or nodules or irregular masses partially or completely replacing the original stone. SSD = saturated
surface dry.
g
Claystone, mudstone, or siltstone is defined as a massive fine-grained sedimentary rock which consists predominantly
of clay or silt without lamination or fissility. It may be indurated either by c ompaction or by cementation.
h
Shaly limestone is defined as a limestone in which shale occurs as one or more thin beds of laminae. These laminae
may be regular or very irregular and may be spaced from a few inches down to minute fractions or an inch.
Argillaceous limestone is defined as a limestone in which clay minerals occur disseminated in the stone in the amount
of 10 to 50 percent by weight of the rock; when these make up from 50 to 90 percent, the rock is known as calcareous
(or dolomitic) shale (or claystone, mudstone, or siltstone).

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engineering information on local aggregates and behavior records on pavements made
from them. In the case of Air National Guard and Army pavements, the using command
will be furnished information on the costs of aggregates complying with specification
requirements and on less costly local aggregates along with behavior records on
pavements made with local aggregates. However, requirements will be waived only if
requested by the Air National Guard Base Detachment Commander or the Army
Installation Commander with his assurance that operational requirements will be
satisfied by a performance that is equal to that of existing pavements constructed with
these less costly aggregates. Requests will be submitted for approval to the
Transportation Systems Mandatory Center of Expertise, TSMCX (CENWO-ED-TX) with
proposed specification requirements, comparative cost estimates, and evidence that
operational requirements will be satisfied.

2-2.5.3.2 Other Pavements. For other pavements, the limiting amounts of

deleterious substances in each size of coarse aggregate will be specified as shown in
Table 2 -4. The contracting officer will identify other deleterious substances, and
suitable limits will be specified and materials defined when necessary.

Table 2-4. Deleterious Materials In Coarse Aggregates For Other Pavements

Material Percentage by Weight

Clay lumps and friable particles 2.0
a
Material finer than No. 200 sieve 1.0
b
Lightweight particles 1.0
Other soft particles 2.0
Note: The total of all deleterious substances shall not exceed 5.0 percent of
the weight of the aggregate. The percentage of material finer than No. 200
sieve shall not be included in this total.
a
Limit for material finer than No. 200 sieve will be increased to 1.5 percent for
crushed aggregates consisting of crusher dust that is essentially free from clay
or shale.
b
The separation medium shall have a specific gravity of 2.0. This limit does not
apply to coarse aggregate manufactured from blast-furnace slag unless
contamination is evident.

2-2.5.4 Slag Aggregate. Iron ore blast-furnace slag aggregates vary widely in
properties depending on the manufacturing and cooling processes used. Unaged blast-
furnace slag may contain free lime, but aging reduces this to acceptable levels. Properly
aged iron ore blast- furnace aggregate has a good history of performance. Slag from
steel mills, however, is not acceptable as concrete aggregate because of the various
oxides it contains.

2-2.6 Fine Aggregate.

2-2.6.1 Composition and Shape. Requirements for composition and particle

shape of fine aggregate are purely descriptive, for example, natural and/or

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manufactured sand, spherical or cubical, and no limits are shown. A limit will be
included for flat and elongated particles in fine aggregate, comparable with the limit
specified for coarse aggregate, when tests indicate that poor particle shape will affect
the workability and quality of the concrete. Shape will be determined in accordance with
CRD-C 120.

2-2.6.2 Grading, Uniformity of Grading, and Deleterious Substances. The grading

and uniformity of grading specified in Table 2-5 for fine aggregate are desirable for
pavement concrete and can generally be met at a reasonable cost within the continental
United States. However, if conformance with these requirements will result in undue
construction costs and if investigation of the available sources of fine aggregate in the
locality indicates that limits other than specified are desirable, a request will be
submitted to TSMCX (CENWO-ED-TX) or AFCESA. The request should provide
complete results of all tests conducted to substantiate that concrete of comparable
workability, durability, and strength can be produced without an increase in cement
content. The a mount of deleterious substances in the fine aggregate shall not exceed
the limits shown in Table 2-6. For RCC, the fine aggregate quality should generally be
based on the limits given in ASTM C 33 (CRD-C 133) except that consideration should
be given to relaxing the maximum 5.0 percent limit of material finer than the 75 µm (No.
200 sieve). The amount of material passing the 75 µm (No. 200) sieve has been
increased in Canada to 8.0 percent of the total weight of aggregate with acceptable
results. Sands with higher quantities of nonplastic silt particles may be beneficial as
mineral filler and may allow some reduction in the amount of cement required.
However, mixtures made with fine aggregate having an excessive amount of clay may
have a high water demand with attendant shrinkage, cracking, and reduced strength.
Determination of the specific gravity and absorption of these sands with high quantities
of fines should be made according to ASTM C 128 (CRD-C 108).

Table 2-5. Grading of Fine Aggregate

Cumulative Percentage by Weight

Sieve Size, U.S. Standard Square Mesh Passing Individual Sieves
9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 100
4.75 mm (No. 4) 97 ? 3
2.36 mm (No. 8) 85 ? 5
1.18 mm (No. 16) 70 ? 10
600 µm (No. 30) 45 ? 15
300 µm (No. 50) 20 ? 10
150 µm (No. 100) 6? 4
Note: In addition, the fine aggregate, as delivered to the mixer, shall have a fineness
modulus of not less than 2.40 nor more than 2.90. The grading of the fine aggregate
also shall be controlled so that the fineness moduli of at least nine of ten samples of the
fine aggregate as delivered to the mixer will not vary more than 0.15 from the average
fineness moduli of all samples previously taken. The fineness modulus shall be
determined by CRD-C 104 (Appendix A).

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Table 2-6. Deleterious Substances in Fine Aggregate

Material Percentage by Weight

Clay lumps and friable particles 1.0
Material finer than 75 µm (No. 200) sieve 3.0
Lightweight particles 0.5
Note: The total of all deleterious materials shall not exceed 3.0 percent of the weight of
the aggregate.

2-2.7 Aggregate for Calibration Hardstands. To avoid inclusion in the pavement

concrete of iron oxides or other iron-rich materials having magnetic properties that will
interfere with the operation of the facility, the concrete aggregate proposed for paving
calibration hardstands will be subjected to detailed petrographic analyses in accordance
with ASTM C 295 (CRD-C 127) prior to acceptance. Special attention will be given to
the existence of magnetite in granites, high-iron minerals in traprock, pyrite in limestone,
and free iron or iron oxide in slag aggregate. When a list of aggregate sources is
included in the contract specifications, those sources not approved for use in calibration
hardstands will be identified.

2-2.8 Aggregate for Power Check Pads. Selection of the proper materials in the
concrete also has a dramatic effect on heat resistance. Aggregate selection probably is
the most important single materials -related factor, however, no standard specification
has been developed for heat resistant aggregate. An aggregate with a low coefficient
of thermal expansion is generally considered to be desirable, and one rating system
roughly groups aggregates as follows in descending order of desirability for heat
resistance concrete:

Table 2-7. Aggregate groups for heat resistance concrete.

Group Rating Description Typical Aggregate

I Most Desirable Calcareous Limestone, Dolomite
II Intermediate Nonquatzose Basalt, Dolorite, Gabbro,
Silicates Andesite, Diabase
(traprock)
III Aggregates that High silica content, Granites, high silica content
spall and crack at Quartzose igneous rocks, quarts
high temperature bearing Schists and
Gneisses
IV Least Desirable Silica not combined Quartzite, Quartz, Chert,
to form Silicates Flint

Lightweight aggregates such as expanded shale tend to perform better than

conventional natural concrete aggregates when exposed to high temperatures. Good
results have also been reported for air-cooled slag aggregates.

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2-2.9 Blended Aggregates. As of 1996, the U.S. Air Force has developed a
procedure for selecting an aggregate gradation to be used in all Air Force rigid airfield
pavements. This procedure normally requires the blending of aggregates to provide for
a more well graded total blend. The blended aggregates generally range from particles
passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve to 100 percent retained on the 300 ? m (No. 50)
sieve. The requirements for this blended aggregate are the same as those for both the
coarse and the fine aggregates, depending on their size. The USAF method for
blending aggregates is described in detail in their Engineering Technical Letter (ETL)
97-5, which is reproduced as Appendix B in this document.

2-2.10 Other Aggregates. Recent experience with RCC has shown that aggregate
produced for uses other than portland cement concrete may also be successfully used
as aggregate for RCC. Material produced for asphalt paving and base courses have
both been used effectively as RCC aggregate. These materials typically have a higher
percentage of fines passing the 75 um (No. 200) sieve than conventional concrete
aggregate and, as a result, may produce a “tighter” pavement surface texture. Because
these aggregates range in size from 19 mm (3/4 inch) to the 75 um (No. 200) sieve ,
control of the grading may be more difficult due to segregation. Therefore, careful
attention must be directed toward stockpile formation and subsequent handling of a
single size group aggregate. RCC aggregates are discussed in Appendix C.

2-3 CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES

2-3.1 General. The chemical admixtures that may be used in concrete are air--
entraining admixtures, ASTM C 260 (CRD-C 13), accelerating admixtures,
water-reducing admixtures, retarding admixtures, water-reducing and retarding
admixtures, water-reducing and accelerating admixtures, high range water-reducing
admixtures, and high-range water-reducing and retarding admixtures. All of the latter
are discussed in ASTM C 494 (CRD-C 87). Chemical admixtures to produce flowing
concrete are discussed in ASTM C 1017 (CRD-C 88)(ACI 212.3R). Other admixtures
may be used when their use on the project results in improved quality or economy.
Admixtures proposed for use during construction should be checked with trial batches
using the actual project materials. However, if the source of the concrete is a ready-mix
plant with a recent history of use of the admixture with project materials, trial batches
need not be required. In some instances, adverse reactions may occur between
admixtures or between admixtures and cement or water. Admixtures should not be
mixed together prior to batching, but each should be batched separately. A detailed
discussion of chemical admixtures for concrete is given in ACI 231.3R.

2-3.2 Air-Entraining Admixtures. Air-entraining admixtures (AEA's) are organic

materials, which entrain small air bubbles into concrete. These bubbles become a part
of the cement paste that binds the aggregates together in the hardened concrete. Air
entrainment improves the workability of concrete, reduces bleeding and segregation,
and most importantly improves the frost resistance of concrete. Air entrainment is
essential to ensure the durability of concrete that will become critically saturated with
water and then exposed to freezing-and-thawing conditions. However, air entrainment
only protects the paste fraction of the concrete. It does not protect concrete from
deterioration caused by nonfrost-resistant aggregates.

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2-3.2.1 Strength Loss. Even if freezing-and-thawing conditions are not prevalent,

concrete should be air entrained because of the benefits imparted in other ways. The
presence of entrained air results in an improvement in the workability of concrete at the
same water content. To maintain a given slump, a reduction in the water content of up
to 15 percent can be made depending upon the air and cement contents. The reduction
in the water content results in a lower w/c which will offset some or all of the loss in
strength due to the presence of the entrained air, depending on the cement content.
Calculations indicate that at about 300 lb of cement per cubic yard, an increase in air
content will be balanced by a sufficient decrease in w/c at constant slump to maintain
constant strength.

2-3.2.2 Bleeding. Air-entrained concrete is less susceptible to bleeding. A

considerable reduction in bleeding by proper air entrainment is usually a major benefit.
Air entrainment also imparts a buoyant action to the cement and aggregate particles,
which helps to prevent segregation. Even though it is an aid against segregation, it
cannot prevent segregation of concretes having poorly graded aggregates, ones that
are excessively lean or wet, or ones that are improperly transported or placed.

2-3.2.3 Batching AEA. An AEA should be added to the mixing water prior to its
introduction into other concrete materials. If other admixtures are also used, the AEA
should be added to the concrete mixer separately and not intermixed with the other
admixtures.

2-3.2.4 Dosage. Many variables will determine the exact dosage of an AEA
needed to achieve the proper air-void system in a concrete mixture. In general, larger
amounts of AEA will produce higher air contents in a concrete mixture. However, there
is no direct relationship between the dosage rate of a given AEA and the air content that
is produced.

2-3.2.5 Effects of water content on air content. Air content will usually increase or
decrease as the water content of a mixture is increased or decreased. An increase in
the water content in the concrete results in a more fluid mixture into which the air
bubbles can be more easily incorporated by the mixing action. For example, a slump
increase of about 75 mm (3 inches) can cause an increase in air content of about 1
percent with the same dosage of an AEA.

2-3.2.6 Effects of fine aggregate grading on air content. Air is more easily
entrained in concretes having higher percentages of fine aggregate. The fine
aggregates provide interstices that can contain the air bubbles especially the sizes from
about 600 µm (No. 30) to the 150 µm (No. 100). Concretes made with fine aggregate
deficient in particles of these sizes can require larger amounts of AEA's to achieve the
desired air content especially in lean concretes. Conversely, concretes made with an
excess of finely divided materials can also require larger amounts of AEA's to achieve
the desired air content. Very fine sand fractions, 150 µm (No. 100) and smaller, fly ash,
and high cement contents have caused a reduction in air contents. Fly ashes, which
have high loss on ignition, cause an especially large reduction in the air content.

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Concrete made with Type III cement can require up to 50 percent more AEA's than
concrete made with Type I cement.

2-3.2.7 Effects of temperature on air content. The temperature of the concrete has
a direct effect upon the air content of the concrete at given AEA dosage. A lower
temperature results in a higher air content, and vice versa. Therefore, if the concrete
temperature changes significantly during production of a particular concrete mixture, it is
likely that the amount of AEA must be adjusted accordingly to maintain the desired air
content.

2-3.2.8 Effect of other admixtures on air content. Less AEA is generally required
to entrain air in concrete when water-reducing or retarding admixtures are also used.
The required amount of AEA may be as much as 50 percent less especially when
lignosulfonate-based chemical admixtures are used because these materials also have
a moderate air-entraining capacity.

2-3.2.9 Effect of mixing action on air content. Effective mixing action is necessary
to produce air-entrained concrete. The amount of entrained air will vary with the type
and physical condition of the mixer, the mixing speed, and the amount of concrete being
mixed. It is more difficult to entrain air in concrete using a severely worn mixer or one
that has an excessive amount of hardened concrete buildup on the blades or in the
drum. Air contents can also decrease if the mixer is loaded above its rated capacity.
Studies have shown that air contents generally increase with mixing up to about 15
minutes. Thereafter, additional mixing leads to a decrease in air content especially for
low-slump concretes. Any transporting technique that will continue to agitate the
concrete such as pumping or conveying usually decreases the air content.

2-3.3 Accelerating Admixture. Accelerating admixtures are classified by ASTM C

494 (CRD-C 87) as Type C, accelerating, or Type E, water-reducing and accelerating.
Accelerating admixtures accelerate the setting time or early strength development of
concrete or both. Initial and final setting times must be accelerated by a minimum of 1
hour, and 3-day compressive strengths must be increased by a minimum of 25 percent
in order for an accelerating admixture to comply with the requirements of ASTM C 494
(CRD-C 87).

2-3.3.1 Nonchloride admixtures. Several nonchloride organic and inorganic

compounds such as calcium formate, calcium nitrite, and triethanolamine, are available
as accelerators. However, experience and published research on these admixtures are
limited. The available data suggest that none of the nonchloride accelerating admixtures
is as powerful an accelerator as calcium chloride at equal dosages. However, adequate
acceleration can usually be attained with a nonchloride accelerating admixture if the
proper dosage is used. Nonchloride accelerators usually come in liquid form and should
be added at the mixer with a portion of the mixing water at a dosage rate recommended
by the manufacturer. They should be added to the concrete separately and not mixed
with other admixtures. In some instances, adverse reactions occur between admixtures
which can decrease their effectiveness.

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2-3.3.2 Effect on fresh concrete properties. Type C accelerating admixtures have
no significant effect on the initial workability or air content of a concrete mixture;
however, the setting time, heat evolution, and strength development are affected.
Concretes containing an accelerating admixture can have a more rapid slump loss
especially concretes having a high cement content. The bleeding of a concrete mixture
is generally reduced when an accelerating admixture is used.

2-3.3.3 Effect on hardened concrete properties. Properties of hardened concretes

containing an accelerating admixture are generally increased at early ages but may be
decreased at later ages. Compressive and flexural strengths will be higher at early ages
but can be lower than those of plain concrete at later ages. Both creep and drying
shrinkage may increase. Concretes containing accelerators may be less resistant to
aggressive environments especially at later ages. The passive layer of protection at the
concrete -steel interface does not appear to be attacked by nonchloride accelerators.
Proper curing procedures are essential when concrete contains an accelerating
admixture.

2-3.3.4 Other methods of accelerating strength development. Frequently, the

acceleration of setting time and early strength development can be obtained by other
means such as using a Type III portland cement, using additional cement, lowering the
pozzolan content, warming water and aggregate, improving curing and protection, or
some combination of these. In some cases, the use of an accelerator is the most
convenient and economical method of achieving the desired results; however,
convenience and economics should not take precedence over durability considerations.

2-3.4 Retarding admixtures. Retarding admixtures are materials which cause a

delay in initial and final setting times. However, retarding admixtures do not reduce the
rate of slump loss. Retarding admixtures are classified by ASTM C 494 (CRD-C 87) as
Type B, retarding, or Type D, water-reducing and retarding. They must retard the initial
setting time by a minimum of 1 hour and the final setting time by a minimum of 3-1/2
hours. Setting times of concrete made with a portland cement pozzolan blend will
typically be retarded more than when portland cement alone is used. The pozzolan
often has a retarding action.

2-3.4.1 General uses. By using the proper dosage of a retarding admixture, the
setting time of a mixture can be extended so as to avoid cold joints and allow for proper
finishing. A change in temperature could require an adjustment in the dosage of retarder
to maintain the desired setting time. Retarding admixtures can be beneficial in hot
weather when long hauling distances are unavoidable, or anytime extended working
times are desirable. The time between screeding and troweling operations of concrete
slabs is e xtended when retarding admixtures are used. This can be particularly
beneficial in hot weather; however, unless proper precautions are taken such as the use
of sunscreens and wind screens, the surface may dry prematurely and create a crust on
the surface. Under these conditions, careful attention to curing and protection is
required to obtain a uniform hardening in the entire concrete slab. Retarding admixtures
based on hydroxylated carboxylic acids and their salts are beneficial in concrete used in
flatwork construction during hot weather since they include bleeding and, therefore, aid
in the prevention of a premature drying of the top surface.

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2-3.4.2 Dosage. The dosage of admixture recommended by the manufacturer
should be used unless experience or results of trial batches indicate otherwise. High
temperatures may require higher dosages of retarding admixtures; however,
overdosage can cause excessive retardation requiring longer curing times and delays in
form removal. The degree of excessive retardation could be from a few hours to a few
days. However, an accidental overdosage of a retarding admixture does not adversely
affect the later age properties of a concrete if the concrete is cured properly and the
forms are not removed until sufficient strength has been attained. Research has shown
that a higher dosage of retarding admixtures is needed when used with portland
cements that have high C 3A and C 3S contents, as well as a high alkali content.
Therefore, to achieve the same effects, a larger dosage of retarding admixtures will
probably be required if a Type I portland cement is used than will be required if a Type
II, low-alkali portland cement is used.

2-3.4.3 Batching. Retarding admixtures should be added to the mixing water prior
to its introduction into other concrete materials. If other admixtures are also used, the
retarding admixture should be added to the concrete mixture separately and not mixed
with the other admixtures. In some instances, adverse reactions occur between
admixtures, which can decrease their effectiveness.

2-3.4.4 Effect on strength. When retarding admixtures are used in concrete,

early-age compressive and flexural strength may be reduced. If a low dosage of
admixture is used, the lower strengths may be evident for as few as I or 2 days. Greater
degrees of retardation may cause the strengths to be lower for 3 to 7 days. However, in
most cases there will be no retardation of strength development by 28days age. Lower
strengths may exist for a longer period of time if the concrete is made with a portland
cement-pozzolan blend. At later ages, the strength of concrete made with a retarding
admixture will usually be higher than that of concrete containing no retarding admixture.

2-3.5 Water-reducing admixtures. Water-reducing admixtures (WRA's) are

organic materials which reduce the amount of mixing water required to impart a given
workability to concrete. By definition, WRA's are required to provide a water reduction of
at least 5 percent and are classified by ASTM C 494 (CRD-C 87) as Type A,
water-reducing; Type D, water-reducing and retarding; or Type E, water-reducing and
accelerating. They can be used to increase strength, increase workability, or reduce the
cement content of a concrete mixture.

2-3.5.1 Dosage. The usual dosage rate for a WRA is between about 2 and 8 fluid
ounces per 100 pounds of cementitious material. The appropriate amount will be
determined by the brand of WRA being used as well as the combination of other
concrete materials. Some WRA's meet ASTM C 494 (CRD-C 87) requirements for both
Type A and Type D, depending upon the dosage rate used. These WRA's will usually
react as a Type A at the lower limit of the recommended dosage range and as a Type D
at the upper limit of the recommended dosage range.

2-3.5.2 Use in hot or cool weather. A Type D WRA can be beneficial when
working in hot weather, when long hauling times are involved, or anytime extended
working times are desirable. However, the retarding effect increases the concrete

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setting time only. It does not slow the rate of slump loss. In fact, concretes containing
either Type A, Type D, or Type E WRA generally lose slump at a faster rate than when
a WRA is not used. A Type E WRA may be beneficial when working in cool
temperatures or when higher earlier strengths are desired.

2-3.5.3 Air entrainment. Most lignosulfonate WRA's will entrain air. However, the
amount of entrained air will usually not be sufficient to provide adequate frost
resistance. An AEA will be required in addition to the WRA, but the amount of AEA
necessary may be as much as 50 percent less. WRA's based on other compounds
generally do not entrain air but do enhance the air-entraining capability of AEA's.

2-3.5.4 Bleeding. WRA's affect the rate and capacity of fresh concrete to bleed.
Lignosulfonate WRA's reduce the bleeding rate and capacity while WRA's based on
hydroxylated carboxylic acids and their salts increase the bleeding rate and capacity of
a concrete mixture. A lignosulfonate WRA should be used with caution in concrete
placed in slabs during hot weather. With little bleed water migrating to the surface, rapid
surface drying could occur, leading to a crust on the concrete surface while the concrete
underneath remains plastic. The potential for plastic shrinkage cracking is also greater.
It is beneficial to induce bleeding under these ambient conditions. WRA's based on
hydroxylated carboxylic acids and their salts will accomplish this objective.

2-3.6 High-range water-reducing admixtures. High range water-reducing

admixtures (HRWRA's) commonly called “superplasticizers” are chemically different
from normal WRA's and are capable of reducing water contents by as much as 30
percent without detrimentally affecting air content, bleeding, segregation, setting time,
and hardened properties. By definition, HRWRA's are required to provide a water
reduction of at least 12 percent and are classified by ASTM C 494 (CRD-C 87) as Type
F, high-range water-reducing, or Type G, high-range water-reducing and retarding.
HRWRA's can be used to produce concrete having high workability for easy placement,
high strength with normal workability, or combinations of the two. HRWRA's can also be
used to produce flowing concrete as described by ASTM C 1017 (CRD-C 88). ACI
212.4R provides guidance for using HRWRA.

2-3.6.1 Effect on workability. Significantly higher compressive strengths are

possible with the use of an HRWRA. Concrete can be produced having a lower w/c
without the loss of workability that could occur with the use of WRA's. The increased
workability made possible with an HRWRA permits easier placement of concrete in
congested reinforcement and in areas where access is limited. HRWRA's are beneficial
in concrete which is pumped or placed by tremie because they improve workability
without a loss in cohesiveness. The dispersing action of HRWRA is effective on both
portland cements and pozzolans. The ability of an HRWRA to increase the slump of
concrete depends upon the chemical nature of other HRWRA, the dosage used, time of
addition, initial slump, composition and amount of cement, and concrete temperature.
Recommended dosages of HRWRA's are usually greater than those of WRA's. There
are some limitations of HRWRA's that should be recognized. Under some conditions,
concretes containing HRWRA's may exhibit a rapid slump loss as soon as 30 minutes
after completion of mixing. Therefore, HRWRA's are often added to truck mixers at the

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job site to minimize placing and consolidation problems associated with concrete which
stiffens rapidly.

2-3.6.2 Effect on segregation and bleeding. When HRWRA's are used as water
reducers, bleeding of the concrete is usually reduced. Segregation of other aggregates
will not be a problem. When HRWRA's are used to produce flowing concrete, both
bleeding and segregation can occur if precautions are not taken. Increasing the volume
of sand in the mixture by 3 to 5 percent may be necessary. The dosage of HRWRA
should be limited to the minimum amount necessary to produce the desired slump. An
overdose can cause excessive bleeding and segregation. However, bleeding and
segregation of a high-slump concrete is not as pronounced when the high slump is
achieved through use of an HRWRA as would be the case if the high slump were
achieved through the addition of extra water. Re-tempering once with an HRWRA is
generally an acceptable practice.

2-3.6.3 Effect on air entrainment. Some HRWRA's enhance the air-entraining

capability of AEA's. However, HRWRA's can also facilitate the escape of air. Repeated
dosing with an HRWRA can accentuate this effect. In addition to the rapid slump loss, a
significant loss of air can occur.

2-3.6.4 Effect on setting time. A Type F HRWRA has little effect upon setting
times of concrete, while a Type G HRWRA retards the setting time. The usual dosage
range for HRWRA is between about 10 and 30 fluid ounces per 100 pounds of
cementitious materials. The appropriate amount will be determined by the type of
HRWRA being used as well as the combination of other concrete materials and
admixtures. Some HRWRA's meet ASTM C 494 (CRD-C 87) requirements for both
Type F and Type G, depending on the dosage rate used. These HRWRA's will usually
react as a Type F at the lower end of the recommended dosage range and as a Type G
at the upper end of the recommended dosage range. If one of these HRWRA's is being
used at a low dosage, and it is desired to increase the dosage for additional water
reduction, caution should be exercised. The higher dosage could cause undesirable
retardation of concrete setting time and strength.

2-3.6.5 Compatibility with other admixtures. HRWRA's are generally compatible

with most other concrete admixtures. However, each admixture combination should be
evaluated prior to being used. In particular, attention should be given to the air content
and air-void system parameters. Appropriate durability tests should be performed
depending on the environment to which the concrete will be subjected. When concrete
containing an HRWRA is properly air entrained, it will be as durable as that without a
HRWRA.

2-3.7 Antiwashout admixtures. In recent years a group of chemical admixtures

known a antiwashout admixtures (AWA's) has been introduced into the concrete
products market. ASTM standard specifications have not yet been developed for these
admixtures. They are used to increase the cohesiveness of a concrete to prevent
excessive washing out of cementitious materials when the concrete is placed
underwater. A workability transformation occurs after several minutes of mixing, thereby

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causing the concrete to become very sticky. Present guide specifications do not include
AWA's. The use of AWA's should be discussed in the appropriate DM.

2-3.7.1 General. AWA's can be made from various organic and inorganic
materials. The two materials most commonly marketed as AWA's are cellulose and
gum. They act primarily by increasing the viscosity and the water retention of the
cement paste. Both materials are very effective in increasing the washout resistance of
a concrete mixture. The washout resistance depends upon the type and dosage of
AWA, w/c, cement content, and other admixtures used. In general, the washout
resistance increases with an increase of AWA, a decrease in w/c, and an increase in
cement content. The loss of cementitious materials due to washing is typically reduced
by as much as 50 percent when concrete contains an AWA.

2-3.7.2 Batching. AWA's based on cellulose are normally packaged in a powder

form. They are usually added to the concrete mixer with the cement. AWA's based on
gum may be packaged either as a powder or liquid. The powder should be put into
solution with a portion of the mixing water prior to introduction into the concrete mixture.
The liquid can be added with the mixing water.

2-3.7.3 Air entrainment. AWA's based on cellulose tend to entrain air. In

combination with some WRA's or HRWRA's, AWA's will entrain an excessive amount of
air. When this occurs, an air-detraining admixture must be incorporated into the
concrete mixture to reduce the air contents to acceptable levels. AWA's based on gum
usually do not entrain air.

2-3.7.4 Bleeding. Since AWA's increase the water retention of cement paste,
virtually no bleeding occurs in concretes containing these admixtures. However, this
would normally be of little concern in concrete placed underwater.

2-3.7.5 Retardation. AWA's based on cellulose tend to retard the setting time of
concrete. Larger dosages of these AWA's can retard concrete setting times significantly,
in some cases up to 24 hours. If the delayed setting time poses problems with other
construction operations, an accelerator can be used to partially offset the retardation.
AWA's based on gum usually do not retard setting times as much as those based on
cellulose.

2-3.7.6 Compatibility. AWA's have little effect on compressive strengths of

concrete. The amount of mixing water necessary for concrete made with an AWA is
greater than would be necessary for concrete without an AWA. In many cases, the
amount of mixing water can be reduced with a WRA or an HRWRA. In fact, when
concretes have w/c less than 0.50, the use of a WRA will probably be necessary. When
the w/c is less than 0.40, the use of an HRWRA will be necessary to achieve the
flowability necessary for an underwater placement. Cellulose-based AWA's and
napthlene sulfonate-based HRWRA's are incompatible, and combinations of these
should be avoided. Cellulose-based AWA's are generally compatible with other types of
HRWRA's and most WRA's. Gum based AWA's are generally compatible with most
WRA's and HRWRA's.

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2-3.7.7 Dosage. The proper dosage of AWA's, WRA's, and HRWRA's, as well as
the compatibility of these admixtures, must be determined in trial batches prior to the
beginning of any concrete placement. The amount of an AWA necessary to achieve the
desired washout resistance can vary considerably depending upon the concrete
materials being used and their proportions. An excessive amount of AWA can render
the concrete unworkable, while too little AWA will not provide adequate washout
resistance. Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for dosages and adjust as
necessary in preliminary trail batches. Extreme caution should be exercised if it
becomes necessary to adjust the dosage of either the AWA, WRA, or HRWRA after the
actual placement begins. A small change in the dosage can result in a dramatic change
in the workability and cohesiveness of the concrete. When the use of an AWA is
specified, the services of a qualified manufacturer's technical representative should be
required. The technical representative should be available during mixture proportioning
studies and be onsite during concrete placement. The concrete mixture containing the
AWA should be proportioned in the division laboratory if the mixture is government
furnished or in an approved commercial laboratory if proportioning is a Contractor
responsibility.

2-3.8 Extended set-control admixtures.

2-3.8.1 General. These admixtures are relatively new to the commercial market
and were developed to give the ready-mixed concrete producer maximum flexibility in
controlling the rate of hydration of fresh concrete. They are typically marketed as a
two-component system consisting of a very strong retarding admixture sometimes
referred to by the manufacturer as a stabilizer, and an accelerating admixture,
sometimes labeled as an activator by the manufacturer. These admixtures allow the
concrete producer to take advantage of severely retarded fresh concrete in several
ways including:

2-3.8.1.1 Treating unhardened concrete which is returned to the plant with the
stabilizer so that it can be kept in the unhardened state, or stabilized, in the truck mixer
or holding hopper for several hours. When the concrete is needed, cement hydration is
normally reactivated by combining freshly mixed concrete with it before sending it to the
job site. Returned unhardened concrete may also be stabilized overnight or longer. In
these cases, hydration of the cement in the stabilized concrete is typically reactivated by
adding the activator and then combining the concrete with freshly mixed concrete before
delivering it to the job site.

2-3.8.1.2 Treating the freshly mixed concrete at the plant with the stabilizer so
that hydration is retarded to the extent necessary for very long hauls. Typically, the
duration of retardation is at least 1 or more hours, and use of the activator may or may
not be necessary at the job site, depending on the dosage of stabilizer used.

2-3.8.1.3 Stabilizing plastic concrete in a truck mixer which has experienced a

mechanical breakdown or an unforeseen delay. . In the event of a truck breakdown, the
mixer drum must still be able to turn.

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2-3.8.1.4 Treating wash water from mixers with the stabilizing admixture to
reduce the need for conventional wash water disposal methods and thereby mitigating
the environmental concerns. Water consumption is also reduced. The stabilized wash
water is then reused as mixing water in the concrete batched the next day or after the
weekend.

2-3.8.2 Stabilizer. The stabilizing admixture slows the rate of hydrate formation b y
tying up, or complexing, calcium ions on the surface of cement particles. It not only
forms a protective barrier around the cement particles but also acts as a dispersant
preventing hydrates from flocculating and setting. This protective barrier prevents initial
set from occurring.

2-3.8.3 Activator. The activating admixtures typically supplied with the

extended-set admixture systems are nonchloride accelerating admixtures conforming to
ASTM C 494, Type C (CRD-C 87).

2-3.8.4 Effect on hardened properties. Few published data exist on the effects of
extended set admixtures on the hardened properties of concrete. However, research
indicates the use of a stabilizing admixture may cause finer and denser hydrates to form
which in turn appears to benefit physical properties of paste.

2-3.8.5 Dosage. Extended-set control admixtures are usually delivered in liquid

form. Because they are still relatively new to the concrete industry and because there
are presently no standard specifications for them, their use should be permitted only
after data are supplied by the concrete supplier that the fresh and hardened properties
of the concrete anticipated for use will not be detrimentally affected. Manufacturer's
technical representatives should work closely with the concrete producer to assure
correct dosage rates are established for the particular concretes and field applications.

2-3.9 Antifreeze admixtures. A new group of chemical admixtures recently

introduced into the concrete products market is known as antifreeze or freezing
protection admixtures. ASTM standard specifications have not yet been developed for
these admixtures. These materials which have been in use in the former USSR since
the 1950's and more recently in Western Europe, are designed to depress the freezing
point of mixing water and thereby allow concrete to gain strength in an environment
below freezing without suffering the deleterious effects of ice formation. Concrete made
with antifreeze admixtures can be cured at temperatures below freezing without
harming its performance compared to that of concrete without the antifreeze admixture
and cured at normal temperatures.

2-3.9.1 Composition. Antifreeze admixtures are similar in composition to

accelerating admixtures but differences do exist. ACI 212.3R states that accelerating
admixtures should not be used as antifreeze admixtures. However, some compounds
used as the basis for nonchloride accelerating admixtures such as sodium nitrite,
calcium nitrite, and potassium carbonate, have been successfully used as antifreeze
admixtures.

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2-3.9.2 Batching. Antifreeze admixtures are usually delivered in liquid form and
should be added at the mixer with a portion of the mixing water at a dosage rate
recommended by the manufacturer. They should be added to the concrete separately
and not mixed with other admixtures since adverse reactions may occur between
admixtures which can decrease their effectiveness.

2-3.9.3 Effect on strength. When antifreeze admixtures are used, early-age

compressive strengths are usually significantly lower than when the admixture is not
used and the concrete is cured at normal temperatures. The strength gain of concrete
which contains an antifreeze admixture and is cured at temperatures below freezing
proceeds at a slower rate than concrete which does not contain the admixture and is
cured at temperatures above freezing. However, the strengths of two such concretes
may be comparable at later ages.

2-3.9.4 Effect on resistance to freezing and thawing. There is little published

documentation describing the frost resistance of concrete made with antifreeze
admixtures; however, there is evidence that entrained air bubbles are less stable when
antifreeze admixtures are used. Therefore, these admixtures should not be used unless
acceptable frost resistance has been verified according to provisions of ASTM C 494
(CRD-C 87).

2-3.9.5 Use with reactive aggregates. When sodium nitrite and potassium
carbonate go into solution, if the nitrite or carbonate ions precipitate out, the sodium or
potassium ions will associate with hydroxide ions to raise the pH of the pore fluid.
Therefore, antifreeze admixtures containing these materials should not be used with
reactive siliceous aggregates. Concrete made with these materials has also weakened
after repeated exposure to cycles of wetting and drying. Therefore, antifreeze
admixtures containing sodium nitrite or potassium carbonate should not be used in a
marine environment.

2-3.9.6 Corrosion of steel. Antifreeze admixtures made from nonchloride

compounds have shown no tendency to cause corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel.
Sodium nitrite and calcium nitrite reduce corrosion when used in proper amounts.

2-3.9.7 Cost benefits. The use of an antifreeze admixture in concrete can be cost
effective. The cost of concreting in very cold weather may be as much as 50 to 100
percent higher than that under normal conditions due to increased equipment and labor
costs. The cost of antifreeze admixtures may be competitive with the higher costs
associated with concreting during subfreezing temperatures.

2-4 POZZOLANS.

2-4.1 General. Pozzolans are defined in ASTM C 618 (CRD-C 255) as "siliceous
or siliceous and aluminous materials which in themselves possess little or no
cementitious value but will, in finely divided form, and in the presence of moisture,
chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties." This ASTM specification recognizes three classes
of pozzolan and provides detailed requirements for each class. The classes of

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pozzolans most likely to be available are Classes F and C fly ash and silica fumes.
Class N may be considered where a source of natural pozzolan is available. The use of
pozzolan should be considered coincident with the consideration of the types of
available cements. Portland cement to be used alone should always be considered in
the specifications as well as blended hydraulic cements or the combination of portland
cement with slag cement or pozzolan unless one or the latter is determined to be
technically improper. Classes F and C fly ash are generally accepted on all Corps of
Engineers' projects, and their use should be allowed in all specifications unless there
are technical reasons not to do so.

2-4.2 Regulations governing use of fly ash. The Solid Waste Disposal Act,
Section 6002, as amended by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976,
requires all agencies using Federal funds in construction to allow the use of fly ash in
the concrete unless suc h use can be shown to be technically improper. The basis of this
regulation is both energy savings and waste disposal since most fly ash in use today is
the result of the burning of coal for electrical power.

2-4.3 Class F pozzolan. Class F pozzolan is a fly ash usually obtained from
burning anthracite or bituminous coal and is the class of fly ash that has been most
commonly used to date. It must contain at least 70.0 percent of SiO2 + Al203 + Fe203 by
chemical analysis.

2-4.4 Class C pozzolan. Class C pozzolan is a fly ash that is usually obtained
from the burning of lignite or sub-bituminous coal. It must contain at least 50.0 percent
of Si02 + Al203 + Fe203.

2-4.5 Other considerations. Class C fly ashes often contain considerably more
alkali’s than do Class F fly ashes. However, when use of either class in applications
where alkali-aggregate reaction is likely, the optional available alkali requirements of
ASTM C 618 (CRD-C 255) should be specified. Use of Class F fly ash in replacement of
portla nd cement results in reduction of heat of hydration of the cementitious materials at
early ages. Use of Class C fly ash in the same proportions usually results in
substantially less reduction in heat of hydration. Class F fly ash generally increases
resistance to sulfate attack. However, if the portland cement is of high C 3A content, the
amount of improvement may not be sufficient so that the combined cementitious
materials are equivalent to a Type II or a Type V portland cement. This can be
determined by testing according to ASTM C 1012 (CRD-C 211). Class C fly ashes are
quite variable in their performance in sulfate environments, and their performance
should always be verified by testing with the portland cement intended for use. Both
Class F and Class C fly ashes have been found to delay initial and final set. Most Class
C and Class F fly ashes are capable of reducing the expansion from the alkali-silica
reaction. Use of an effective fly ash may eliminate the need to specify low-alkali cement
when a reactive aggregate is used. The effectiveness of the fly ash must be verified by
ASTM C 441 (CRD-C 257). For additional information, see Appendixes D and E.

2-4.6 Class N pozzolan. Class N is raw or calcined natural pozzolans such as

some diatomaceous earths, opaline cherts, tuffs, and volcanic ashes such as pumicite.
Class N pozzolans will not generally be encountered in pavement construction.

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2-4.7 Silica fume. Silica fume is a pozzolan. It is a byproduct of the manufacture of

silicon or silicon alloys. The material is considerably more expensive than other
pozzolans. Properties of silica fume vary with the type of silicon or silicon alloy produced
but in general a silica fume is a very finely divided product and consequently is used in
concrete in different proportions and for different applications than are the more
conventional pozzolans discussed in the previous paragraphs. Applications for which
silica fume is used are in the production of concrete having very high strengths, high
abrasion resistance, very low permeability, and increased aggregate bond strength.
However, certain precautions should be taken when specifying silica-fume concretes.
Use of silica fume produces a sticky paste and an increased water demand for equal
slump. These characteristics are normally counteracted by using high-range
water-reducing admixtures (HRWRA) to achieve the required slump. This combination,
together with an air-entraining admixture, may cause a coarse air-void system. The
higher water demand for silica-fume concrete greatly reduces or eliminates bleeding
which in turn tends to increase the likelihood of plastic shrinkage cracking. Therefore,
steps should be taken as early as possible to minimize moisture loss, and the curing
period should be increased over that required for conventional concrete.

2-4.8 Substitutions. Pozzolans may be substituted for a maximum of 25 percent

of volume of portland cement in concrete for pavement. If substitution of pozzolan
above this limit is contemplated, a thorough test program must show that the proposed
substitution limit will not adversely affect workability, admixture performance strength,
and durability of the final concrete. Pozzolans typically have specific gravities
appreciably lower than portland cement, and pozzolan limits are expressed as a percent
of the volume of cementitious materials. In general, concrete containing pozzolans has
improved workability, lower heat of hydration, and a slower strength gain. When
pozzolans are to be used, the required time to gain the design strength may be
increased beyond the standard 28-days for roads and streets and 90-days for airfield
pavements to the extent that the concrete is not to be exposed to traffic.

2-5. MIXING WATER. Water for mixing concrete will be free from materials that
affect hydration of the cement. Potable water may be used without testing; however,
suitability tests will be made in accordance with CRD-C 400 if the water source is a
stream or another body of water of unknown quality. Seawater has been used
successfully as mixing water, but this should only be done if there is no feasible
alternative. There may be up to a 15 percent loss in ultimate strength, set times may be
affected, and surface efflorescence may occur. The risk of steel corrosion may be
increased so the use of coated dowels and reinforcing steel should be considered if
seawater is to be used.

2-6 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS.

2-6.1 Steel fiber reinforced concrete.

2-6.1.1 Description. Steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) is a composite made

of hydraulic cements, fine or fine and coarse aggregate, and a random dispersion of
discontinuous, small, steel fibers. It may also contain pozzolans and other additives

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commonly used with conventional concrete. The addition of steel fibers can provide
significant improvements in many of the engineering properties of mortars and concrete
including impact strength, toughness, flexural strength, fatigue strength, and the ability
to resist cracking and spalling. The degree of improvement by addition of steel fibers
depends on the type and quantity used, the concrete mix design and quality, the quality
of the bond achieved between the steel fiber and the concrete matrix, and the
consolidation of the concrete. In the United States, the majority of experience with
SFRC has been with mixes using normal weight aggregate and portland cement as the
binder. Most existing concrete specifications can be used for the manufacture and
placement of SFRC. The greater difficulty in handling SFRC requires more deliberate
planning and workmanship to account for the differences in materials and techniques.

2-6.1.2 Steel fibers. Steel fibers that have been used successfully in field
applications include deformed crimped half-round fibers, irregularly shaped meltextract
fibers, crimped end smooth drawn wire fibers, straight smooth slit sheet fibers, straight
deformed drawn wire fibers, and straight smooth drawn wire fibers. As a general rule,
the steel fibers should have a yield strength in excess of 345 MPa (50,000 psi). They
are available up to 2,060 MPa (300,000 psi) and be neither excessively brittle nor
contain excessive rust or drawing lubricant on their surfaces. Steel fibers should have a
minimum aspect ratio, i.e., fiber length divided by diameter (or equivalent diameter, in
the case of nonround fibers), in the range of 30:100 for lengths of 13 to 63 mm (0.5 to
2.5 inches).

2-6.2 Other materials. Other material used in concrete pavement construction

including curing materials, dowels, tie bars, reinforcement, and expansion joint filler are
covered by applicable specifications. When concrete is required to be free of magnetic
materials, special instructions will be obtained from TSMCX (CENWO-ED-TX) or
AFCESC for the selection of dowels, tie bars, and reinforcement. Aluminum will not be
used in concrete pavements.

2-6.3 Welding. All welded splices will conform to the requirements of the American
Welding Society (AWS) D 1.4. Selection of the proper welding procedure depends on
the actual chemical composition and carbon equivalent formula of the steel. A
procedure suitable for one chemical composition can be totally unsuited for another
composition of the same strength grade. It is essential that the composition of the steel
to be welded be determined before the welding procedure is established. Where
reinforcing bars are to be ordered for new work, the fabricator should be informed that
welded splices are contemplated. The fabricator can provide the chemical composition
of the reinforcing bars and in many cases can provide bars that are more suited to
welding. Field welding of crossing bars (tack welding) is prohibited.

2-6.4 Epoxy-Coated Steel. Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel and dowel bars are
being used more frequently in areas such as bridge decks, coastal areas, and
pavements subject to heavy applications of de-icing salts to minimize potential corrosion
problems. If these materials are used, they should conform to ASTM A 775.
Epoxy-coated dowels and reinforcing steel will rest on epoxy-coated wire bar supports
or on bar supports made of dielectric material. Wire bar supports will be coated for a
minimum of 50 mm (2 inches) from the point of contact with the epoxy-coated

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reinforcing bars. Adequate ventilation to dissipate fumes must be provided if
epoxy-coated steel is welded. The appropriate ASTM standard should be studied to
determine the criteria for acceptance or rejection in the event there is damage to the
coating. Any patching should be done in accordance with the patching material
manufacturer's recommendations.

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CHAPTER 3

PRECONSTRUCTION SAMPLING AND TESTING OF MATERIALS

3-1 CEMENTS, POZZOLANS, AND GGBF SLAG. Cement to be used in

pavements for aircraft traffic will be sampled and tested. Cement meeting all other test
requirements may be accepted prior to the required 7 -day age when the strength is
equal to or greater than the 7-day strength requirement. Cement for pavement projects
requiring 1,223 m3 (1,600 yd 3) or less of concrete may be accepted on the basis of the
manufacturer’s certified mill test reports showing compliance with cited cement
specifications. Preconstruction sampling and testing of cement, pozzolan, and GGBF
slag shall conform to the requirements specified for sampling and testing during
construction except that test results showing that each material meets specification
requirements shall be available at least 5 days before start of paving operations.

3-2 AGGREGATES. The Contractor in the presence of a Government

representative should sample aggregates. Samples should be obtained in accordance
with COE CRD-C 100 and should be representative of the materials to be used for the
project.

3-2.1 Listed Sources. Listing of aggregate sources will be based on a thorough

investigation to determine that suitable aggregates are obtainable for the proposed use.
Evaluation of the material will require complete laboratory testing including petrographic
examinations, physical tests, durability tests, and alkali-reactivity tests. The service
record of aggregates will be determined by inspecting structures that have had
exposure equivalent to the proposed structure. Once an aggregate source is listed for
use based on a complete investigation, additional similar uses of the source over the
next 3 years are permitted on the basis of petrographic examinations and limited
physical tests, provided the results show no change in the composition and quality of
aggregate. For proper design and preparation of plans and specifications, it is
necessary to investigate and determine suitable aggregate sources and concrete
strengths obtainable with aggregates. It is essential that these investigations be
conducted as early as possible during project planning.

3-2.2 Approval of Aggregates. The contractor will use aggregates from approved
sources. If the contractor proposes to use aggregates from an unapproved source, the
Government will be responsible for conducting tests to determine whether the proposed
aggregates will meet the requirements of the project. The contract specifications will
state aggregate sample size, delivery location, and required evaluation time for the
proposed aggregates. Sampling and aggregate delivery costs will be borne by the
contractor. For small jobs requiring 1,600 cubic yards or less of concrete, the contractor
will perform all tests for aggregates from an unapproved source.

3-2.3 Sources for Calibration Hardstands. When contract specifications cover

the paving of calibration hardstands, the list of sources will indicate which sources are
approved for such work.

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3-2.4 Aggregate Sources Not Previously Listed. When the contractor proposes
aggregate from a source not previously listed, the evaluation of samples of that
aggregate will include all tests necessary to demonstrate that a concrete produced from
the materials will have quality and strength comparable with that of concrete made with
aggregate from the approved sources listed. When the contracting officer is responsible
for mixture proportioning and the cement is a separate pay item in the contract,
aggregates of good quality tha t require more cement than that required by aggregates
from listed sources to produce concrete of the specified flexural strength can be
approved. However, in this case, the contractor must agree in writing to pay for the
additional cement required.

3-2.5 Unlisted Source. When the contract specifications do not include a list of
approved aggregate sources, the source(s) proposed by the contractor will be
investigated as soon as possible after the award of the contract.

3-2.6 Aggregates for a Small Project. Evaluation of aggregates from non-listed

sources and concrete mixture proportioning for projects requiring 1,223 m3 (1,600 yd 3)
or less of concrete, except for airfield and heliport paving, will be performed by an
approved commercial testing laboratory at no expense to the Government.

3-3 CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES. All sampling and testing of an admixture will be by

and at the expense of the Government. Tests will be conducted with materials proposed
for the project. An air-entraining admixture that has been in storage at the project site
for longer than 6 months or that has been subjected to freezing will be retested at the
expense of the Contractor when considered appropriate and shall be rejected if test
results are not satisfactory.

3-4 CURING COMPOUND. The sampling and testing will be by and at the expense
of the Government. Tests will be conducted with materials proposed for the project.

3-5 EPOXY-RESIN MATERIAL. At least 30 days before the material is used, the
Contractor shall submit certified copies of test results showing that the manufacturer
has tested the specific lots or batches from which the material will be furnished to this
project. The test results should confirm that the material meets specification
requirements. When epoxy resin arrives at the job site, the Contractor shall assist the
Government to sample the material. The Government will test the sample or will retain it
in storage for possible future testing, as considered appropriate

3-6 DELIVERY AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS

3-6.1 Cement and Pozzolan. Separate storage facilities will be provided for each
type of cementitious material. Storage facility will be thoroughly cleaned before
changing the type of cementitious material stored in it. Storage facilities must be
weather-tight and must be properly ventilated.

3-6.2 Aggregates.

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3-6.2.1 Control of Grading. Aggregate-handling and aggregate-storage facilities
may vary greatly for different projects, and only general requirements can be specified.
Grading and uniformity of grading requirements will be determined as the aggregates
are delivered to the mixer, and the contractor is responsible for meeting these
requirements. Careful inspection of storage and handling operations, however, is
desirable to assure satisfactory control of the aggregate grading and to prevent
contamination by foreign material. Aggregate storage techniques that cause
segregation problems include: the use of cone-shaped piles and the use of bulldozers
to spread out aggregate. Aggregates delivered by trucks are best dumped and left in
individual adjacent piles. The use of a clamshell to spread aggregate into thin layers can
minimize segregation. Aggregate should be handled as little as possible to minimize
segregation. Potential sources of contaminants include windblown foundation and
adjacent materials and contaminants from equipment used in handling the aggregates.

3-6.2.2 Moisture Control. Uniformity of free moisture in aggregate is essential for

proper control of concrete consistency. A period of free-draining storage is required for
fine aggregates and the smaller size of coarse aggregate. Normally, 24 to 48 hours will
be sufficient. However, a shorter or a longer time may be specified if tests reveal such a
time is necessary to reach equilibrium.

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CHAPTER 4

PROPORTIONING CONCRETE MIXTURES

4-1 SELECTION OF MIXTURE PROPORTIONING.

4-1.1 General. The selection of mixture proportions for concrete is an important

step in obtaining economical, durable concrete meeting design requirements.
Depending on the guide specifications used, the concrete mixture proportions may be
selected by the Government or by the contractor. When mixture proportions are to be
determined by the Government the work will be accomplished by a division laboratory.
Those division laboratories authorized to test concrete materials are listed in ER 1110-
1-8100, "Laboratory Investigations and Materials Testing."

4-1.2 Method. Mixture proportions are to be selected in accordance with American

Concrete Institute (ACI) 211.1 (CRD-C 99) or according to the U.S. Air Force
Engineering Technical Letter (ETL) 97-5, Appendix C, and other criteria as described in
the following paragraphs of this chapter whether the work is done by the Government or
the contractor.

4-2 BASIS FOR SELECTION OF PROPORTIONS.

4-2.1 General. The process of selecting proportions of concrete mixtures is a

process of optimization of several desirable characteristics based on the contract
specifications. The characteristics to be optimized are economy, strength, durability,
and placeability.

4-2.2 Economy. The primary reason for systematically determining mixture

proportions is economy. The maximum economy can be achieved by minimizing the
amount of cement utilized and where appropriate, by replacing portland cement with
usually less expensive pozzolan. Economy is also improved by using the maximum size
aggregate available to the project.

4-2.3 Strength. Strength is an important characteristic of concrete but other

characteristics such a durability may be equally or more important. For a given set of
materials, strength is inversely proportional to the water/cement (w/c) ratio. Since the
materials which make up concrete are complex and variable, an accurate prediction of
strength cannot be based solely on the selected w/c ratio but must be confirmed by
testing specimens made from trial mixtures with the materials to be used on the project.

4-2.4 Durability. Durability characteristics are related to strength in a general way

but are also dependent on other factors. Concrete must resist deterioration by the
environment to which it is exposed, including freezing and thawing, wetting and drying,
chemicals, and abrasion. The resistance of concrete to deterioration caused by cycles
of freezing and thawing is substantially improved by the presence of an entrained air-
void system. Therefore, all concrete pavements should be entrained with air.
Generally, durability is also improved by proportioning the mixture with as low a water-

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cement ratio as practical because this reduces permeability and the penetration of
aggressive liquids. To produce durable concrete, the aggregates must also be durable.

4-2.5 Placeability. The term placeability encompasses many characteristics of

fresh concrete including its workability and consistency. Workability represents the
ease and homogeneity with which freshly mixed concrete or mortar can be mixed,
placed, consolidated, and finished. Consistency represents the relative mobility of
freshly mixed concrete or its ability to flow. Consistency is the only aspect of
placeability that is measured by a test: the slump test. Other aspects of placeability,
such as moldability, cohesiveness, compactability, and finishability, are usually
evaluated by visual observation. These evaluations are somewhat subjective.

4-3 CRITERIA FOR PROPORTIONING

4-3.1 General. The pavement designer should determine the necessary criteria for
proportioning concrete. The criteria should be suitable for traffic and exposure
conditions.

4-3.2 Design Flexural Strength. To select suitable flexural strengths for the
design of pavements and for the inclusion in contract specifications, the contracting
officer should have reliable information regarding flexural strengths that are obtainable
with the concrete materials that are available in the vicinity of the project. Typical
design values for flexural strength of concrete pavements range from 3.4 to 5.2 MPa
(500 to 750 psi). In selecting a flexural strength for pavement design, suitable
allowance will be made for variations in strength indicated by tests of different
combinations of aggregate and cement. For overlays, flexural strength should be about
the same as that estimated for the underlying pavement.

4-3.3 Water-Cement Ratio. Relationships between water-cement ratio and both

compressive strength and flexural strength (modulus of rupture) are provided by ACI
211.1 and shown in Tables 4-1 and 4-1a. The maximum permissible water-cement ratio
should satisfy the requirements of Tables 4 -1 and 4-1a to ensure adequate durability for
the pavement.

4-3.4 Required Average Flexural Strength. Structural designs are based on

flexural strengths that the concrete is expected to obtain at 28 days for road pavements
and at 90 days for airfield pavements. In order to ensure meeting strength
requirements, the mixture proportions selected during design studies should be selected
so that the maximum w/c ratio is not exceeded and to produce an initial average flexural
strength, Ra , exceeding the specified strength, R, by the amount indicated below. This
required average flexural strength, Ra, will not be a required acceptance criteria during
paving operations, but will be used for the contractor's quality control operations as
specified. During paving operations, the required average flexural strength, Ra , may be
adjusted (increased or decreased), as appropriate and as approved based on the
standard deviation of equivalent 90-day strengths being attained during paving
operations.

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Table 4-1. Approximate relation between water-cement ratios

and strengths of concrete (modified from ACI 211.1)(SI)
b
Water-Cement Ratio by Weight
Compressive Strength Approximate Range of Nonair-entrained Air-entrained
a
at 28 days, MPa Modulus of Rupture, MPa Concrete Concrete
40 5.0 – 5.5 0.42 --
35 4.5 – 5.0 0.47 0.39
30 4.0 – 4.5 0.54 0.45
25 3.5 – 4.0 0.61 0.52
20 3.0 – 3.5 0.69 0.60
15 2.5 – 3.0 0.79 0.70
a
No unique general relationship exists between concrete compressive strength and modulus of
rupture, but the relationship depends on the aggregates and cement used in a specific concrete
mixture. Consequently these relationships are only for initial estimates.
b
Normally pavement concrete will be air entrained and will have a maximum water-cement ratio of
0.45 if ex posed to freezing and thawing conditions. For minor pavements in a moderate climate a
maximum water-cement ratio of 0.50 may be considered.

Table 4-1a. Approximate relation between water-cement ratios

and strengths of concrete (modified from ACI 211.1)(SAE)
b
Water-Cement Ratio by Weight
Compressive Strength Approximate Range of Nonair-entrained Air-entrained
a
at 28 days, psi Modulus of Rupture, psi Concrete Concrete
6,000 700-800 0.41 --
5,000 625-700 0.48 0.40
4,000 525-625 0.57 0.48
3,000 450-525 0.68 0.59
2,000 350-450 0.82 0.74
a
No unique general relationship exists between concrete compressive strength and modulus of
rupture, but the relationship depends on the aggregates and cement used in a specific concrete
mixture. Consequently these relationships are only for initial estimates.
b
Normally pavement concrete will be air entrained and will have a maximum water-cement ratio of
0.45 if exposed to freezing and thawing conditions. For minor pavements in a moderate climate a
maximum water-cement ratio of 0.50 may be considered.

Where a concrete production facility has test records, a standard deviation shall be
established in accordance with the applicable provisions of ACI 214. Test records from
which a standard deviation is calculated sha ll represent materials, quality control
procedures, conditions similar to those expected, and represent concrete produced to
meet a specified flexural strength within 1 MPa (150 psi) of the 90-day flexural strength
specified for the proposed work, and shall consist of at least 30 consecutive tests. A
strength test shall be the average of the strength of two test specimens made from the
same sample of concrete and tested at 90 days. Required average flexural strength, Ra ,
used as the basis for selection of concrete proportions shall be the larger of the
following equations using the standard deviation as determined above:

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Ra = R + 1.345
Ra = R + 2.33S – 500

where:
S = Standard deviation
R = Specified flexural strength
Ra = Required average flexural strength

Where a concrete production facility does not have test records meeting the above
requirements but does have a record based on 15 to 29 consecutive tests, a standard
deviation may be established as the product of the calculated standard deviation and a
modification factor from Table 4 -2.

Table 4-2. Modification factor

Number of tests Modification factor for standard deviation

15 1.16
20 1.08
25 1.03
30 or more 1 .00

When a concrete production facility does not have sufficient field strength test
records for calculation of the standard deviation, the required average strength, Ra, shall
be determined by adding 15 percent to the specified flexural strength, R.

4-3.5 Slump. The concrete slump shall not exceed 50 mm (2 inch). Within this
maximum limit, the slump will be maintained at the lowest practical value suitable for
prevailing weather conditions and for equipment and methods used in placement of the
concrete. For small paved areas, slump in excess of 50 mm (2 inch) may be permitted,
but in no case will the slump exceed 75 mm (3 inch). The concrete slump will be
determined in the field by the method described in ASTM C 143 (CRD-C 5). Slump for
slipform paving of airfield and heliport pavements should be specified in a range of 0 to
32 mm (0 to 1¼ inch).

4-3.6 Water Content. The water content of a concrete mixture is typically a

function of the nominal maximum aggregate size, the required air content, and the
required slump. The relative importance of each of these items is affected by the
specific method of mixture proportioning. In the range of normal-weight concrete, a
given combination of aggregate requires an approximately constant amount of water per
unit volume of concrete to achieve a given slump, regardless of the water-cement ratio.

4-3.7 Cement Content. The quantity of cementitious materials will be determined

based on the selected water-cement ratio and the estimated water content for the
mixture. When the contracting officer is responsible for mixture proportions, no limits for
the quantity of cement content will be included in the contract specifications and cement
will be a separate pay item in the contract. The contracting officer will determine the
required quantity of cement per cubic yard of concrete. When the concrete proposed

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for use on a paving project has a cement content of less than 280 kg/m3 (470 lb/yd 3),
prior approval will be obtained from TSMCX (CENWO-ED-TX) or the appropriate Air
Force major command. When the contractor is responsible for mixture proportions,
cement will not be a separate pay item in the contract. If the cement content is less
than 280 kg/m3 (470 lb/yd 3), two Corps of Engineers Division laboratories or two
commercial laboratories should verify the results prior to submittal.

4-3.7.1 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete. Cement contents are typically much higher

than conventional concrete and the aggregate volume is lower. Maximum nominal size
aggregate for these mixtures has varied from 10 to 19 mm (3/8 to 3/4 inch). Fly ash is
often used as a partial substitute for Portland cement to improve workability and lower
the-heat of hydration. Steel fiber contents have ranged from 50 to 130 kg/m3 (80 to 220
lb/yd 3). Addition of steel fibers and low water-cement ratios produce a stiff mix, and
water-reducing admixtures have often been found to be beneficial. Additional
information can be found in ACI 544.lR, ACI 544.2R, and ACI 544.3R.

4-3.8 Pozzolan Content. Pozzolans can comprise up to 25 percent, by volume, of

the cementitious materials used in concrete pavement mixtures. If greater amounts are
contemplated, a test program must show that the proposed amount will not adversely
affect the fresh or hardened concrete properties. When a concrete mixture includes a
pozzolan, the pozzolan is typically included in the calculation of water-cement ratio,
expressed as water – “cement + pozzolan” ratio. When calculating this ratio by weight,
the weight of pozzolan per cubic meter is simply added to the weight of cement. To
calculate this ratio by volume, follow guidelines provided by ACI 211.1.

4-3.9 Air Entrainment. Air-entrained concrete will be required for all concrete
pavements. Air entrainment improves the workability and placing characteristics of
freshly mixed concrete and is required for the freezing and thawing resistance of
hardened concrete. The use of entrained air in concrete will reduce strength, but
because of the improved workability in the freshly mixed concrete, adjustments in
aggregate proportions and reduction of water are normally possible that will negate or at
least minimize the loss of strength. Proper proportioning and control of the air-entrained
concrete mixture are essential in order to derive maximum benefits from improvement in
the placeability and durability of concrete with a minimum effect on flexural strength.

4-3.9.1 Air Content. The specified air content will be 6 ± 1½ percent for concrete
pavements located in regions where resistance to freezing and thawing is a prime
consideration. The specified air content will be 5 ± 1½ percent for concrete pavements
located in regions where frost action is not a factor and air entrainment is used primarily
to improve the workability and placeability of freshly mixed concrete. If further reduction
in the air content or the use of non-air-entrained concrete is necessary, prior approval
will be obtained from TSMCX (CENWO-ED-TX) or the appropriate Air Force major
command. Air content will be controlled in the field at the point within the specified
range most appropriate for local conditions depending upon the severity of exposure
and the quality and maximum size of aggregate. If slag aggregate is used, the air
content will be determined by the volumetric method as described in ASTM C 173
(CRD-C 8).

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4-4 MIXTURE PROPORTIONING.

4-4.1 General. Before any concrete is placed, trial mixtures will be prepared with
materials from the sources to be used for production of concrete for the project. When
the contractor is responsible for mixture proportioning, trial mixtures will be prepared b y
a commercial testing laboratory approved by the contracting officer at no expense to the
Government, and the results will be submitted to the contracting officer for approval.
The laboratory performing the mixture proportioning shall conform to ASTM C 1077
(CRD-C 553). The review of the submitted mixture proportions should assure the
following:

4-4.1.1 Cementitious materials. The submitted mixture must be proportioned

using the same cementitious materials as will be used in the project. This should include
type, manufacturer, mill of origin, and time of manufacture. If a pozzolan is to be used,
the contractor's submittal should state whether the percentage of replacement is based
on mass or volume.

4-4.1.2 Aggregate. The aggregate used in proportioning the mixture should

represent the current production of whichever source the contractor selects. Quality
tests and grading test results should be submitted showing that the aggregates meet
specification requirements. Batch amounts for aggregates should be listed in the SSD
condition unless some other basis is agreed on.

4-4.1.3 Admixtures. The admixtures used in proportioning the mixture should be

from the same stock that the contractor has purchased for use on the project. All
admixtures should meet the project specifications and the dosages should be listed.

4-4.1.4 Test results. The w/c and required strength test results should be
reviewed to assure that they match project requirements. Air contents and slumps
should be at the upper limits of the specification requirements.

4-4.1.5 Placeability. The mixtures must be proportioned to provide the necessary

placeability for the conveying and placing equipment that the contractor proposes to
use.

4-4.2 Strength Correlations. The testing laboratory should select initial proportions
that satisfy the criteria provided by the project personnel. The batch weights of each
constituent in a cubic meter of concrete should be reported based on saturated surface-
dry aggregates. The amounts of chemical admixtures such as air-entraining and water-
reducing admixtures will be reported as liters per cubic meter of cementitious materials.
Strength data will be provided to the extent it is available by the time the mixture
proportions are transmitted to the project. Normally 24-hour, 7 -, 14-, and 28-day
strengths are available prior to the start of paving. Ninety-day strengths, if applicable,
are to be provided as they become available. Correlations should be developed
between 14- and 28- or 90-day specified flexural strength using regression analysis so
that more timely concrete production control can be implemented. The proportioning

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data for each mixture should also include a family of curves showing flexural strength
versus water-cement ratio at various ages.

4-5 GOVERNMENT MIXTURE PROPORTIONS.

4-5.1 General. When the contracting officer is responsible for mixture

proportioning, trial mixtures will be prepared by the Government with materials supplied
by the contractor from the sources to be used for production of concrete on the project.
Mixtures will be made in sufficient number to establish optimum proportions of the
aggregates and to represent a wide range in cement contents and water-cement ratios
within specified requirements for air content and workability. The water-cement ratio will
not exceed 0.45 by weight for pavement mixtures. After the final proportions of the trial
mixtures have been established, 150 by 150 mm (6 by 6 in.) cross-section test/beam
specimens from each mixture will be made in accordance with ASTM C 192/C 192M
(CRD-C 10) and tested as described in ASTM C 78 (CRD-C 16). A minimum of nine test
specimens should be made to establish the flexural strength of each mixture at each
test age. From these mixture proportioning studies, the controlling maximum water-
cement ratio and hence the cement content required to produce concrete of specified
strength will be determined. This same procedure will be used to establish new mixture
proportions when necessary because of a change in the source or the character of the
concrete ingredients after concrete placement has started.

4-5.2 Sampling of materials. Guide Specification CEGS 02513 outlines the

procedure by which samples are to be taken by the contractor for mixture proportioning
studies. The contractor is required to test the aggregates for quality and grading before
shipment to the laboratory. These samples are to be taken under the supervision of the
contracting officer. It is important that this requirement is followed. The most common
problems arising from lack of attention to these details are samples arriving at the
division laboratory that do not meet project grading requirements or are not
representative of the materials that are actually to be used or both. Both problems may
lead to delays of concrete placements or the necessity for considerable field
modification of the mixture proportions. The division laboratory should test submitted
materials to determine that they meet specification requirements prior to using them to
develop mixture proportions. The need for the samples that are submitted to be
representative extends to all the materials in the concrete including cement, pozzolans,
GGBF slag, and chemical admixtures.

4-5.3 Adjustment of government mixture propositions. The mixture proportions

provided by the division laboratory provide starting mixtures meeting the project criteria.
However, when these proportions are used in the first batches of concrete produced by
the contractor's plant, it is not uncommon for the concrete to be deficient in one or more
of the control parameters of the specifications. The most common deficiency is in the
slump. The laboratory will report mixture proportions based on the aggregates in an
SSD condition. A common cause of an increase in slump is the failure to properly adjust
for free moisture in the aggregate, particularly the fine aggregate. Low slump is normally
not a problem is concrete is batched and mixed on site unless rapid slump loss occurs.
Variations in the chemical or physical properties of cement or pozzolan are the most
common causes of rapid slump loss although transporting and placing operations may

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also contribute to the problem. Assuming all materials and transporting and placing
equipment and operations meet specification requirements, the most practical solution
for dealing with rapid slump loss is to increase the slump at the mixer. The w/c ratio
should be maintained constant if the slump is increased. Adjustments of the dosage of
air-entraining admixture by the contractor are required as needed to maintain air
contents within the specified range. As grading of individual coarse aggregate size
groups change, the proportions of the size groups should be adjusted so that the
combined coarse aggregate grading approximates the maximum density grading. The
maximum density grading may be computed using Equation A5.3 in ACI 211.1 (CRD-C
99). As the combined coarse aggregate grading approaches the maximum density
grading, the void content of the mixture is reduced and more mortar is available for
placeability, workability, and finishability. Solution of the percentage of each size group
can usually be done such that the combined coarse aggregate grading is generally
within 2 or 3 percent of the maximum density grading. Trial and error may be used i n
selecting the percentage of each size group necessary to produce a combined coarse
aggregate grading which approximates the maximum density grading. Adjustments in
the percentage of fine aggregate are less common but slight changes may be
necessary to compensate for significant changes in grading over an extended period of
production. Adjustments to Government mixture proportions are to be made by
Government personnel. Changes in aggregate and water batch weights to compensate
for free moisture in aggregates are made by the contractor and are not considered
adjustments to mixture proportions. Division laboratory personnel should be present and
prepared to make adjustments in mixture proportions when the contractor initiates
concrete production on a project and after periods of batch plant shutdown such as
winter shutdowns or prolonged strikes. Procedures for making adjustments are given in
ACI 211.1 (CRD-C 99) and will be made on an absolute volume basis. The mortar
volume should remain constant and changes in any one mortar constituent such as
water, fine aggregate, air, or cementitious material content should be compensated for
by changes in another mortar constituent without changing the w/c ratio.

4-6 CONTRACTOR MIXTURE PROPORTIONS.

4-6.1 General. When the contractor is responsible for the mixture proportions,
proportions of all materials used in the concrete mixture will be as directed by the
contractor. The contractor will require such changes in the mixture proportions as
necessary to maintain the workability, strength, and quality required by the contract
specifications. The mixture proportions determined by mixture proportioning studies will
be used in starting paving operations. Adjustments will be made by the contractor as
necessary to establish the mixture proportions best suited for the job conditions and
materials used. Project specifications will require the contractor to notify the contracting
officer prior to making any change to the approved mixture proportions and to indicate
the changes to be made. Changes to the mixture proportions will be of a minor nature
as required to compensate for variations in gradings and the moisture content of the
aggregate unless laboratory mixture studies for the new mixture are submitted for
approval.

4-6.2 Adjustment of Contractor Mixture Proportions. The contractor is

responsible for making all field adjustments to the mixture proportions necessary to

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maintain the specified quality. The contracting officer, however, must approve
adjustments to the mixture proportions.

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CHAPTER 5

PREPARATIONS FOR CONCRETE PLACEMENT

5-1 SUBGRADE. The setting and protection of forms and string lines and the final
preparation of the subgrade, base course, or filter course require close attention to all
details to assure that the pavement will have the required thickness and the surface will
meet the required grade. Subgrade is the natural soil or fill upon which the base and
concrete pavement are placed. Special procedures may be necessary when dealing
with frost-susceptible soils, expansive soils, pumping-susceptible soils, lateritic soils, or
organic soils. Removing soft or troublesome soils that occur in pockets may be
desirable, where possible.

5-2 BASE.

5-2.1 General. A base may perform many functions, such as drainage,

construction platform, and structural strengthening of the pavement. A base is typically
a granular material, either unstabilized or stabilized with lime, cement, or asphalt binder.
A lean concrete, sometimes referred to as “econocrete,” is sometimes used as a base.
There is no clearly accepted definition for econocrete, but relative to ordinary concrete,
its cement contents are typically lower, and its aggregates are sometimes of poorer
quality. The lean concrete base should meet the strength and durability requirements of
cement-stabilized materials and can be treated as a high-quality stabilized material in
design.

5-2.2 Construction. The supporting base or subgrade upon which the concrete
pavement will be placed must be stable and provide adequate support for the
equipment and forms that will be used during placement. Specifications generally
require that the contractor properly place, drain, and compact the underlying materials
to the specified grade and elevation and that they be maintained clean and free from
debris, waste concrete, water, frost, and ice. If any areas are damaged by construction
operations will, they should be reworked and recompacted to meet the original
specification requirements. Military design policy requires that a base be used under
rigid pavements placed on fine-grained subgrades (silts and clays) to prevent pumping
and to provide adequate support for construction. If the concrete pavement is placed
directly on a sand subgrade, particularly fine sands, the contractor may encounter
problems with equipment mobility at the paving site. In such cases, the contractor may
have to make special provisions to repair the paving surface directly in front of the
paving machine that may rut under trucks delivering concrete to the paver, or the
contractor may have to use concrete placement techniques that allow concrete
discharge from adjacent lanes. The final preparation of the underlying material should
be accomplished not be less than one full day ahead of the concrete paving operation.

5-2.3 Drainage Layer. Most military pavements require a drainage layer in the
pavement cross-section and the concrete pavement will often be placed directly on this
layer (see ETL 1110-3-435). If the drainage layer uses unstabilized, open-graded
aggregate, equipment traffic may cause rutting in the material. In such cases the

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contractor will have to make provisions to re-level and compact the material directly
ahead of the paving machine during placement or will have to use equipment and
techniques allowing concrete discharge to the paving machine from adjacent lanes. It is
the contractor’s responsibility to select the paving equipment and techniques that will
allow proper placement of the concrete. Difficult subgrades or a design with
unstabilized open-graded drainage aggregate may limit the options available to the
contractor, but the responsibility remains with the contractor. There have been several
instances where contractors have attempted to claim additional compensation for
paving under such conditions, and such claims should not be allowed as long as the
subgrade conditions and existence of the open-graded drainage material is identified in
the plans and specifications.

5-2.4 Design Precautions. The pavement designer can help ease construction
problems by providing base courses under pavements to allow construction access on
difficult subgrades. The designer should consider construction mobility requirements
when selecting materials to use in the pavement sections, and extending base courses
beyond the edge of the pavement to allow a sound platform upon which to anchor forms
or to accommodate the tracks of a slipform paver.

5-2.5 Roller-Compacted Concrete. For RCC pavements, the base should have a
minimum modulus of subgrade reaction (k) of 27 kPa/mm (100 psi/inch) deflection to
ensure sufficient support for full consolidation of the concrete throughout its entire
thickness upon compaction.

5-3 EXISTING PAVEMENT (OVERLAYS)

5-3.1 Correction of Defects in Existing Pavement. A condition survey should be

made and the cause of cracking of slabs determined in order to develop an appropriate
repair prior to overlaying. The existing pavement must be in good structural condition,
and any broken or otherwise defective slabs will be repaired or replaced before the
overlay is applied. Procedures to be used for locating or identifying voids beneath or
faults in the pavement must be clearly defined in the contract specification. The
designer of the overlay should realize that cracks in the pavement being overlayed will
likely reflect through the overlay pavement.

5-3.2 Preparing the Existing Pavements. After any necessary repairs and slab
requirements, the existing pavement surface must be thoroughly cleaned of all
deteriorated concrete, oil, grease, dirt and excess joint sealant material on the
pavement surface. In order to thoroughly clean the pavements surface and in addition to
roughen the surface texture, it is recommended that shot blasting or rotary-type grinding
be specified. Environmental considerations should be given to the type of cleaning
equipment that is specified. The removal and disposal of grinding latents and water can
be a costly factor. Grinding may be required to level uneven surfaces and in areas
where the concrete has deteriorated, the material should be removed to sound
concrete. In order to thoroughly clean the surface, it is recommended that rotary-type
grinders be used to remove at least 6 mm (1/4 inch) of the existing concrete, and in
areas where the concrete has deteriorated, the mate rial should be removed to sound
concrete. After grinding with rotary grinders, the surface should be sandblasted to

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remove debris left from grinding. Before the pavement is placed, the surface of the
existing pavement should be cleaned by brooming and followed with compressed air. In
areas where equipment turns, such as trucks hauling concrete, the existing pavement
should be covered with sand or some other protective cover to prevent rubber from
scrubbing off of tires onto the existing concrete and forming a bond breaker. Catch
pans or blankets should be specified to be placed under hauling equipment so that
dripping oil, grease, and hydraulic fluids will not accumulate on the pavement to act as a
bond breaker.

5-4 FORMS AND STRING LINES.

5-4.1 General. Forms and string lines should be installed well in advance of
concrete paving operations so that the required checks and necessary corrections can
be made without stopping or hindering concrete placement.

5-4.2 Form Materials. Steel forms will be used for all formed pavement
construction. Wood forms generally are unsatisfactory for paving work, and their use will
not be permitted except for such miscellaneous areas as bulkheads and curved fillets.
To avoid the excessive cost of pavement construction for small jobs, wood forms may
be allowed for pavements less than 200 mm (8 inch) thick in noncritical areas, such as
open storage areas, helicopter parking pads, and vehicle parking.

5-4.3 Construction of Forms. Provisions relati ng to built-up forms may be omitted

from contract specifications when the contract plans require constant slab depth for
each paved area. When this provision is retained in a contract specification, the
contractor is required to furnish steel forms equal to the edge thickness of the majority
of pavement slabs for each paved area. Built-up forms will be used only where edge
thicknesses exceed the basic form depth. The base width of built-up forms will be equal
to the width required for a comparable full-depth form. Side forms on slipform pavers will
be the full depth of the pavement.

5-4.4 Removal of Forms. Pavement forms generally may be removed 12 hours

after the concrete is placed. A longer period will be necessary when the strength gain of
the concrete is retarded because of delayed or inadequate protection during cold
weather. In some instances, earlier removal of forms maybe permitted so that the
transverse joints may be sawed completely through to the edge of the slab without
leaving a small fillet of concrete adjacent to the form. Adequate curing materials shall
be applied to the formed surface immediately following form removal. This provision
should be expressed and monitored at header joints if slipform paving is used.

5-4.5 Installing String Lines. The lines and grades shown for each airfield and
heliport pavement category of the contract shall be established and maintained by
means of line and grade stakes placed at the jobsite by the contractor. Elevations of all
benchmarks used by the contractor for controlling pavement operations at the jobsite
will be established and maintained by the Government. The finished pavement grade
lines and elevations shown shall be established and controlled at the jobsite in
accordance with bench-mark elevations furnished by the contracting officer. The
pavements shall be constructed to the thicknesses and elevations indicated. Provisions

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for line and grade control for roads, streets, and open storage areas shall be included in
the contract specifications.

5-4.6 Material and Maintenance for String Lines. The string line will be of high-
strength cord or wire. The choice will depend on the type of automatically controlled
slipform paver used. Certain manufacturers recommend that high-tensile -strength wire
be stretched tautly between supports. Other manufacturers recommend a large-
diameter cord and do not require the tautness that is recommended for the wire. The
use of wire requires firmly anchored supports. As a result, the wire is less likely to be
disturbed than is the cord whose supports do not have to be so firmly anchored. The
wire is difficult to see, and flagging should be attached between the supports to reduce
the chance that it will be disturbed during construction. The cord does not require
supports to be as firmly anchored as for the wire, and as a result, the cord is easier to
install and maintain. However, the chance of sagging between the supports is greater.
The cord is easy to see, and as a result, the chances of its being knocked out of
alignment are less than for the wire. However, the cord is more easily disturbed than the
wire and should be checked frequently. Provisions should also be made to assure that
proper alignment and elevation is reestablished in string and wire lines when gaps or
access openings are made to allow for the delivery of concrete to formed and slipform
pavers.

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CHAPTER 6

MIXING AND TRANSPORTATION

6-1 GENERAL. There are three types of plants: automatic, semi-automatic, and
manual. For paving projects, either automatic or semi-automatic plants will be
acceptable. Specifications will be prepared to allow either type of plant, and the
contractor will have the option as to the type of plant to be used. The contracting officer
is responsible for approving all plants, construction equipment, and construction
procedures proposed for use by the contractor. The contractor must submit detailed
descriptions of all plants, construction equipment, and proposed construction
procedures prior to the start of construction.

6-2 PLANT.

6-2.1 Capacity. The capacity to be specified for the batching plant and mixing
equipment will generally be determined in accordance with the concrete -placement
requirements for the project. The main considerations will be the required placing
schedule to meet the completion date for the construction or, when slipform pavers are
used, the required a mount of concrete to maintain a uniform forward movement of the
paver of not less than 0.8 meters (2.5 feet) per minute. The plant shall have a capacity
of at least 200 m3 (250 yd 3) for larger construction projects and shall conform to the
requirements of NRMCA CPMB 100. The placement rate specified for pavements
constructed during hot weather should also be considered in determining plant capacity
requirements.

6-2.2 Batching Tolerances. The plant should be designed and operated to

produce concrete within specified tolerances. The plant shall provide accurate
measurements and control of each material entering each batch of concrete. The plant
batching tolerances shown in Table 6 -1 shall apply. When adjustments are required the
plant shall be capable o f ready adjustments for varying moisture contents of aggregates
and to change quantities of materials being batched.

Table 6-1. Plant Batching Tolerances

Materials Percentage of Required Mass

Cement (and Pozzolan) Plus or minus 1
Aggregate Plus or minus 2
Water Plus or minus 1
Admixture Plus or minus 3

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6-3 CONCRETE MIXERS.

6-3.1 Truck Mixers. Mixers having a capacity of at least 3.8 m3 (5 yd 3) of mixed

concrete are required for airfield paving projects, but smaller mixers may be permitted
for small road projects and other small miscellaneous construction. Contract
specifications for jobs of suitable size and location will include an option for the
contractor to reduce mixing time during progress of work, relative to the mixing time
required at the start of the job. In addition, no reduction in mixing time will be allowed if
it results in a reduction in the 7-day flexural strength. To evaluate this requirement, the
7-day flexural strength is compared to the average strength of five consecutive sets of
specimens made from batches mixed the full time. Truck mixers often have difficulty in
discharging the comparatively low-slump concrete mixtures required for airfield
pavement construction. Therefore, truck mixer performance (uniformity) should comply
with ASTM C 94/C 94M (CRD-C 31). The tendency of the concrete to hang up in
discharge chutes may cause delays, which frequently lead to requests by the contractor
that the concrete slump be increased. The slump of ready-mix concrete will not be
increased because of the inadequacy of the mixing or transportation equipment to mix
and discharge the concrete. Truck mixers shall be equipped with accurate revolution
counters. Concrete completely mixed in a truck mixer shall be mixed 70 to 100
revolutions at the designated mixing speed after all ingredients, including mixing water,
have been charged into the drum. Truck mixers will not be permitted for mixing concrete
on slipform construction. In general, truck mixers should only be used on jobs requiring
1,900 m3 (2,500 yd 3) of concrete or less.

6-3.2 Stationary, Central Plant Mixers. Stationary mixers shall be capable of

combining materials into a uniform mixture and of discharging this mixture without
segregation. The performance of a stationary mixer shall be determined from uniformity
testing. The uniformity test procedure is outlined in the CEGS 02753 and shall be
performed in accordance with CRD-C 55. In general the stationary mixer shall meet the
uniformity requirements listed in Table 6-2.

Table 6-2. Uniformity Requirements, Stationary Mixers

Regular Tests Allowable Abbreviated Tests

Maximum Range for Allowable Maximum
Parameter Average of 3 Batches Range for 1 Batch
Unit weight of air-free mortar, 32 32
kg/m 3 (lb/ft3) (2.0) (2.0)
Air content, percent 1.0 --
Slump, mm (inches) 25 (1.0) --
Coarse aggregate, percent 6.0 6.0
Compressive strength at 7
10.0 10.0
days, percent
Water content, percent 1.5 --

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6-4 MIXING STEEL-FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE. If fiber clumps occur in the

mix, it is usually due to fibers being added too fast at some point in the mixing operation
so that they are already clumped by the time they get into the mixture. Usually if the
fibers get into the mixture without clumps, no clumps will form. Fibers should not be
allowed to pile up anywhere in the operation, and the mixer should disperse the fibers
into the mixture as rapidly as they are added. Other potential causes of fiber clumping
include: using too many fibers, using fibers with too large of an aspect ratio, adding
fibers too fast to a harsh mix, adding fibers first to the mixer, using equipment with worn
out mixing blades, overmixing, and using a mixture with too much coarse aggregate. A
common method of adding fibers to a mix is to add the fibers through a shaker or
hopper onto the fine aggregate on a conveyor belt. Some fibers are also collated in
bundles of about 30 fibers with water-soluble glue. These may be added to a mix as the
last step in the mixing process.

6-5 TRANSPORTING PLANT-MIXED CONCRETE. Vehicles for transporting

concrete from stationary mixers to the forms will conform to the applicable requirements
of ASTM C 94 (CRD-C 31). Plant-mixed concrete may be transported in a truck agitator,
in a truck mixer operating at agitating speed, or in approved non-agitating equipment.
Non-agitating equipment will have smooth, watertight, metal bodies equipped with gates
to permit control of the discharge of the concrete; covers will be provided for protecting
concrete in transit, as required. Concrete transported in non-agitating equipment will be
discharged into the pavement forms or to the slipform paver within 45 minutes after
introduction of the mixing water and cement to the aggregates at the mixer. The major
problem in using ready-mixed concrete in pavement construction is avoiding
segregation in discharging and transferring the concrete from the transporting unit to the
final position in the form or on the subgrade in front of the slipform paver. The use of
ready–mixed concrete requires suitable trans fer and spreading equipment capable of
depositing and distributing the concrete in an unsegregated condition in the final
position in the forms. When low-slump plant-mixed concrete is transported, trucks
equipped with vibrators are often required to discharge the concrete and should be
required unless it is satisfactorily demonstrated that the concrete can be discharged
without delay.

6-6 ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE. Proper mixing and transportation of

roller-compacted concrete (RCC) is presented in Appendix C.

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CHAPTER 7

PLACEMENT

7-1 GENERAL. Concrete may be placed using either formed or slipform techniques.
In formed placement, metal forms are used to contain the portland cement concrete
within the placement lane and placement equipment rides upon the meta l forms or may
straddle the placement lane. In slipform paving a very stiff concrete mixture is used that
is capable of standing without support by the forms. All placement is handled by a
single slipform machine, and there is no requirement for placement of forms. Both
methods produce satisfactory results, and when possible, the option should be left with
the contractor as to the method to be used. With slipform equipment, the rate of
placement can be significantly increased over the rate with fixed forms. In addition, the
material for forms and the labor for setting forms are eliminated. As a result, the cost for
large jobs will be less for slipform placement than for placement with fixed forms.
However, on small jobs or larger jobs with special requirements, the use of fixed forms
may be necessary or may be more economical than the use of slipform equipment. No
guidelines can be given as to what size job will permit the economic use of slipform
pavers. In general, all concrete pavement should be placed with equipment, and hand
placement should be limited to minor small jobs, individual slab replacement, or similar
efforts where use of equipment is impractical or uneconomical.

7-2 TIMING. Concrete will be placed before obtaining its initial set and within 45
minutes after cement has been added to the batch. These provisions apply to all paving
projects regardless of the type of mixing equipment used. The addition of water to the
mixture in excess of that required by the mixture proportions to maintain slump during
prolonged mixing will not be permitted.

7-3 SLIPFORM PAVING. Approval of the slipform paving equipment for airfield
pavement will be based on satisfactory performance in the field. A test section at least
130 m (400 feet) long will be constructed, within the limits of the work, at a location
agreed upon by the contracting officer and contractor. The concrete in the test section
will be placed and finished using the people, procedures, and equipment, which will be
used on the project. Furthermore, approval shall be based on the ability of the machine
to consolidate the concrete and form the pavement to the desired cross sections. Plan
grade and surface smoothness tolerances must be met. Particular attention should be
paid to the ability of the machine to form the required edge without excessive slumping
or tearing during slipform operations and to form a suitable longitudinal construction
joint during fill-in operations. The machine shall not damage the surface or edge of the
previously placed slab during fill-in operations. Slipform pavers with a full-width auger
are recommended. Traveling blades have been less satisfactory. When the paving
thickness is 250 mm (10 inch) or greater, a requirement for the use of two pieces of
equipment, a spreader and paver finisher, should be considered. Some of the lighter
slipform pavers may have problems properly handling the large quantity of low-slump
concrete.

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7-4 SPREADING. Hand spreading of concrete will be permitted only when
necessitated by odd widths or shapes of slabs, or in emergencies such as equipment
breakdown.

7-5 VIBRATION.

7-5.1 General. Vibration requirements are influenced by many factors, such as

type and size of aggregate, mixture proportions, air entrainment, slump, workability of
mixture, and pavement thickness. The specified maximum spacing for vibrator units and
the specified vibrating procedures are based on field experience with the vibration of
pavements 300 mm (12 inch) or more in thickness. Gang-Mounted vibrators shall be
spaced to thoroughly consolidate the entire paving lane, but not more than 750 mm (30
inch) spacing, and with the outside vibrators not more than 300 mm (12 inch) from the
edge of the lane. The depth vibrators should be inserted shall provide the best full-depth
consolidation but not closer than 50 mm (2 inch) to the underlying layer. Particular
attention should be paid to vibrators along the edge of the paving lane to ensure that the
edge is properly consolidated. General experience has been that it is more satisfactory
to use vibrators at a closer spacing and for shorter period of vibration than to attempt to
consolidate the concrete by prolonged vibration at a wider spacing. Provisions should
be made that during the equipment approval period or trial test section construction that
a close synchronization between the rate of vibration and the speed of travel of the
paving machine is monitored to prevent over vibration of a particular mixture of
concrete. The duration of the vibration will be limited by the time necessary to produce a
satisfactory consolidation of the concrete, and over-vibration will not be permitted.
Hand-operated vibrators must be approved and used only in small, odd-shaped slabs,
or isolated areas inaccessible to the gang vibrators. Hand-operated vibrators shall not
be used in the concrete at one location for more than 20 seconds. Vibrators must not
be permitted to touch forms, dowels, tie bars, or other embedded items.

7-5.2 Surface Vibrators. Surface vibrators will not be permitted because past
experience with them has been generally unsatisfactory. Surface vibration tends to
bring excess fine material and water to the surface, which in many instances contributes
to sur face deterioration and scaling. Surface-vibrator pans also tend to ride on high
places in the concrete surface and thus cause nonuniform consolidation of the concrete.

7-6 STEEL REINFORCEMENT. Project drawings will show typical details of all slab
reinforcement and will indicate the pavements requiring reinforcement and the location
and amount of steel required in the slabs. Details of special reinforcement that are
required for equipment that is designed to penetrate the pavement surface i.e. lighting,
fuel facilities, tie downs, and grounding devices should be noted by the designer. This
information will supplement the specification requirements for reinforcement, and all
requirements will be carefully checked to ensure no discrepancies between drawings
and specification requirements.

7-7 PLACEMENT CONDITIONS.

7-7.1 General. Concrete pavement should not be placed during inclement

weather, which normally includes rain, cold temperatures, or excessively hot conditions.

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If placement under adverse conditions is necessary, the contractor will normally be
required to use special precautions discussed below. Paving operations will normally
be suspended when rain is imminent, and newly placed concrete that has not yet fully
set will be covered and protected from rain damage. Military pavement specifications
generally require removal of any rain-damaged concrete, but this may not always be in
the best interest of the government (e.g., delayed reopening of critical facilities or limited
and noncritical area involved). Trying to pave in the rain will usually result in excessive
water being entrained into the concrete mixture, and this is never acceptable. The very
stiff concrete mixtures used in military paving provide some limited tolerance to light
rain, but heavy rains have the potential to destroy the surface texture, erode the
surface, and leave a nondurable surface grout exposed on the surface. Repair of rain-
damaged areas by reworking the material, retexturing the plastic material, or addition of
new material is never allowed on military pavements. If the rain damage appears to be
primarily cosmetic (e.g., individual rain-drop impacts visible but original texture is
otherwise intact and no apparent erosion or weak paste on the surface), the pavement
may be accepted without repair if the cosmetic appearance is acceptable to the user
and the construction agency. If the cosmetic appearance is not acceptable or if the
texture has been damaged, diamond grinding can restore the surface appearance,
remove thin layers of surface grout, and restore skid resistance and texture.
Petrographic examination (ASTM C 856 [CRD-C 57]), abrasion tests (ASTM C 944
[CRD-C 52]), freeze-thaw tests (ASTM C 666 [CRD-C 20] or C 672 [CRD-C 47]), and
skid resistance tests (ASTM E 670) on damaged and undamaged surface areas can
provide additional information upon which to base a decision to accept or reject lightly
damaged areas. It is the contractor’s responsibility to protect plastic concrete from rain
damage, and acceptance of such damage is at the option of and for the convenience of
the government. Concrete will normally only be placed when the ambient temperature
and temperature of the surfaces to be in contact with the portland cement concrete are
40oF (5oC) or at least 35oF (2oC) and rising.

7-7.2 Placing During Cold Weather. The ambient temperature of the air at the
placing site and the surface temperature of the areas to receive concrete should not be
less than 5 o C (40o F). If unusual job conditions require construction at these low
temperatures, special provisions for placement and protection of the concrete will be
needed. For additional information on cold-weather concreting, refer to ACI 306R.
Covering and/or other means of protecting the concrete during cold weather should be
available on the job before starting concrete placement. Adequate protection should
maintain the concrete at a temperature of at least 10o C (50o F) for not less than 72
hours after placement. Salt, chemicals or other materials may not be added to the
concrete to prevent freezing. With written approval, chemical admixture conforming to
ASTM C 494 Type C or E may be used provided it contains no calcium chloride.
Calcium chloride shall not be used at any time. Concrete damaged by freezing will be
completely removed and replaced.

7-7.3 Placing During Hot Weather. During hot weather special precautions are
necessary to prevent the formation of plastic-shrinkage cracks, which result from an
excessive loss of moisture from the concrete before curing is begun. The concrete
needs to be placed at the coolest temperature practicable, and in no case should the
temperature of the concrete as placed exceed 32o C (90o F). Steel forms and reinforcing

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shall be cooled prior to concrete placement when steel temperatures are greater than
49o C (120o F). Mixing and placing of concrete will be controlled to keep moisture loss at
a minimum. For extreme and prolonged high temperature areas, consideration may be
given to placing concrete at night. Other considerations may be to paint mixing and
transportation equipment a light color to reflect heat or to insulate equipment with wet
burlap to reduce temperatures by evaporation. Aggregates will be moist when added to
the mixer, and the subgrade dampened so it will not absorb water from the concrete.
The temperature of the concrete may be reduced by sprinkling the stockpiles of
aggregate to produce cooling by evaporation, by precooling mixing water or using ice in
lieu of water, and by avoiding delays in mixing and placing concrete. The concrete
needs to be placed and finished as rapidly as practicable, and the curing started without
delay. If the application of the curing medium should for any reason lag placement for a
time sufficient to allow surface drying, the surface should be kept damp with a fog spray,
and placement should be discontinued until corrective action can be taken. The fog
spray equipment will be capable of applying a very fine mist to the concrete to replace
moisture lost by evaporation. In windy areas, screens may be needed to protect the
concrete from rapid evaporation caused by wind. Steps shall be taken to avoid an
evaporation rate in excess of 1.0 kg/m2 /hr (0.2 lb/ft2 /hr) as shown in Figure 7-1. This is
adequate for most conditions, but there are reports of plastic-shrinkage cracking
occurring under adverse conditions when the indicated evaporation rate was as low as
0.75 kg/m2 /hr (0.15 lb/ft2/hr). Additional information is available in ACI 305R.

Table 7-1. Maximum Allowable Concrete Placing Temperature

Relative Humidity, Percent Maximum Allowable Concrete

During Time of Concrete Placement Temperature, degrees C (degrees F)
Greater than 60 33 (90)
40 – 60 30 (85)
Less than 40 27 (80)

7-8 PLACING SMALL AREAS. For vehicular parking and paving projects of 1,200
m3 (1,600 yd 3) or less, machine spreading, finishing, and floating will not be required if
the benefits derived from the use of the equipment are not commensurate with the cost
of using the machines. In this case, hand spreading, finishing, and floating will be
specified.

7-9 CONTROL OF CRACKING IN PAVEMENTS PLACED ON STIFF BASES.

Occasional problems have developed when relatively thin concrete pavement has been
placed directly on lean concrete bases or stabilized bases with high cement contents.
Uncontrolled contraction cracks in the base material have on occasion reflected through
the new pavement. If a relatively thin pavement (i.e. less than 225 mm (9 inch) thick) is
to be placed directly on a cement-stabilized or lean concrete base, it may be desirable
to implement a cracking precaution. Precautions include the placement of a bond-
breaking material between the pavement and base or the sawing of contraction joints in
the base to match those in the pavement surface. If a bond breaker is used between the
pavement surface and the base, the design engineer must be aware of the lack of bond
since this can affect the required design thickness of pavement. If contraction joints are

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to be sawed in the base to control cracking, it must be done at an early age just as
discussed in paragraph 11-4.4 for concrete pavements.

7-10 STEEL FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE. Before vibration, steel

fiber-reinforced concrete mixtures appear harsh and unworkable, and a common
mistake is to add water in a vain attempt to obtain workability. Conventional form-riding
and slipform paving equipment is adequate to place and level fiber-reinforced concrete.

7-11 ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE. Proper placement of roller-compacted

concrete (RCC) is presented in Appendix C.

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Figure 7-1. Prediction of Concrete Rate of Evaporation.

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CHAPTER 8

FINISHING

8-1 EQUIPMENT AND METHODS. Types of finishing equipment other than

conventional equipment may be used on a trial basis when capable of finishing concrete
of the quality and consistency required. Equipment that fails under trial to perform in a
satisfactory manner will be rejected and removed from the work area.

8-2 SURFACE FINISHING. Finishing operations are designed to obtain a dense,

smooth surface true to the required grade. Since the surface receives the greatest
exposure to weathering and traffic, every precaution will be taken to obtain a high-
quality concrete at the surface. The finishing operations will be kept to the minimum
necessary to obtain the required surface finish. Excessive surface manipulation will not
be permitted because it tends to bring a surplus of mortar, water, and undesirable soft
materials to the surface, which contributes to scaling and surface deterioration.
Finishing should leave the surface at the proper grade. If the mechanical finishing
operations are properly controlled, very little hand finishing will be necessary. Short
floats will be used only as necessary to correct local surface unevenness. Straightedges
of the required length will be used primarily to smooth and check the surface. To avoid
later costly corrections of hardened pavement, which fails to conform to specified
surface tolerances, the surface will be thoroughly checked during the mechanical
floating, and necessary corrections will be made.

8-3 HAND FINISHING AND EDGING. Machine fi nishing is required, and hand
finishing is only permitted for odd widths and shapes of slabs, areas adjacent to
headers, and areas around outlets in the pavements. Hand -finished areas will have the
same quality and the same surface characteristics as those areas finished by machine.
Hand finishing along the edges of slip-formed lanes to correct edge slumping or to
repair areas damaged by tearing or sloughing shall be held to a minimum. The only
manipulation permitted along the edges of slipformed lanes shall not disturb the edge or
use the edging tools to correct deficiencies in the edge.

8-4 TEXTURE. Dragging the surface of the concrete in the direction of concrete
placement with moist burlap leaves a fine sandy surface that is adequate for low-speed
traffic. At least 60 cm (2 feet) of burlap must be in contact with the concrete, and the
burlap should be cleaned as necessary. An improved skid-resistant surface can be
produced with a broom consisting of multiple rows of stiff bristles capable of producing
serrations 1.5 to 3 mm (1/16 to1/8 inch) deep. The brooms will have to be cleaned
frequently during texturing. Artificial turf has been used successfully for texturing
concrete. This is applied in the same manner as the burlap with at least 60 cm (2 feet)
of the artificial turf in contact with the concrete. One artificial turf that has provided a
satisfactory texture consisted of 80,000 (7,200) polyethylene turf blades approximately
20 mm long per square meter (0.85 inch long per square foot). The wire comb provides
the most skid-resistant texture of the finishing techniques described so far. However, it
is also the most difficult to use and adjustments to the concrete proportions may have to
be made to find a mixture that can be wire-combed without objectionable surface

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tearing. The wire comb should consist of flexible spring steel lines spaced not less than
12 mm (1/2 inch) nor more than 25 mm (1 inch) apart. Closer spacing causes problems
with raveling, and wider spacing results in objectionable road noise. The serrations left
by the steel lines should be about 3 to 6 mm (1/8 to 1/4 inch) deep and 1.5 to 3 mm
(1/16 to 1/8 inch) wide. A single pass of burlap or artificial turf can be made before the
wire comb if desired. Because of problems with skid resista nce for aircraft traveling at
high speed, the Air Force requires that new runways have a burlap drag finish with saw-
cut grooves. Figure 8 -1 shows the grooving requirements for an Air Force runway. If the
constructed pavement surface texture is inadequate due to poor texturing techniques,
rain-fall on insufficiently hardened concrete, or other causes, grooving or grinding will
restore the skid resistance of the surface.

8-5 FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE. A broom finish is generally used for

texturing. A burlap drag should be avoided to prevent fibers from catching in the burlap
and tearing the surface.

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Figure 8-1. Air Force Runway Grooving Requirements

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CHAPTER 9

CURING

9-1 CONTROL OF CRACKING. Plastic shrinkage (craze) cracking is caused by a

combination of (1) high ambient air temperature, (2) high concrete temperature, (3) low
relative humidity, and (4) wind velocity. These conditions need to be controlled when
placing and protecting young concrete. Minimizing the evaporation rate per hour as
discussed in 7-7.3, Placing During Hot Weather, and shown in Figure 7-1 is the first
step to prevent plastic shrinkage cracking. It is essential that concrete be protected
against the loss of moisture and rapid temperature change for at least 7 days after
completion of finishing. All equipment, material, and supplies for adequate curing and
protection of the concrete must be on hand and ready to install before actual concrete
placement begins. In general, curing will be accomplished by using a pigmented
membrane-curing compound. However, other methods may be specified if indicated by
local conditions.

9-2 MEMBRANE CURING. Membrane forming curing compound sha ll be a white-

pigmented compound conforming to CRD-C 300 for airfield pavements (and other
heavy duty pavements) and ASTM C 309 (CRD-C 304) and ACI 308 for other projects.
A uniform coating will be applied to the entire exposed surface of the concrete as soon
as free water has disappeared from the surface after finishing. The curing compound
must form a continuous void-free membrane and be maintained in this condition
throughout the curing period. The curing compound will be applied by equipment
mounted on a self-propelled frame that spans the paving lane. The spraying system
shall include a mechanically powered pump, which will maintain constant pressure
during operation, and an operable pressure gauge. The spray will be applied by a
series of spray nozzles, evenly spaced across the lane to give uniformly overlapping
coverage, or a single spray nozzle that is mounted on a carriage, which automatically
traverses the lane width at a speed correlated with the forward movement of the overall
frame. The reservoir for curing compound shall be constantly mechanically agitated (Air
agitation may be used only to supplement mechanical agitation) during operation and
shall contain means for completely draining the reservoir. A hood must surround the
spray nozzles, so wind will not redirect the spray. The rate of advance and spacing of
nozzles of the spraying machine will be controlled so that a two-coat overlapping
application will be provided within the specified coverage. Hand-operated pressure
sprayers will be permitted only on indicated odd widths and shapes of slabs and on
concrete surfaces exposed by removal of forms. Unsatisfactory or damaged areas will
be resprayed. Any damage to the membrane during the sawing operation will be
corrected by respraying. Joint surfaces will be cleaned and sprayed immediately after
sawing. When forms are removed, the exposed faces of the concrete will be sprayed
with curing compound.

9-3 MOIST-CURING. Concrete to be moist-cured shall be maintained continuously

wet for the entire curing period, or until curing compound is applied, commencing
immediately after finishing. All concrete shall be moist-cured for the first 24 hours. If
forms are removed before the end of the curing period, curing shall be carried out as on

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unformed sur faces, using suitable materials. Surfaces shall be cured by ponding, by
continuous sprinkling, by continuously saturated burlap or cotton mats, or by
continuously saturated plastic coated burlap. Impervious sheets may be used to cover
another positive method of supplying moisture. Burlap and mats shall be clean and free
from any contamination and shall be completely saturated before being placed on the
concrete. The Contractor shall have an approved work system to ensure that moist
curing is continuous 24 hours per day and that the entire surface is wet.

9-4 IMPERVIOUS SHEET CURING. When impervious sheet curing is required, the
surfaces will be thoroughly wetted prior to covering. The sheeting shall conform to
ASTM C 171 (CRD-C 310) and should be at least 450 mm (18 inches) wider than the
concrete surface covered and overlay not less than 300 mm (12 inches). It should be
securely weighted to prevent displacement so it remains in contact with the concrete the
specified length of curing.

9-5 SPECIAL CURING PROVISIONS. Where it has been established from past
experience in an area that membrane curing alone does not adequately protect
pavement from shrinkage cracking, the duration of mandatory moist curing will be
extended and a subsequent combination of moist curing and membrane curing may be
specified.

9-6 CURING PAVEMENTS TO BE PAINTED. In selecting curing material for

pavement surfaces to be painted, consideration will be given to the necessity of
sandblasting to remove coatings and deposits that i nterfere with the bonding of paint.
Curing compounds of the low-melting -point wax-base type tend to penetrate concrete
and should not be used in the areas to be painted.

9-7 PAVEMENT PROTECTION. All vehicular traffic shall be excluded from the
pavements for at least 14 days. As a construction expedient, earlier use of pavement is
permitted for operations of construction equipment only as necessary for paving
intermediate lanes between newly paved lanes. Approval for use of the pavements for
construction purposes prior to 14 days maybe omitted from contract specifications if
unnecessary or undesirable for local conditions. Operation of construction equipment on
the edge of previously constructed slabs will be permitted only when concrete is more
than 72 ho urs old and has a flexural strength of at least 2.75 MPa (400 pounds per
square inch). In all instances, approval for the use of pavement will be based on
adequate provisions for keeping pavements clean and protecting pavements against
damage.

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CHAPTER 10

RIGID OVERLAYS

10-1 GENERAL. Criteria herein pertain to the construction of rigid overlays on

existing rigid pavements. The construction of rigid overlays on existing flexible
pavements is not considered as part of this guidance. That type of overlay should be
treated as new construction. Where overlay pavement construction is required, contract
specifications must contain special provisions for the preparation and treatment of the
existing surface before placing concrete in the overlay pavement.

10-2 TYPES. There are three primary interfaces that used for rigid overlays on rigid
pavements. These are characterized by the degree of bond between the existing
pavement and the resurfacing and, as used herein, are termed bonded, partially-
bonded, and non-bonded. They are also sometimes referred to as monolithic, direct,
and separated. Assumptions related to bond will affect the design and construction of
the resurfacing. The optimal type of interface for a particular project will depend on the
design and condition of the existing pavement.

10-3 NON-BONDED OVERLAYS.

10-3.1 General. The bond between an overlay and the existing, underlying
pavement should be prevented when the existing pavement is so deteriorated that it
couldn’t be economically repaired to a sound condition before resurfacing. Non-bonded
overlays may be reinforced or plain (non-reinforced). This decision is typically based on
the condition of the underlying pavement. Reinforced slabs should contain at least 0.17
percent steel and should have a maximum joint spacing of 9 m (30 ft). Plain overlay
slabs should have joint spacing, in meters (feet), of approximately 0.02 (1.75) times the
overlay thickness in millimeters (inches). Joint spacing should be between 3 and 6 m
(10 and 20 ft).

10-3.2 Surface Preparation. Necessary surface preparation includes the removal

of anything that could cause friction or interlocking and the filling of large voids.
Extruding joint seal materials should be removed, faults at adjacent slabs should be
ground, and rough surface patches should be ground or replaced. Unfilled joints or
wide cracks, as well as deep spalls or other surface depressions shall be filled with an
acceptable material before construction of the separation course.

10-3.2 Separation Course. The separation course is used to prevent bond between
the existing pavement and the overlay. The prevention of bond isolates the overlay
from the adverse effects of distress in the existing pavement. The separation course
can also serve as a leveling course where the surface has become distorted. The
separation course must have sufficient thickness to prevent horizontal "locking"
between. If the underlying pavement has faults on the order of 6 mm (1/4 inch), a 25
mm (one-inch) thick layer of asphalt concrete can serve as the separation course. If the
underlying pavement is relatively smooth, an asphalt-based surface treatment can serve

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as the separation layer. The separation layer should provide a smooth and level
surface for overlay placement.

10-4 PARTIALLY BONDED OVERLAYS. Partial bonding is appropriate when an

overlay is to be placed on a structurally sound pavement. This type of overlay is
especially useful for increasing the load-carrying ability of an existing pavement before it
becomes structurally distressed. Concrete surfaces that are to receive partially-bonded
overlays will be thoroughly cleaned of dirt and other foreign material, loose or spalled
concrete, extruding joint seal, bituminous patches, and material that would break the
bond between the concrete layers. Different areas of pavement will require different
treatment. The condition of the existing pavement will determine the cleanup measures
necessary. Normally, sandblasting or surface-abrading equipment will be required to
remove material adhering to the surface, and hand scaling of loose or spalled material
will be required. In areas where oil or grease is present on the surface, scrubbing with a
detergent and a wire brush may be required. Cleaning of surfaces to receive the
overlay with rotary grinding equipment will be permitted, but the surface must be swept
clean prior to placing the concrete overlay. Special treatments, such as acid washing of
the prepared surface or the use of grout as a bonding course, will not be required for
partially bonded overlays. Slab reinforcement may be incorporated into the overlay to
traverse isolated random cracks in the underlying pavement. Joints should be cut to
match the joints in the underlying pavement.

10-5 BONDED OVERLAYS.

10-5.1 General. Bonded overlays are useful for resurfacing structurally sound
pavements that are only in need of improved texture (e.g. to cover scaling) or riding
quality (e.g. to improve skid-resistance). Bonded overlays also offer a viable solution to
resurfacing problems where increasing the thickness of the existing pavement may be
critical. The existing pavement must be in good structural condition, and any broken or
otherwise defective slabs will be repaired or replaced before the overlay is applied. A
complete bond must be obtained between the rigid pavement and the overlay. The
thickness of the overlay will be not less than 50 mm (2 inches) but not more than 125
mm (5 inches). The required thickness of a thin bonded overlay for strengthening roads
and streets will be determined in accordance with UFC 3-260-02, chapter 19.

10-5.2 Surface Preparation. The goal is to attain a clean and rough surface that
facilitates bond between the overlay and the existing pavement. Surface p reparation
involves three steps: repair, roughening, and cleaning. Repairs are necessary in areas
where material is unsound or missing (e.g. localized spalls). Roughening the surface is
necessary to remove laitance and to improve bond. Roughening can be achieved by
shot-blasting or scarifying (preferably by a rotary-type grinder). Shot-blasting is
appropriate when the surface of concrete is of high quality. When shot-blasting, care
must be exercised to keep shot from getting lodged into open joints. Scarifying is
appropriate when the top 6 mm (1/4 inch) or more of the concrete surface must be
removed in order to expose sound concrete. As the final step of roughening, the surface
should be sand-blasted or water-blasted to remove remaining debris. After roughing the
surface, it must be cleaned by sweeping, following by air-blasting. Air-blasting
equipment should be equipped with filters to prevent the spraying of compressor oil on

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the freshly cleaned surface. Once the surface is prepared, care must be taken to avoid
contamination. This includes covering the existing prepared slab with protective
sheeting to avoid oil and other drippings from equipment. If turning traffic must drive on
cleaned areas, these areas must be sand-blasted and cleaned again. Otherwise tire
rubber that has been scrubbed into the pavement surface can serve as a bond -breaker.

10-5.3 Bonding Agent. Either a neat cement slurry or cement and sand grout is
satisfactory for bonding the overlay to the existing surface. These may be applied by
pressure spraying or by brooming over the existing surface, but they should be applied
to a dry surface. The bonding agent should be applied just far enough ahead of the
paving operation to avoid delaying the paver. The bonding agent shall be applied in a
thin even coating. The coating should be about 1.5 to 6 mm (0.06 to 0.25 inches) thick.
If the grout or slurry dries before concrete is placed, it should be removed and fresh
material applied.

10-5.4 Materials. Although the volume of concrete required for a bonded overlay
can be small compared to most paving jobs, this surface layer must be of the highest
possible quality because it is exposed to traffic and weathering. The flexural strength for
bonded overlays should be about the same as that obtained for the original pavement
construction. Because these slabs are thin, reinforcement is generally not used. Cracks
in the existing pavement with intermediate severity can be expected to reflect through
the resurfacing. Joints in the overlay must coincide with the joints in the underlying
pavement. Joints in these thin, bonded overlays should be cut through their full
thickness to prevent the build -up of compressive forces and the subsequent debonding,
which could occur during the thermal expansion of slabs.

10-6 PLACEMENT, FINISHING, AND CURING. For resurfacing, these operations

are generally the same as or similar to those used for new concrete pavements.

10-7 CONTROL OF CRACKING. Considerable difficulty has been experienced with

uncontrolled cracking of overlay pavements at contraction joints. This cracking is likely
to occur during hot weather when the temperature of the existing pavement is
appreciably higher than that of the concrete being placed in the overlay. Contraction
due to cooling of the base pavement results in movement at the existing joint, which
may start a crack in the bottom of the overlay as the concrete hardens. This cracking
may occur when the concrete is too green to saw. Often the crack is not visible at the
surface of the pavement when the sawing is done. To prevent such cracking, it may be
necessary to use inserts in the plastic concrete to form contraction joints.

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CHAPTER 11

JOINTS

11-1 GENERAL. Joints are constructed in concrete pavement to permit contraction

and expansion of a pavement without irregular cracking and as a construction expedient
to separate the paved area into strips necessary for handling and p lacing of concrete.
All joints will be perpendicular to the finished grade of the pavement and straight and
continuous from edge to edge or end to end. The joint alignment will have no abrupt
offset and no gradual deviation greater than 12 mm (1/2 inch). There are three general
types of joints: construction, expansion, and contraction.

11-2 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS.

11-2.1 Longitudinal Construction Joints. These joints are formed between paving
lanes at the spacing indicated. They will be either thickened edge, keyed, keyed and
tied, or doweled. The dimensions of the keyed joint are critical. It is essential that both
key dimensions and the location of the key in the joint conform to details on drawings.
Key dimensions are based on pavement thickness with each thickness requiring a
different key size. When stationary forms are used, metal molds for forming the keyway
will be securely fastened to the concrete forms so that paving operations will not
displace the molds. When slipform pavers are used to form keyed joints, the keyway
shall be formed by means of pre-formed metal keyway liners, which are inserted during
paving. The metal liners may be shaped as they are fed through the paver from
continuous strips, or they may be pre-formed sections bolted together before insertion
through the paver. It is recommended that the metal liners be left in place. When
slipform pavers are used to form keyed and tied joints, bent tie bars shall be inserted
into the plastic unconsolidated concrete through a metal keyway line r as described
above. The bent bars should be inspected to ensure that the radius of curvature at the
bend is equal to or greater than the specified minimum radius of curvature for the grade
steel. The tie bars shall be straightened after the concrete has hardened. When two -
piece tie bars are approved for use in lieu of bent bars, the bar sections that are
installed first shall be secured by brackets to ensure that the specified bar alignment is
obtained. When stationary forms are used, all dowels will be installed by the bonded-in-
place method. Either one-piece dowels or split dowels of the threaded type will be used.
Dowels will be held accurately and securely in place by fastening to the forms.
Automatic dowel inserters may be used on highway construction. All airfield dowel
construction will be by the drilling and bonding method. When slipform pavers are used,
dowels shall be placed by bonding the dowels into holes drilled into the hardened
concrete with rotary core-type drills that can be maintained in a position parallel to the
surface of the pavement and perpendicular to the face of the edge of the slab. Some
low impact energy hydraulic and electropneumatic drills have been used to successfully
drill dowel holes without spalling the concrete. These and similar types of drills can be
allowed if the contractor is able to satisfactorily drill the specified holes without undue
spalling around the hole. The diameter of the hole should be larger than the diameter of
the dowel bar but should not be more tha n 1/8 inch larger than the diameter of the
dowel bar. The contractor will be required to demonstrate to the contracting officer that

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the dowels can be securely bonded and proper alignment can be attained. Continuous
inspection will be required thereafter to insure that the dowels are securely bonded and
that they are aligned properly both horizontally and vertically. The method used for
inserting the epoxy-resin grout into the hole shall place sufficient grout to completely
anchor the dowel.

11-2.2 Transverse construction joints. When concrete placement is stopped or

interrupted for 30 minutes or longer, these joints are installed across the pavement lane.
Insofar as practicable, these joints will be installed at the location of a planned joint.

11-3 EXPANSION JOINTS. When expansion joints are required within a pavement,
joint assemblies supporting both joint filler and dowels will be installed before placing
concrete. Accurate location and alignment of joint filler and dowels are necessary for
proper functioning of joints. Since checking of embedded items in joints installed within
a paving lane is extremely difficult, it is essential that assemblies used for supporting
embedded items be rigidly constructed and capable of resisting all movement and
distortion during paving operations. Great care and continuous inspection are required
during placing and finishing of concrete near joints to avoid displacement of joint filler
and dowels. Additional hand vibration will be required around the joint assemblies to
insure adequate consolidation. The contractor is required to provide a template for
checking the position of the dowels.

11-4 CONTRACTION JOINTS.

11-4.1 General. Contraction joints use a groove to form a weakened plane in the
concrete, as the concrete undergoes shrinkage, a fracture forms through the concrete
below the groove. Load transfer is provided by aggregate interlock in the fracture plane
below the joint groove or by an aggregate interlock and dowels. Where dowels are
required across transve rse contraction joints, suitable dowel-supporting assemblies will
be used and care taken to assure proper alignment of dowels in the completed
pavement. Requirements for dowel supports have been discussed in paragraph 7-3.
Where tie bars are required in lo ngitudinal contraction joints, suitable supporting devices
will be provided for holding tie bars in place during paving operations, or the bars may
be installed in front of the paver by insertion into the unconsolidated, freshly placed
concrete. The device for inserting the bars shall be mounted on the paver and will
automatically insert the bars to the specified depth and at the required spacing.

11-4.2 Joint Types. Contraction joints may be constructed by sawing a groove in

hardened concrete or installing a suitable insert in freshly placed concrete. Inserts will
not be used on airfield pavements without the prior approval of AFCESA. Filler-type
joints may be approved for longitudinal contraction joints when it is demonstrated that
these joints can be properly installed with vibratory equipment. The filler must be
maintained in a vertical position and in proper alignment in the finished pavement. The
filler-type joint forms a weakened plane in the freshly placed concrete, which induces
fracturing of concrete at the joint, permits continuous curing of pavement, and provides
protection for the joint until removed or depressed in preparation for the sealing of joints.
Sawing of joints eliminates manipulation of freshly placed concrete after placement and
provides the best conditions for obtaining a smooth surface at the joint. However,

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sawing time is critical, and cracking will occur at the wrong place if the joints are not
sawed at the proper time. Although sawed joints have been used successfully on many
projects, excessive cracking has occurred in some instances. This is usually due to
delayed sawing. When sawing cannot be accomplished without undue uncontrolled
cracking due to unusual conditions, provisions shall be made for using inserts.

11-4.3 Installation of Insert-Type Joints. Insert-type joints will be installed

immediately after all machine -finishing operations are completed. The machine for
installing the insert shall have a vibratory bar that cuts a groove in concrete and
simultaneously installed an insert in required locations. The intensity of vibration on the
bar will be variable as necessary to form the groove in the freshly mixed concrete and to
consolidate the concrete around the insert after it is in place. Inserts must be the proper
depth for the concrete being placed because the load transfer between the slabs
depends on the interlock of aggregate below the formed portion of the joint and material
that is not deep enough will not produce cracking at the proper location. Insert material
must be placed flush with the surface to not more than 1/8 inch below the surface. The
surface of the pavement will be finished with a vibratory float; hand floating will not be
permitted. When finishing concrete after installation of the insert, an excessive amount
of fine material must not be worked to the surface and adjacent to the insert. Excessive
fines will cause scaling of the surface and spalling of the joint.

11-4.4 Sawing of Transverse Contraction Joints.

11-4.4.1 Method. Transverse and longitudinal contraction joints shall be

constructed to conform to details and dimensions indicated. Saw cuts shall be made to
the depth indicated to insure that cracking occurs as planned. Joints shall be
constructed by sawing a groove in the hardened concrete with a power-driven saw.

11-4.4.2 Time. No definite time for sawing joints can be specified because of the
many factors that may influence the rate of hardening of concrete such as air and
concrete temperatures during placement, ambient temperatures, weather conditions,
curing and protection, cement content, and mix characteristics. The basic rule for
satisfactory sawing is: “Be prepared to saw as soon as the concrete is ready for sawing
regardless of the time of day or night. ” During warm weather, whe n most pavements
are constructed, the concrete usually will be ready for sawing about 6 to 12 hours after
placing. Since concrete is placed mainly during daylight hours, a large portion of sawing
will have to be done at night, and adequate lighting must be provided for this purpose.
Although a clean, sharp cut is desirable, a small amount of raveling at the top of the saw
cut is not objectionable when early sawing is necessary to avoid uncontrolled cracking.
Sawing too early, however, will be guarded against to prevent excessive washing and
undercutting of concrete in the joint. The proper time for sawing the joints will be
determined for prevailing conditions on the job during each concrete placement. Since
conditions may change from day to day, it is essential that the saw operator be
experienced in sawing pavement joints.

11-4.4.3 Sawing Sequence. Transverse joints will be sawed consecutively in the

same sequence as the concrete is placed in the lane. Sawing of alternate joints in the
pavement is undesirable because concrete tends to tear ahead of the saw cut when

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intermediate joints are sawed. This procedure also reduces the uniformity of fracturing
of joints, which may result in excessive opening at some joints. Before sawing each
joint, the concrete will be examined closely for cracks, and the joints will not be sawed if
a crack has occurred near the joint. Sawing will be discontinued in any joint where a
crack develops ahead of the saw cut.

11-4.4.4 Cuts. All areas of curing compound damaged by the sawing operation will
be resprayed. A cord will be placed in the saw cut to retard evaporation of moisture.

11-5 SPECIAL JOINTS. The special joint shown in figure 11-1 for placing new
concrete pavement adjacent to old concrete pavement requires special care. The
concrete placed under the old pavement must be thoroughly vibrated and must not be
placed too rapidly or air voids will form under the old pavement. Use of a water-reducing
admixture to improve workability may be helpful. Proper construction of this joint
requires special inspection of construction technique. An alternate method of providing
a load-transferring joint when abutting old and new concrete pavements is to drill and
grout dowel bars into the vertical face of the old pavement.

11-6 SEALING JOINTS. The sealing of joints in concrete pavements serves two
functions. It prevents water intrusion into the pavement structure and prevents debris
retention in the joint opening. Water intrusion can lead to a weakening of the base or
subgrade material. The weakened structure may lead to load related pave ment
distresses such as corner breaks, pumping, and shattered slabs. Debris and
incompressibles retained in the joint opening can decrease the joint's effectiveness and
can lead to spalling and/or blow-ups of the concrete pavement. Therefore, a properly
applied joint sealant provides a longer lasting concrete pavement and reduces
maintenance costs. The materials and procedures recommended for sealing joints in
concrete pavements are presented in TM 5 -822-11. The referenced manual discusses
three types of sealing materials: field -molded, hot-applied sealants, field-molded, cold-
applied sealants, and preformed elastomeric seals.

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Figure 11-1. Special Joint Between New and Existing Pavements.

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CHAPTER 12

QUALITY CONTROL AND ASSURANCE

12-1 RESPONSIBILITIES. Typically, the contractor is required to provide at his/her

expense, testing for both quality control and acceptability of work, including tests on
both fresh and hardened concrete. The contractor shall furnish all materials, labor, and
facilities required for molding, curing, testing, and protecting test specimens at the site
and in the laboratory. A commercial testing laboratory, which has been inspected by the
Government and approved in writing, will perform the sampling and testing. The
laboratory will conform to ASTM C 1077 (CRD-C 553).

12-2 CERTIFICATION. All contractor quality control personnel assigned to concrete

construction shall be ACI certified workmen. The individuals who sample and test
concrete or the constituents of concrete shall be certified as ACI Concrete Field Testing
Technicians, Grade I. The individuals who perform the inspection of concrete in the field
shall be certified as ACI Concrete Construction Inspector, Level II. The foreman or lead
journeyman of the finishing crew shall have ACI certification as a concrete flatwork
technician/finisher. The contracting officer has the option to approve people without
these certifications if they demonstrate that other training has provided knowledge and
abilities equivalent to the ACI minimum requirements for certification.

12-3 TESTING BY THE GOVERNMENT. During construction, the government will

sample and test concrete and ingredient materials as considered appropriate. The
contractor shall provide facilities and labor as may be necessary for procuring
representative test samples.

12-4 TESTING BY THE CONTRACTOR. During construction, the contractor shall be

responsible for sampling and testing aggregates, cementitious materials (cement,
GGBF slag, and pozzolan), and concrete to determine compliance with specifications.
All sampling and testing shall be performed by an approved commercial laboratory, or
for cementitious materials, the manufacturer's laboratory. A list of prequalified cement
and pozzolan sources is available from the Commander, U.S. Army Engineer Research
and Development Center (ATTN: ERDC-SL-MS), 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg,
Mississippi 39180-6199.

12-4.1 Concrete Plant. Samples will be taken at the concrete plant for determining
aggregate grading for fine aggregate and each size of coarse aggregate shall be taken
as the aggregate bins discharge into the weigh hoppers. Results of tests on aggregates
shall be used to control aggregate production and concreting operations. The
contractor is required to test fine and coarse aggregate grading at least once during
each shift when the concrete plant is operating, in accordance with ASTM C 136 (CRD-
C 103).

12-4.2 Inspection Before Placing Concrete. Prior to each paving operation, the
contractor shall inspect underlying materials, construction joint faces, forms, reinforcing,
dowels, and embedded items. These inspections will be conducted in sufficient time for

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the contractor to certify the quality and readiness of these items to the contracting
officer.

12-4.3 Slump and Air Content. The contractor shall obtain concrete samples in the
field to determine slump, air content, and strength. Air content and slump tests will be
conducted when strength test specimens are fabricated. In addition, for each 8-hour
period of paving and for each concrete mixture type, the contractor will conduct at least
two other air content tests and at least four other slump tests. Each of these additional
tests will be conducted on a randomly selected batch of concrete. Similar tests will be
conducted on different concrete batches. The air content shall be determined in
accordance with ASTM C 231 (CRD-C 41). Slump tests shall be made in accordance
with ASTM C 143 (CRD-C 5). Samples for determining air content and slump and for
fabricating strength specimens shall be taken in accordance with ASTM C 172 (CRD-C
4) during or immediately following delivery of the concrete at the paving site and
deposition of the concrete immediately in front of the paver or transfer spreader.
Equipment for making air-content and slump tests will be furnished by the contractor.

12-4.3.1 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete. The conventional slump test is not an

effective evaluation of workability for fiber-reinforced concrete. Either Vebe or inverted
cone tests are superior to the conventional slump tests. ACI 544.2R should be
consulted whenever tests for fiber-reinforced concrete are planned.

12-4.4 Inspections During Placement. During concrete p lacement, the placing

foreman shall be responsible for measuring and recording concrete temperatures,
hourly ambient temperatures, weather conditions, time of placement, volume of
concrete placed, methods of placement, and any problems encountered.

12-4.5 Inspection of Curing Procedures. At least twice each shift, and not less
than four times per day (never more than 7 hours apart) on both work and non-work
days, an inspection shall be made of all areas subject to moist curing. The surface
moisture condition shall be noted and recorded. The contractor is responsible for
verifying that membrane curing compound is properly mixed prior to its application. At
the end of each day's operation, the contractor shall report average rate of coverage
and uniformity of the applications. At least once each shift and once per day on non-
working days, the contractor shall inspect impervious sheets that are used for curing.
The condition of the covering and the tightness of laps and taped edges shall be
recorded.

12-5 ACCEPTANCE, REJECTION, AND PAY REDUCTION.

12-5.1 Lot Size. A lot will be that quantity of construction that will be evaluated for
compliance with specification requirements. When the total job does not exceed 375 m3
(500 yd 3 ), the lot size becomes the total job. For larger jobs, the lot size can be
specified on the basis of time (i.e., 4 hours, 1 day, etc.) or amount of production (i.e.,
500 yd 3, 1000 yd 3, etc.). Normally, it is most practical for field people if a lot is made
equal to one shift, b ut not over 10 hours. If the lot size is based on the amount of
production, it should be selected to be approximately equal to the amount of concrete
pavement produced in one shift (one day) of operation. The lot size should never

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exceed 750 m3 (1000 yd 3 ) of concrete pavement. For acceptance testing, grade and
surface smoothness (and condition) determinations will be made on the lot as a whole.
In order to evaluate thickness, each lot will be divided into four equal-sized sublots.

12-5.1.1 Partial Lots. When operational conditions cause a lot to be terminated

before the specified four sublots have been completed, the following procedure shall be
used to adjust the lot size and number of tests for the lot. Where three sublots have
been completed, they shall constitute a lot and acceptance criteria adjusted accordingly.
Where one or two sublots have been completed, they shall be incorporated into the next
lot or the previous lot, as directed, and the total number of sublots shall be used and
acceptance criteria adjusted accordingly.

12-5.2 Payments. Typically, payments are based on the volume of concrete placed.
Concrete will be measured in-place in the completed and accepted pavement. When
appropriate, contract specifications may require that concrete be measured and paid for
on a square-yard basis. For example, most thin-bonded overlays have been paid for by
square yards. Whether concrete is paid for on a square-yard or cubic-yard basis, the
unit-price schedule for bidding purposes will be prepared to show separate estimated
quantities for different pavement thicknesses that may be required. No payment will be
made for wasted materials or for any material used for the convenience of the
contractor. In addition to accounting for some or all of the concrete materials, the unit
price for concrete must include slab steel and all joint materials.

12-5.3 Failure to Meet Requirements. When a lot of material fails to meet the
specification requirements, that lot will be accepted at a reduced price or shall be
removed and replaced. Removal and replacement shall be conducted with no
additional cost to the government. The lowest computed percent payment determined
for any pavement characteristic (i.e., thickness, grade, and surface smoothness)
discussed below shall be the actual percent payment for that lot. The actual percent
payment will be applied to the bid price and the quantity of concrete placed in the lot to
determine actual payment. Thickness, grade, and smoothness will all be included when
evaluating work for payment adjustments. Strength and edge slump will be evaluated,
but will not be considered for payment adjustment.

12-5.4 Additional Testing. The Contracting Officer reserves the right to direct
additional samples and tests for any area appearing to deviate from the specification
requirements. Testing in these areas will be in addition to the sublot or lot testing, and
the requirements for these areas will be the same as those for a sublot or lot, but shall
be at no additional cost to the Government.

12-5.5 Edge Slump and Joint Face Deformation. Requirements for edge slump
and joint face deformation will be included in the specification if the following two
conditions apply: slipform paving is allowed and some pavements slabs have
thicknesses greater than or equal to 250 mm (10 inches). Both of these problems are
possible when pavements are thick and when pavement edges are left unsupported
during curing. These tests will be performed immediately after the concrete has
hardened sufficiently to permit walking thereon. Edge slump refers to the downward
movement that occurs during slipform paving as the plastic concrete leaves the sliding

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form. Joint face deformation refers to deviations from flat and vertical slab edges.
These measurements will not apply to lot pay adjustments. However, slabs with
excessive edge slump or with excessive joint face deformation will replaced.
Measurement procedures and measurement limits that serve to define "excessive" are
presented in the following paragraphs.

12-5.5.1 Edge Slump. When slip-form paving is used, not more than 15.0 percent
of the free edge of any slab, have an edge slump exceeding 6 mm (1/4 inch) and no
slab shall have an edge slump exceeding 9 mm (3/8 inch). Edge slump will be
measured using a straightedge along each free edge of the slip-form paving lane.
Measurements will be made with the straightedge perpendicular to the joint at 1.5 m (5
ft) to 4.5 m (15 ft) intervals. Initial measurements will be made at 1.5 m (5 ft) intervals.
If no deficiency exists, the interval can increase to but not exceed 4.5 m (15 ft).
Excessive slump is indicative of improper concrete mixture proportioning. If the concrete
mixture cannot be redesigned to overcome the edge slump problem, fixed form paving
will be used.

12-5.5.2 Joint Face Deformation. To ensure a true vertical joint face is attained,
additional tests along each joint in a paving lane shall be conducted. They include
longitudinal straightedge testing of the vertical face and vertical testing of the face for
smoothness and angle. Longitudinal straightedge measurements on the surface and
vertical face at intervals equal to one half the length of the straightedge. Vertical offset
measurements will be taken at 1.5 m (5 ft) intervals unless no deficiencies exist then the
interval can be increased to by not exceed 4.5 m (15 ft). The joint face specification
limits are presented in Table 12-1.

Table 12-1. Joint Face Specification Limits

Offset From Offset From

Straightedge Offset From Straightedge
Applied Longitudinally Straightedge Applied Abrupt
To Pavement Surface Applied Top to Bottom Offset Offset of Joint
Pavement 25 mm (1 inch) Back Longitudinally Against the In Any Face from True
Type From Joint Line To Vertical Face Joint Face Direction Vertical
8 mm per 100 mm
3 mm 6 mm 9 mm
Airfield 3 (1/8) (1 inch per 12
(1/8 inch) (1/4 inch) (3/8 inch)
inches)
3 mm 8 mm per 100 mm
6 mm 6 mm 9 mm
All Other (1/8 (1 inch per 12
(1/4 inch) (1/4 inch) (3/8 inch)
inch) inches)

12-5.6 Flexural Strength. Concrete for road pavements is normally proportioned on

the basis of 28-day strengths. Concrete for airfield pavements should be proportioned
and accepted on the basis of 90-day flexural strength. If necessitated by scheduling
time limits, however, the concrete can be proportioned on the basis of 28-day flexural
strength if approval is obtained from the TSMCX. Results of strength tests will be
evaluated for lot acceptance or rejection. These results will not be used for pay
adjustments. Any pavement not meeting the requirement for 'specified strength' shall be
removed and replaced at no additional cost to the Government.

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12-5.6.1 Compressive-to-Flexural Strength Relationship. Structural designs are
based on flexural strengths that the concrete is expected to obtain at 28 days for road
pavements and 90 days (typically) for airfield pavements. These ages are not adequate
for quality control and assurance in the field since a large amount of low-strength
concrete could be placed before strength tests on samples revealed the problem.
Therefore, correlations are established between both 7- and 14-day compressive
strengths and the 28- or 90–day flexural strength used in design. The 7 -day
compressive strength and its correlated flexural strength are used for contractor quality
control. The 14-day compressive strength and its correlated flexural strength are used
for quality assurance testing.

12-5.6.2 Compressive Strength Test Specimens. For each sublot (four sublots per
lot), one composite sample of concrete shall be obtained in accordance with ASTM C
172 (CRD-C 4) from one batch or truckload. From this sample, four 150 x 300 mm (6 x
12 in.) cylinders will be produced. Given that there are four sublots per lots, the
concrete in each lot will be represented by 16 cylinders. Eight of these cylinders will be
used for contractor QC compressive strength tests and eight will be used for QA
compressive strength tests. The QC cylinders will be tested at 7 days. The average 7 -
day compressive strength will be converted to a 90-day flexural strength, using the
correlation ratio developed during mixture proportioning. The QA cylinders will be
tested at 14 days. Their average compressive strength will be converted to a 90-day
flexural strength using the correlation ratio developed during mixture proportioning.
These values will be reported to the contracting officer daily and will be used for
material acceptance.

12-5.6.3 Flexural Strength Test Specimens. Flexural strength tests will be made on
molded beam specimens of 150 mm (6 inch) by 150 mm (6 inch) cross-sectional
dimensions in accordance with ASTM C 78 (CRD-C 16). Standardization of the test
specimen is necessary because of the variations in flexural strength obtained with
specimens of different sizes. The molded beam specimen must be used for all flexural
strength determinations in both the laboratory and the field. For every 2000 m3 (2500
yds3) of concrete on a project, two beams shall be fabricated with steel, watertight
molds for flexural strength testing. The beams shall be cured in accordance with ASTM
C 31/C 31M (CRD-C 11) and shall be tested at the specified age for the flexural
strength requirement. A comparison between these flexural strengths and the
compressive strengths of cylinders from the same batch can be used to verify the
correlation ratios originally developed during mixture proportioning.

12-5.6.4 Field-Cured Specimens. Ordinarily, no field-cured specimens will be

required. However, if the pavement needs to be opened to construction traffic prior to
14 days, concrete beams must be cured in the field, near the pavement, so they can be
tested at the time of needing to apply traffic. This is particularly important when
concrete is placed in cold weather. In this case, each test for flexural strength should
include at least three beams. The beams of each test group shall be made from a
single batch of concrete and shall be cured in accordance with ASTM C 31 (CRD-C 11).

12-5.7 Smoothness. Surface smoothness evaluation testing may include either or

both the straightedge method and the profilograph method. Generally, the designer

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should require the use of a profilograph, especially for pavements that will serve high-
speed traffic. If the profilograph method is allowed, it shall be used for all longitudinal
testing and for transverse runs greater than 60 m (200 ft). For all runs less 60 m (200
ft), the straightedge method will be used.

12-5.7.1 Requirements. The finished surfaces of pavements shall have no abrupt

changes of 3 mm (1/8 in.) or more. Straightedge measurements on airfields and heavy-
duty pavements will be conducted with an approved 4-m (12-ft) straightedge.
Smoothness requirements depend on pavement category and direction of testing
(longitudinal or transverse). The smoothness requirements and the detailed
measurement procedures are presented in the following paragraphs.

12-5.7.2 Profilograph. The profilograph used should be a California type

profilograph. Other types of profilographs cannot be used interchangeably because of
differences in the dimensions of the machines. The longitudinal lines of measurement
are generally taken through the centerline of the slabs and also at the 1/8 points from
each edge of the slabs. Transversely, the lines of measurement should be down the
centerline of each slab, provided that they are no more than 15 ft apart. The
profilograph shall meet the requirements as given in the California Test Method 526.
This method provides information on equipment, operation, and determination of the
Profile Index (PI). The profilograph may use either a manual (paper) or electrical
recording device. Whether computed manually or by computer the output should
provide data indicating “must grind” locations and depths required and provide the PI for
the pavement. This information should be determined using a “blanking band” 5 mm
(0.2 in) wide and a “bump template” spanning 25 mm (1 in), with an offset of 10 mm (0.4
in). The profilograph surface smoothness requirements are provided in Table 12-2.

Table 12-2. Profilograph Surface Smoothness Requirements

Maximum Specified
Direction of Profile Index, mm per km
Pavement Category Testing (inches per mile)
Runways Longitudinal 110 (7)
Transverse 140 (9)
Taxiways Longitudinal 140 (9)
Transverse Use Straightedge
Calibration Hardstands and Longitudinal Use Straightedge
Compass Swinging Bases Transverse Use Straightedge
All Other Airfield and Longitudinal 140 (9)
Helicopter Paved Areas Transverse 140 (9)
Roads and Streets Longitudinal 140 (9)
Transverse Use Straightedge
Tank Hardstands, Parking Longitudinal 175 (11)
Areas, Open Storage Areas Transverse 175 (11)

12-5.7.3 Straightedge. For airfields, the straightedge should be 12 ft in length. For

roadways, the straightedge can be 10 ft or 12 ft in length. The surface irregularity is
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determined by allowing the straightedge to rest freestanding (unleveled) on the
pavement surface. The deviation from the surface for that location becomes the
maximum measured gap between the pavement and the straightedge anywhere along
its length. The longitudinal and transverse lines of measurement for a straightedge are
the same as those used for a profilograph. To travel between successive straightedge
measurements, it should be moved ahead one -half its length. One advantage to using
a straightedge, especially for transverse measurements, is that measurements can be
made on individual slabs or rows of slabs as construction progresses. The straightedge
surface smoothness requirements are provided in Table 12-3.

Table 12-3. Straightedge Surface Smoothness Requirements

Pavement Category Direction of Testing Limits, mm (inches)

Runways and Taxiways Longitudinal 3 (1/8)
Transverse 6 (1/4)
Calibration Hardstands & Longitudinal 3 (1/8)
Compass Swinging Bases Transverse 3 (1/8)
All Other Airfield and Longitudinal 6 (1/4)
Helicopter Paved Areas Transverse 6 (1/4)
Roads and Streets Longitudinal 5 (3/16)
Transverse 6 (1/4)
Tank Hardstands, Parking Longitudinal 6 (1/4)
Areas, Open Storage Areas Transverse 6 (1/4)

12-5.8 Plan grade. Within 5 days after paving of each lot, the finished surface of the
pavement area in each lot shall be tested by the Contractor, in the presence of a
representative of the Contracting officer. Testing will involve running grade lines and
elevations at intervals corresponding with every longitudinal and transverse joint to
determine the elevation at each joint intersection. Plan grade shall be checked on the lot
as a whole. The finished surfaces of pavements shall conform, within the tolerances for
lines, grades, and cross sections specified. The finish surfaces for an airfield runway,
taxiway, or apron shall not vary more than 12 mm (1/2 inch) above or below the plan
grade. The surfaces of other pavements shall vary not more than 18 mm (3/4 inch).
Findings from these tests can justify acceptance, acceptance at reduced pay, or
rejection for a lot.

12-5.9 Thickness. Each lot of pavement will be evaluated for acceptance and
payment adjustment in accordance with the following procedure. The Contractor shall
be responsible for drilling the cores, measuring the cores in the presence of the
Contracting Officer's representative, and for filling the core holes as directed. For each
sublot, two cores that are between 75 and 150 mm (3 and 6 in.) in diameter shall be
drilled from the pavement. If these same cores are to be used for compressive strength
(ASTM C 39, CRD-C 14) or splitting tensile strength tests (ASTM C 496, CRD-C 77), a
150 mm (6-in.) diameter core will be drilled. Thickness shall be determined in
accordance with ASTM C 174/C 174M (CRD-C 27). The location of all samples shall be
deliberately selected on a truly random basis, not haphazard, using commonly

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recognized methods of assuring randomness, employing randomizing tables or
computer programs, in accordance with ASTM D 3665 (CRD-C 172). The average
thickness will be used to determine whether the lot should be accepted or rejected and
also the percent payment (if it applies) as identified in the specifications.

12-6 AREAS DEFECTIVE IN GRADE OR SMOOTHNESS. In areas not meeting

the specified limits for surface smoothness and plan grade, high areas shall be reduced
to attain the required smoothness and grade, except as restricted below. After the
concrete is at least 14 days old, grinding with an approved surface-grinding machine
can be used to smooth the surface. The area corrected by grinding the surface of the
hardened concrete shall not exceed 5 percent of the area of any integral slab, and shall
not exceed 1 percent of the total area of any sublot. The depth of grinding shall not
exceed 6 mm (1/4 inch). All pavement areas requiring plan grade or surface
smoothness corrections in excess of the limits specified above, shall be removed and
replaced. If grinding is conducted in pavement areas that have a wire comb or tined
texture, and the affected area exceeds 2 m2 (25 ft2), the pavement shall be retextured
by transverse grooving. The final surface of the repaired area must retain the required
skid resistance of the surrounding pavement.

12-7 REPAIRING RANDOM CRACKS. Grooving and sealing or epoxy sealing of

random cracks, filling of non-working contraction joints, repairing of spans along joints
and cracks, and removing a nd replacing of broken slabs that occur in non-reinforced
concrete pavements during construction will be accomplished according to the
requirements in the contract specification. Additional and supplemental information is
provided in TM 5 -822-9, ETL 97-2, UFC 3-270-04, or UFC 3-270-03.

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APPENDIX A

REFERENCES

1. Department of Defense

TM 5-822-5/AFM 88-7, Chap. 1, Pavement Design for Roads, Streets, Walks,

and Open-Storage Areas, Departments of the Army and Air Force,

TM 5-822-9/AFM 88-6, Chap. 10, Repair of Rigid Pavements Using Epoxy-Resin

Grouts, Mortars, and Concrete, Departments of the Army and Air Force,

ER 1110-1-8100, Engineering and Design - Laboratory Investigations and

Testing, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1997

ETL 1110-3-435, Drainage Layers for Pavements, U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers, 1992

ETL 1110-3-475, Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement Design and

Compaction, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1995

ETL 97-5, Proportioning Concrete Mixtures with Graded Aggregates for Rigid
Pavement Airfields, U.S. Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency, 1997

CEGS 02714, Drainage Layer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1997

CEGS 02721. Subbase Courses, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1997.

CEGS 02722, Aggregate and/or Graded-Crushed Aggregate Base Course, U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers, 1998.

CEGS 02753, Concrete Pavement for Airfields and Other Heavy-Duty

Pavements, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1997

CEGS 02754, Concrete Pavements for Small Projects, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, 1997.

CEGS 02755, Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) Pavement, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, 1998.

CEGS 02760, Field Molded Sealants for Sealing Joints in Rigid Pavements, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, 1997.

CEGS 02762, Compression Joint Seals for Concrete Pavements, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, 1998.

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MIL-STD-621, Test Method for Pavement Subgrade, Subbase, and Base-Course
Materials Departments of the Army and the Air Force

CRD-C 5-92, Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 8-96, Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by
the Volumetric Method, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 10-97, Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test
Specimens in the Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 13-97, Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete,

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 16-94 Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using
Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading) , U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 20-94, Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid

Freezing and Thawing, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 31-97, Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete, U.S. Army

Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 40-94 Standard Test Method for Critical Dilation of Concrete Specimens
Subjected to Freezing, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 47-94, Standard Method of Test for Scaling Resistance of Concrete

Surfaces Exposed to Deicing Chemicals, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 52-97, Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete or

Mortar Surfaces by the Rotating-Cutter Method, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 55-92 Test Method for Within-Batch Uniformity of Freshly Mixed

Concrete, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 57-97, Standard Practice for Petrographic Examination of Hardened

Concrete, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 87-93, Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete,

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 88-93, Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Use in

Producing Flowing Concrete, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 99-89, Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavy-
weight, and Mass Concrete, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

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CRD-C 104-80, Method of Calculation of the Fineness Modulus of Aggregate,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 108-94 Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine
Aggregate, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 114-97, Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Freezing and

Thawing of Concrete Specimens, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 115-94, Standard Practice for Evaluation of Frost Resistance of Coarse

Aggregates in Air-Entrained Concrete by Critical Dilation Procedures, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 117-91, Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small-

Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 119-91, Standard Method of Test for Flat or Elongated Particles in

Coarse Aggregate, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 120-94, Test Method for Flat and Elongated Particles in Fine Aggregate,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 123-92, Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reacti vity of Cement-
Aggregate Combinations (Mortar-Bar Method), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 127-92 Standard Practice for Petrographic Examination of Aggregates for

Concrete, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 133-94, Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates, U.S. Army

Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 137-92 Standard Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of

Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 145-91 Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Large-

Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 146-93, Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of

Carbonate Rocks for Concrete Aggregates (Rock Cylinder Method), U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 174-94 Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of

Aggregates (Mortar-Bar Method), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

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CRD-C 201-97, Standard Specification for Portland Cement, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers

CRD-C 203-96, Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements [Metric],

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ASTM C 595-95a)

CRD-C 204-97, Standard Specification for Expansive Hydraulic Cement, U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 211-97, Standard Test Method for Length Change of -Hydraulic-Cement

Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 232-96, Standard Test Method for Potential Expansion of Portland-

Cement Mortars Exposed to Sulfate, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 255-97, Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 257-91, Standard Test Method for Effectiveness of Mineral Admixtures or

Ground Blast- Furnace Slag in Preventing Excessive Expansion of Concrete Due
to the Alkali- Silica Reaction, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 300-90, Corps of Engineers Specifications for Membrane-Forming

Compounds for Curing Concrete, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 304-97, Standard Specification for Liquid Membrane -Forming

Compounds for Curing Concrete, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 310-97, Standard Specification for Sheet Materials for Curing Concrete,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 400-63, Requirements for Water for Use in Mixing or Curing Concrete,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 403-71, Method of Test for Determination of Sulfate Ion in Soils and
Water, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 408-93, Standard Test Methods for Sulfate Ion in Water, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers

CRD-C 553-97 Standard Practice for Laboratories Testing Concrete and

Concrete Aggregates for Use in Construction and Criteria for Laboratory
Evaluation, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

UFC 3-260-02, Pavement Design for Airfields

UFC 3-270-03, Concrete Crack and Partial Depth Spall Repair

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UFC 3-270-04, Concrete Repair

2. Environmental Protection Agency

40 CFR, Part 249, Guideline for Federal Procurement of Cement and Concrete
Containing Fly Ash Federal Register, Vol 48, No 20, January 28, 1983

3. American Concrete Institute (ACI)

ACI 201.2R-92: Guide to Durable Concrete

ACI 207.5R-99, Roller-Compacted Mass Concrete

ACI 211.1 -91 (Reapproved 1997), Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete

ACI 211.3 -97, Guide for Selecting Proportions for No-Slump Concrete

ACI 212.3R-91, Chemical Admixtures for Concrete

ACI 212.4R-93 (Reapproved 1998), Guide for Use of High-Range Water –

Reducing Admixtures (Superplasticizers) in Concrete

ACI 214-77 (Reapproved 1997), Recommended Practice for Evaluation of

Strength Test Results of Concrete

ACI 305R-91, Hot Weather Concreting

ACI 306R-88 (Reapproved 1997), Cold Weather Concreting

ACI 308-92 (Reapproved 1997), Standard Practice for Curing Concrete

ACI 544.1R-96, State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Concrete

ACI 544.2R-89 (Reapproved 1999), Measurement of Properties of Fiber

Reinforced Concrete

ACI 544.3R-93 (Reapproved 1998), Guide for Specifying, Proportioning, Mixing,

Placing, and Finishing Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

4. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

A 775/A 775M-00a, Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel

Bars

C 31/C 31M-00, Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test
Specimens in the Field
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C 33-01, Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates

C 78-94, Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple
Beam with Third-Point Loading)

C 88-99a, Standard Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium

Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate

C 94/C 94M-00e1, Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete

C 128-97, Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine
Aggregate

C 131-96, Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size

Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine

C 138-01, Standard Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Content
(Gravimetric) of Concrete

C 143/C 143M-00, Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement

Concrete

C 150-00, Standard Specification for Portland Cement

C 171-97a, Standard Specification for Sheet Materials for Curing Concrete

C 173-94ae1, Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete
by the Volumetric Method

C 192/C 192M-00, Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test
Specimens in the Laboratory

C 227-97a, Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement-

Aggregate Combinations (Mortar-Bar Method)

C 260-00, Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete

C 295-98, Standard Guide for Petrographic Examination of Aggregates for

Concrete

C 309-98a, Standard Specification for Liquid Membrane-Forming Compounds for

Curing Concrete

C 441-97e1, Standard Test Method for Effectiveness of Mineral Admixtures or

Ground Blast-Furnace Slag in Preventing Excessive Expansion of Concrete Due
to the Alkali-Silica Reaction

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C 452-95, Standard Test Method for Potential Expansion of Portland-Cement
Mortars Exposed to Sulfate

C 494/C 494M-99a, Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete

C 496-96, Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical

Concrete Specimens

C 535-96e1, Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Large-Size

Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine

C 586-99, Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Carbonate

Rocks for Concrete Aggregates (Rock Cylinder Method)

C 595-00ae1, Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements

C 618-00, Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural
Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Concrete

C 666-97, Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing

and Thawing

C 671-94, Standard Test Method for Critical Dilation of Concrete Specimens

Subjected to Freezing

C 672/C 672M-98, Standard Test Method for Scaling Resistance of Concrete

Surfaces Exposed to Deicing Chemicals

C 682-94, Standard Practice for Evaluation of Frost Resistance of Coarse

Aggregates in Air-Entrained Concrete by Critical Dilation Procedures

C 685/C 685M-00a, Standard Specification for Concrete Made By Volumetric

Batching and Continuous Mixing

C 845-96, Standard Specification for Expansive Hydraulic Cement

C 856-95e1, Standard Practice for Petrographic Examination of Hardened

Concrete

C 944-99, Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete or Mortar

Surfaces by the Rotating -Cutter Method

C 1012-95a, Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hydraulic-Cement

Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution

C 1017/C 1017M-98, Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Use in

Producing Flowing Concrete

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C 1077-00, Standard Practice for Laboratories Testing Concrete and Concrete
Aggregates for Use in Construction and Criteria for Laboratory Evaluation

C 1260-94, Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Aggregates

(Mortar-Bar Method)

D 516-90(1995)e1, Standard Test Method for Sulfate Ion in Water

D 558-96, Standard Test Methods for Moisture-Density Relations of Soil-Cement

Mixtures

D 2922-96e1, Standard Test Methods for Density of Soil and Soil-Aggregate in

Place by Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth)

D 4791-99, Standard Test Method for Flat Particles, Elongated Particles, or Flat
and Elongated Particles in Coarse Aggregate

E 670-94(2000), Standard Test Method for Side Force Friction on Paved

Surfaces Using the Mu-Meter

5. American Welding Society

AWS D1.4-79, Structural Welding Code - Reinforcing Steel

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APPENDIX B

U.S. AIR FORCE METHOD OF PROPORTIONING

CONCRETE MIXTURES WITH GRADED AGGREGATES

B-1
FROM: AFCESA/CES
139 Barnes Drive, Suite 1
Tyndall AFB FL 32403-5319

SUBJECT: Engineering Technical Letter (ETL) 97-5: Proportioning Concrete

Mixtures with Graded Aggregates for Rigid Airfield Pavements

1. Purpose. This ETL provides(1) a method for selecting an aggregate grading to use
in concrete mixtures for construction of Air Force rigid airfield pavements; and (2) an
implementing construction specification. This guidance is nonmandatory.

2. Application: All Air Force organizations with pavement construction responsibility.

2.1. Authority: AFI 32-1028, Standard Practice for Rigid Pavements (replaces
AFM 88-6CH6 and CH8).

2.2. Effective Date: Immediately.

2.3. Expiration: Five years from date of issue.

2.4. Ultimate Recipients:

• Air Force Base Civil Engineers, Red Horse Squadrons, and other units responsible
for design, construction, maintenance, and repair of pavements.
• Corps of Engineers and Navy offices responsible for Air Force design and construction.

3. Referenced Publications: Refer to Attachment 1, Chapter 5 and Attachment 2,

paragraph 1.1.

4. Procedure: Refer to Attachments 1 and 2.

5. Point of Contact: Mr. Jim Lafrenz, HQ AFCESA/CESC, DSN 523-6332,

commercial (904) 283-6332 or INTERNET lafrenzj@afcesa.af.mil.

William G. Schauz, Colonel, USAF 3 Atch

Director of Technical Support
1. Proportioning Concrete Mixture with
Graded Aggregates - A Handbook for
Rigid Airfield Pavements
2. USAF 02515, United States Air Force
Guide Specification -- Military Airfield
Construction
3. Distribution List

APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE: DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED

 PROPORTIONING CONCRETE MIXTURES
WITH GRADED AGGREGATES -
A HANDBOOK FOR RIGID AIRFIELD PAVEMENTS

Paragraph

Chapter 1--INTRODUCTION
Purpose.................................................................... ..... 1.1
Background.............................................................. ..... 1.2
Scope....................................................................... ..... 1.3

Chapter 2--MATERIALS
Coarse Aggregate.. ........................................................ 2.2
Composition....................................................... 2.2.2
Quality ............................................................... 2.2.3
Particle Shape .................................................... 2.2.4
Maximum Size ................................................... 2.2.5
Grading.............................................................. 2.2.6
Blending Sizes ............................................................... 2.3
Composition....................................................... 2.3.2
Quality ............................................................... 2.3.3
Particle Shape .................................................... 2.3.4
Fine Aggregate .............................................................. 2.4
Composition....................................................... 2.4.2
Quality ............................................................... 2.4.3
Grading.............................................................. 2.4.4
Cement.......................................................................... 2.5
Cement Source................................................... 2.5.3
Cement Content ................................................. 2.5.4
Water ............................................................................ 2.6
Water Cementitious Ratio .................................. 2.6.2
Mineral Admixtures (Fly Ash)........................................ 2.7
Chemical Admixtures..................................................... 2.8
Target Air Content ........................................................ 2.9

Chapter 3--COMBINED AGGREGATE GRADING

Percent Combined Aggregate Retained Graph................ 3.2
Coarseness Factor/Workability Factor............................ 3.3
Aggregate Proportioning Guide. .................................... 3.4

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Interpretation of Graphical Procedures........................... 3.5

Percent Combined Aggregate Retained............... 3.5.2
Fineness Modulus of the Fine Aggregate........................ 3.6

Chapter 4--MIX PROPORTIONING

Step 1. Estimation of Workability ................................. 4.2
Step 2. Nominal Maximum Size of Coarse Aggregate ... 4.3
Step 3. Estimation of Cementitious Material Content .... 4.4
Step 4. Estimation of Air Content ................................. 4.5
Step 5. Coarse and Fine Aggregate as Single Aggregate
Blend................................................................ 4.6
Step 6. Weighted Average Specific Gravity of Aggregate
Blend................................................................ 4.7
Step 7. Estimation of Optimum Water Cementitious
Material Ratio................................................... 4.8
Step 8. Fresh Concrete Unit Mass in Kilograms per
Cubic Meter...................................................... 4.9
Step 9. Estimation of Combined Aggregate Amount.... . 4.10
Step 10. Adjustments for Aggregate Moisture............... 4.11
Step 11. Trial Batch Adjustments.................................. 4.12
Step 12. Field Trials...................................................... 4.13

Chapter 5--REFERENCES

Chapter 6--SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS

Example No. 1............................................................... 6.1
General Description............................................ 6.11
Step 1 ................................................................ 6.2.1
Step 2 ................................................................ 6.2.2
Step 3 ................................................................ 6.2.3
Step 4 ................................................................ 6.2.4
Step 5 ................................................................ 6.2.5
Step 6 ................................................................ 6.2.6
Step 7 ................................................................ 6.2.7
Step 8 ................................................................ 6.2.8
Step 9 ................................................................ 6.2.9
Step 10 .............................................................. 6.2.10
Step 11 .............................................................. 6.2.11
Step 12 .............................................................. 6.2.12

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Example No. 2............................................................... 6.3

General Description............................................ 6.3.1
Step 1 ................................................................ 6.4.1
Step 2 ................................................................ 6.4.2
Step 3 ................................................................ 6.4.3
Step 4 ................................................................ 6.4.4
Step 5 ................................................................ 6.4.5
Step 6 ................................................................ 6.4.6
Step 7 ................................................................ 6.4.7
Step 8 ................................................................ 6.4.8
Step 9 ................................................................ 6.4.9
Step 10 .............................................................. 6.4.10
Step 11 .............................................................. 6.4.11
Step 12 .............................................................. 6.4.12

Figures
Page

3.1 Percent Combined Aggregate Retained...................................... 14

3.2 Aggregate Proportioning Guide................................................. 15
3.3 Workability Box Within Aggregate Proportioning Guide ........... 16
3.4 Daily Variance Within Workability Box for Aggregate
Proportioning............................................................................ 17
3.5 “Haystack” Particle Distribution for a Uniformly Graded
Mixture ..................................................................................... 18
3.6 Example A. ............................................................................... 19
3.7 Example B. ............................................................................... 20
3.8 Example C. ............................................................................... 21
3.9 The 0.45 Power Grading Chart.................................................. 22
3.10 Example C Plotted on 0.45 Power Chart ................................... 23
3.11 Fine Aggregate Grading Limits.................................................. 24
6.1 Grading of 37.5mm Nominal Coarse Aggregate and
ASTM C 33 Grading Limits ...................................................... 35
6.2 Grading of Fine Aggregate and Grading Limits of Fig. 3.11....... 36
6.3 Aggregate Proportioning Guide for Combined
Aggregate ................................................................................. 38
6.4 Percent Combined Aggregate Retained Graph ........................... 38
6.5 Grading of 19mm Nominal Maximum Size Coarse
Aggregate and ASTM C 33 Grading Limits............................... 43
6.6 Grading of Fine Aggregate and Grading Limits of Fig. 3.11....... 44
6.7 Aggregate Proportioning Guide for Combined
Aggregate. ................................................................................ 47
6.8 Percent Combined Aggregate Retained Graph ........................... 47

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Tables
Page

2.1 Target Air Content for Airfield Pavement Concrete ................... 13

3.1 Fineness Modulus Calculation.... ............................................... 25
4.1 Target Air Content for Airfield Pavement Concrete ................... 27
6.1 Coarse Aggregate Sieve Analysis and ASTM C 33 Limits
for No. 467 Grading.................................................................. 34
6.2 Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis and ASTM C 33 Fine
Aggregate Grading.................................................................... 35
6.3 Sieve Analysis of Combined Aggregate...................................... 37
6.4 Coarse Aggregate Sieve Analysis and ASTM C 33 Limits
for No. 67 Grading.................................................................... 42
6.5 Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis and ASTM C 33
Fine Aggregate Grading ............................................................ 44
6.6 Sieve Analysis of Combined Aggregate ..................................... 46
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose.

1.1.1 The purpose of this handbook is to describe a method for selecting an aggregate grading
for use in concrete mixtures which are to be used for the construction of Air Force rigid airfield
pavement surface courses. A concrete mixture proportioning procedure is described which treats
the combined graded aggregate as a single component of the mixture, rather than individual
coarse, blend, and fine aggregate portions. The handbook describes guidelines for the selection of
gradings, suitable for airfield pavements, that are compatible with workability requirements of
concrete placements by mechanical means, either slipform or form and place, or by manual labor.
The Air Force assumes that concrete durability is attained when the recommendations of this
handbook are used to develop proportions for concrete mixtures.

1.2 Background.

1.2.1 The rigid pavements in the Air Force inventory are approaching the end of their calculated
pavement life. Most of those pavements constructed in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s are being
upgraded, because of mission realignment or changes, or replaced because they can no longer be
effectively maintained. Reconstruction and rehabilitation programs started in the late 1980’s and
continue today.

1.2.2 A significant number of those pavement systems which have been reconstructed
experience early age distress syndrome. Even pavements constructed in the summer of 1995 must
now be repaired during the summer of 1996. All of these failed pavements are structurally
adequate and did meet quality control criteria of the specifications but, surface deterioration
presents a hazard in the form of high probability for damage to high value aircraft. The early

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distress syndrome is of two general forms: spalling of the joint seal reservoir, and surface
delamination or raveling. The surface distress usually occurs within one year of construction.
The distress occurs in all environments, on projects accomplished by different contractors using
different material sources, and on projects accomplished by different construction agents. There
are numerous opinions on the nature of the surface deterioration, but the opinions do not include
substantive recommendations for solving the problem. The problems are generally characterized
by opinion as being the result of poor mixture design, poor workmanship, and poor quality
control. A lack of educated and experienced construction inspectors is often cited as a
contributory factor.

1.2.3 The United States Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station,
(USAE/WES) concluded from their investigation that “the primary cause of the early-age spalling
that recently has become relatively prevalent at military airfields appears to be primarily due to
poor construction practices that may be caused or at least exacerbated by poor concrete mixture
proportioning.”1 The Army Corps of Engineers further concluded that , “the engineering and
construction profession should develop improved guidance on proportioning concrete mixtures
for paving that must address workability of the mixture for slipformed paving and control of edge
slump.”

1.2.4 The Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency, Directorate of Technical Support (HQ
AFCESA/CES), looked at numerous projects which were accomplished since 1987. The study
included both those pavements that have and those that have not exhibited early distress
syndrome. A common factor among the projects studied are the combined grading of the
aggregates and the high variability of aggregate gradations within specification imposed limits.
Generally, projects constructed with aggregates that are near to being well graded perform better
than those constructed with gap graded or poorly graded aggregates. The constructibility and
uniformity of concrete mixtures with well graded aggregate is observed to contribute to better
pavement performance. Exceptions to the general criteria were noted where significant daily
material variations are observed.

1.2.5 The Air Force accepts the generalization that there are numerous potential problems in the
concrete pavement industry. There are numerous questions which remain unanswered and the
solutions to the numerous problems are beyond the scope and resources of a single entity. The
Air Force is, therefore, electing to control the aggregate gradations and thereby, gain assurance
that the concretes will be more uniform and more constructible. Solutions to other construction
problems must be addressed with future programs.

1.2.6 The common procedure of industry-DoD for concrete mixture proportioning is the
American Concrete Institute, Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal,
Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete (ACI 211). Using this procedure can result in a concrete
mixture with a poorly graded aggregate. It has been observed that concrete mixtures
proportioned by ACI 211 tend to have fewer coarse aggregates and more fine aggregate. The

1
Rollings, Raymond, S., “Joint Spalling in Newly Constructed Concrete Pavements, “ ASCE, J. Performance of Constructed
Facilities, 1996.

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footnote recommendations within ACI 211 for pavement quality concrete is generalized, and for
most projects, the footnotes of ACI 211 are ignored. Mixtures proportioned by using ACI 211
tend to be gap graded, of high sand content, and prone to segregation when subject to vibration.
This can result in pavement placements which have problems with edge slump, consolidation, and
finishing. This does not mean that a pavement with gap graded aggregates cannot be placed and
finished.

1.3 Scope.

1.3.1 This handbook is intended to serve as a guide for selecting aggregates, and concrete
proportions, that will meet the expectations of the Air Force. It is important for the user, either
the person doing concrete mixture proportioning, or the one doing an evaluation of a
proportioning study, to understand that this handbook is written to allow for the use of materials
available in the locale of the project. The person selecting the aggregate portions may procure
materials using ASTM references, local DOT references, or other identification. The aggregate,
as a combined blend, is the single interest of the Air Force. Quality control procedures must
assure that the combined grading remains within the band selected by the person doing the
mixture proportioning. This handbook must be used with the USAF Guide Specification 02515,
Military Airfield Construction, Rigid Concrete Pavement for Airfields.

1.3.2 The person purchasing raw materials must establish the limits of the grading selected for
each material to be used in a certain combined grading; i.e., stockpile control. This should be
interpreted to mean, that the person who purchases an aggregate component should specify not
only the standard stone size, but also the gradation and tolerance for variance within that generic
size limit.

1.3.3 The guidelines in this handbook are based upon empirical relationships and observations.
Each aggregate (coarse, blend, or fine) must be viewed as a contributor to the workability, the
uniformity, and the suitability of the concrete mixture. The size of the aggregate is only one
indicator of expected performance. Aggregate shape, texture, angularity, etc., must also be
considered in proportioning a mixture that will respond positively to the method of placement and
finishing. Each Air Force base should establish a catalog of aggregate performance and combined
gradings that result in successful pavement placement. The catalog is then used as a judge for
future construction activities. In the absence of that catalog, this handbook is to be used as a
guide to develop a concrete mixture that is assumed to satisfy the expectations of the Air Force.

1.3.4 Those individuals involved in the evaluation of concrete mixture proportioning studies
should expect that not all proposed mixtures will meet all requirements. Judgment is necessary to
assure that the best possible product can be obtained from the resource limitations of the project.
There are no cookbook solutions to a concrete mixture proportioning study. This does not mean
that substandard products will be allowed. It does mean that aggregate blending may be
necessary using materials that, individually, would not satisfy the grading limits of standard
references. Under no conditions will aggregate quality be sacrificed to attain the appropriate
grading, or to allow use of local materials. Where variation from the recommended practice of

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this handbook is encountered, the person evaluating the mixture should seek technical assistance
through the respective major command.

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Chapter 2

MATERIALS

2.1 Materials used for the concrete mixture include: coarse aggregate, blending aggregate,
fine aggregate, cement, water, mineral admixtures, chemical admixtures, and air content.

2.2 Coarse Aggregate.

2.2.1 Coarse aggregate consists of one or a combination of gravel or crushed aggregate with
particles being retained on and above the No. 4 ASTM standard sieve.

2.2.2 Composition.

2.2.2.1 Coarse aggregate consists of gravel, crushed gravel, crushed stone or a combination
thereof.

2.2.3 Quality.

2.2.3.1 The aggregates used should meet the quality requirements of the specification. The
specifier of the aggregate should designate the class of coarse aggregate to be used in the project
based on factors of exposure. Class designations include: mild exposure, where concrete is rarely
exposed to freezing in the presence of moisture; moderate exposure, where concrete should not
be continually exposed to freezing and thawing in the presence of moisture or to deicing
chemicals; and severe exposure, where concrete may become saturated with moisture prior to
repeated freezing and thawing and be exposed to deicing chemicals or other aggressive agents.2
If not familiar with the geographical locations corresponding the above exposure conditions, refer
to ASTM C 33, Figure 1, “Location of Weathering Regions.”

2.2.4 Particle Shape.

2.2.4.1 The quantity of flat and elongated particles in any size group should not exceed 20
percent, by mass, as determined by CRD-C 119, “Flat and Elongated Particles in Coarse
Aggregate.” A flat particle is defined as one with a ratio of width to thickness greater than three.
An elongated particle is one having a ratio of length to width greater than three. The water
required to produce a given workability should increase as the number of flat, elongated and
rough textured particles increases.

2.2.5 Maximum Size.

2.2.5.1 The nominal maximum aggregate size is defined as the smallest sieve opening through
which the entire amount of the aggregate is permitted to pass. The nominal maximum sieve sizes
used for airfield pavements are 37.5mm, 25mm, and 19mm. The nominal maximum aggregate
2
American Concrete Institute, ACI 211, “Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass
Concrete.”

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size for pavements constructed in geographical locations where D-cracking aggregates are
encountered should be 19mm.

2.2.6 Grading.

2.2.6.1 Aggregates should be sampled according to ASTM D 75, “Standard Practice for
Sampling Aggregates,” prior to performing a sieve analysis according to ASTM C 136, “Sieve
Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates.” Sieves used for the analysis include 50mm, 37.5mm,
25mm, 19mm, 12.5mm, 9.5mm, No. 4, and No. 8.

2.3 Blending Sizes.

2.3.1 Blending sizes are immediate size particles normally passing the 9.5mm sieve and retained
on the No. 50 sieve.

2.3.2 Composition.

2.3.2.1 Blending sizes should be materials of either natural deposits, manufactured products, or
combinations thereof.

2.3.3 Quality.

2.3.3.1 Blending sizes should meet the quality fine aggregate requirements of ASTM C 33
and/or the specifications, whichever is more stringent.

2.3.4 Particle Shape.

2.3.4.1 The particles should be generally cubical in shape without the presence of elongated or
slivered materials.

2.4 Fine Aggregate.

2.4.1 Fine aggregate is defined as clean granular materials, generally consisting of natural sand
or crushed stone, with most particles passing the No. 4 ASTM standard sieve.

2.4.2 Composition.

2.4.2.1 Fine aggregate consists of natural sand, manufactured sand, or a combination thereof.

2.4.3 Quality.

2.4.3.1 The amount of deleterious substances in the fine aggregate should not exceed the limits
given in ASTM C 33, Table 1 and/or the specifications, whichever is more stringent

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2.4.4 Grading.

2.4.4.1 The fine aggregate, as delivered to the stockpile, should be proportional to the limits of
ASTM C 33. The maximum limitation of ASTM C 33 for fineness modulus of 3.1 is NOT
applicable for fine aggregate being used for slipform paving and form-in-place applications. The
USAF minimum limitation for fineness modulus is 2.3. An example of a fineness modulus
calculation is provided in Table 3.1. The fine aggregate should not have more than 45 percent
passing any sieve and retained on the next consecutive sieve. Fine aggregates should be sampled
according to ASTM D 75 prior to performing a sieve analysis according to ASTM C 136. Sieves
used for the analysis include 9.5mm, No. 4, No. 8, No. 16, No. 30, No. 50, and No. 100.

2.5 Cement.

2.5.1 The Portland cement should conform to ASTM C 150, “Standard Specification for
Portland Cement.” The type of the cement to be used is selected by the contractor. The
tricalcium silicate content of the cement should be limited to a maximum of 55 percent, and the
content of alkalies calculated as (Na2O + 0.6 K2O) should be limited to 0.75 percent maximum.

2.5.2 Types IA, IIA, and IIIA, which are Portland cements containing interground additions of
air-entraining agent should not be used for airfield pavement mix designs. Blended cements
consisting of two or more inorganic constituents that contribute to the strength-gaining properties
of the cement, that meet the performance requirements of ASTM C 1157M, “Standard
Performance Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cement,” will be considered only on a case by
case basis.

2.5.3 Cement Source.

2.5.3.1 Since many foreign sources of cement ASTM 1157 are being used today for pavement
projects, the purchaser should request that the cement be sampled and tested to verify compliance
according to ASTM C 183, “Standard Methods for Sampling and Acceptance of Hydraulic
Cement,” and ASTM C 1157M, “Standard Performance Specification for Blended Hydraulic
Cement.”

2.5.4 Cement Content.

2.5.4.1 The minimum portland cement content should be 335 kilograms per cubic meter (564
pcy) of concrete, when using only portland cement as the cementitious component of the concrete
mixture. When pozzalanic materials such as fly ash are used in concrete, the minimum amount of
portland cement should be 307 kilograms per cubic meter (517 pcy) of concrete. The amount of
cementitious material is determined by the amount of portland cement plus the amount of fly ash.

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2.6 Water.

2.6.1 Water for washing aggregates and for mixing concrete should be free from harmful
amounts of oil, acid, salt, alkali, organic matter, or other deleterious substances. The properties
of the water should exceed the minimum requirements given in CRD C-400, “Water for Use in
Mixing or Curing Concrete.”

2.6.2 Water Cementitious Ratio.

2.6.2.1 The water cementitious material ratio is defined as the mass of water (W) divided by the
combined mass of cement (C) plus the mass of fly ash (P) as given in the following equation
(W/C+P). This ratio should not exceed 0.45. The water cementitious material ratio should
represent the minumum amount of water required to obtain a given workability for any given
aggregate grading.

2.7 Mineral Admixtures (Fly Ash).

2.7.1 Class F and Class C fly ashes, as defined by ASTM C 618, “Fly Ash and Raw or Natural
Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete,” are commonly used as
pozzolanic admixtures for concrete. The mass of fly ash used in the mix should not be less than
15 percent nor more than 25 percent of the total cementitious material; that is, the ratio of the
mass of fly ash divided by the combined mass of fly ash and the mass of Portland cement should
not be less than 15 percent nor more than 25 percent of the total cementitious material.

2.7.2 When using Class C fly ash, a chemical analysis should be conducted to evaluate the
solubility parameters of the aluminum (Al2O3) and the sulfur (SO3). One recommendation is
“solubility of the SO3 and Al2O3 shall be a minimum of 90 percent of the total available.”3

2.8 Chemical Admixtures.

2.8.1 Chemical admixtures are those ingredients in concrete other than portland cement, mineral
admixtures, water, or aggregates that are included in the mixture prior to placement. Chemical
admixtures are classified as: air-entraining, set-retarding, set-accelerating, water reducing, and
high-range water-reducing. Specifications for chemical admixtures are given in ASTM C 494,
“Chemical Admixtures for Concrete.”

2.8.2 Admixtures used in the mix design of rigid airfield pavements must be compatible with
other mixture components and are required to be certified as being so by the manufacturer and/or
its representative for a given concrete mixture, and can in no way impair the quality of the mixture
by affecting the workability, placeability, finishibility, and strength.

3
Gress, D.L. “Recommendations for Mitigating Early Distress in Concrete Pavements,” Presented to the American Concrete
Pavement Association, Durability Committee, June 12, 1996.

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2.8.3 Air-entraining admixtures are used to purposely entrain microscopic air bubbles into
concrete. Air entrainment should improve the durability of the concrete exposed to cycles of
freezing and thawing. The type of admixture and dosage rate should have an effect on
workability and strength. Air entrainment should be used in both severe and moderate weathering
regions as described in ASTM C 33.

2.8.4 Set-retarding admixtures are used to retard the time of setting of concrete. These
admixtures are used during hot weather concreting; that is, when fresh concrete temperatures
exceed 29 °C or when concrete is being delivered over considerable distances.

2.8.5 Set-accelerating admixtures are used to accelerate the strength development of concrete at
an early age. Calcium chloride is not recommended by the USAF as an accelerator for rigid
airfield pavements. Only non-chloride set-accelerating admixtures meeting ASTM C 494 should
be used.

2.8.6 Water-reducing admixtures are used to reduce the quantity of mixing water required to
produce concrete of a certain workability. The use of these admixtures can allow one to reduce
the water cement ratio, thereby increasing the strength of the concrete, without reducing the
workability, or one can increase the workability of the concrete mixture without increasing the
water cement ratio, thereby maintaining the strength of the mix. Ordinary water reducers reduce
the water content by approximately 5 to 10 percent.

2.8.7 High-range water-reducing admixtures are described in ASTM C 1017, “Chemical

Admixtures for Use in Producing Flowing Concrete,” and C 494-86 Types F and G specifications.
High-range water-reducers reduce water content by 12 percent to 30 percent. High-range water-
reducers are more effective in reducing the water/cement ratio for a given concrete. Yet, the
effect is usually short-lived, and loss of workability often occurs within 30 to 60 minutes.
Compatibility with other admixtures, particularly air-entraining agents, must be verified, since they
can affect the amount and size of the entrained air bubbles significantly.

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2.9 Target Air Content.

2.9.1 The air content, by volume, should be selected based upon Table 2.1, “Target Air Content
for Airfield Pavement Concrete.” The air content should be determined from concrete samples
selected from in front of the paver. Allowance for loss of air due to mixing, transportation, and
placement must be provided. The exposure definitions provided in Portland Cement Association
(PCA) Engineering Bulletin, “Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures,” apply.

TABLE 2.1 Target Air Content for Airfield Pavement Concrete

TARGET AIR CONTENT (PERCENT BY VOLUME)

Nominal Maximum
Aggregate Size (mm) Severe Moderate Mild
Exposure Exposure Exposure

37.5 5 1/2 4 1/2 2 1/2

25 6 4 1/2 3
19 6 5 3 1/2

The air content of the delivered concrete to be within -1 to +2 percentage points of the table
target values.4

4
“Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures,” Engineering Bulletin EB001.13T, Portland Cement Association

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Chapter 3

COMBINED AGGREGATE GRADING

3.1 The concrete mixture should be proportioned so that the requirements for workability and
finishibility are satisfied. The mixture should also be proportioned as a well-graded combined
aggregate, and the minimum requirements for air content and water cementitious ratio are not
exceeded.

3.2 Percent Combined Aggregate Retained Graph.

3.2.1 Grading reports should include the following sieve sizes: sieves used for the analysis
include 50mm, 37.5mm, 25mm, 19mm, 12.5mm, 9.5mm, No. 4, No. 8, No. 16, No. 30, No. 50,
and No. 100. The proportions selected for the combined gradation should be plotted on a graph
as the percentage retained for each reporting sieve size (y-axis) versus the considered sieve size
(x-axis). The plot of the graph should be a line showing a relatively smooth transition between
coarse and fine aggregate. The maximum and minimum percent retained limits, represented by
the dotted lines in Figure 3.1, are to be taken only as a guide, and the plot should not have a
significant valley or peak between the 9.5mm sieve size and the finest reporting sieve size. An
example of the percent aggregate retained graph, including a satisfactory and unsatisfactory
combined aggregate gradation plot, is shown in Figure 3.1.

20

15
% Retained

Satisfactory
10

5
Unsatisfactory

0
25mm 12.5mm No. 4 No. 16 No. 50
Sieve Size

Figure 3.1 Percent Combined Aggregate Retained

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3.3 Coarseness Factor/Workability Factor.

3.3.1 The combined aggregate grading should be used to calculate a coarseness factor and a
workability factor. The coarseness factor for a particular combined aggregate gradation is
determined by dividing the amount retained above the 9.5mm sieve by the amount retained above
the No. 8 sieve, and multiplying the ratio by 100. 5

3.3.2 The workability factor is the percentage of combined aggregate finer than the No. 8 sieve.6
This factor can simply be determined by using the percentage passing the No. 8 sieve, from the
combined aggregate sieve analysis. The workability factor is to be increased by 2.5 percent for
each 56 kg per cubic meter (94 pcy) of cementitious material used in excess of the baseline
amount of 335 kg per cubic meter (564 pcy) of cementitious material. The workability factor is
only adjusted upwards because the minimum amount of cementitious material for rigid airfield
pavement mix designs is 335 kg/ cubic meter (564 pcy) of cementitious material.

3.3.3 The coarseness and workability factors are plotted on a chart similar to that shown in
Figure 3.2. The coarseness factor should not be greater than 80 nor less than 30. The plot of the
workability factor and the coarseness factor is a single point which is to be above the control line
and within the workability box, shown in Figure 3.2.

45
FINE

SANDY

WORKABILITY FACTOR
WELLGRADED 40
AGGREGATE SIZE

Minus 3/4"
GAP GRADED

WELLGRADED
COARSE

1-1/2"-3/4"
35
E
RO L LIN
CONT
30
27.5
ROCKY
COARSE

25

20
80 70 60 50 40 30
1
COARSENESS FACTOR
NOTES:
% RETAINED ABOVE 9.5mm SIEVE
1 COARSENESS FACTOR = X 100
% RETAINED ABOVE #8 SIEVE

2 WORKABILITY FACTOR = % PASSING #8

Figure 3.2 Aggregate Proportioning Guide

5
Shilstone, James M. Sr., “Concrete Mixture Optimization,” ACI Concrete International, June, 1990.
6
IBID

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3.4 Aggregate Proportioning Guide.

3.4.1 When a combined aggregate grading appears to meet the criteria of the percent retained
graphic, it is then necessary to assess where in the workability box is best suited to the method of
placement. In theory, it would be assumed that the best combined aggregate gradations for
slipform paving would be at the lower left of the box near the control line -- Area A in Figure 3.3.
An aggregate grading at the lower right corner of the workability box should be suitable for use
with form and place mechanical pavers -- Area B in Figure 3.3. This assumes that smaller
aggregate sizes are needed to move the coarseness factor to a lower number and increase
workability. Additionally, combined aggregate selections at the top of the box would be suitable
for hand placement -- Area C in Figure 3.3.

45
FINE

WORKABILITY
BOX

WORKABILITY FACTOR
40
AGGREGATE SIZE

B 35
A LINE
ON T ROL
C
30
PLACEMENT TECHNIQUES
COARSE

A - SLIPFORM 25
B - FORM & PLACE
C - HAND
20
80 70 60 50 40 30
COARSENESS FACTOR

Figure 3.3 Workability Box Within Aggregate Proportioning Guide

3.4.2 One should not expect the above to be exact because the aggregate proportioning guide
for grading does not take other “workability” factors into account. The shape of the fine
aggregate particles will affect workability, but this is not reflected in the grading. Rounded coarse
aggregate particles would also affect workability, but would not be reflected in the grading.
Increasing or decreasing the entrained air content will directly affect the workability. Air content
is not even considered in the aggregate proportioning guide. Chemical admixtures are used to
adjust the workability of the mixture and should not be neglected in the final selection of a
concrete mixture for constructibility.

3.4.3 The aggregate proportioning guide should be used just as the title suggests, as a guide,
and not as a rule. It is necessary that the person doing the mixture proportioning be familiar with
the method of placement and the characteristics of the mixture that are best suited to that method.

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In a similar fashion, the person evaluating the mixture proportioning study must balance the data
presented and the results of previous paving projects. The final test, for both the contractor and
the owner, are the characteristics and the response of the mixture to the method of placement as
observed at a test strip placement.

3.4.4 A very important consideration in selecting the final design aggregate grading, using the
aggregate proportioning guide, is the location of the design grading relative to the expected daily
variance of the concrete mixture materials. Changes in coarse, blend, and fine aggregate gradings
could place the plot outside of the workability box, as illustrated in Figure 3.4. A normal variance
of about 5 percent on the coarseness factor and about 3 percent on the workability factor should
be considered in the final selection of an aggregate blend. Therefore, Design A would be a better
choice than Design B, considering the daily variance.

DESIGN A WITH
45
FINE

DAILY VARIANCE WORKABILITY

BOX

WORKABILITY FACTOR
40
AGGREGATE SIZE

35
LINE
X
ON T ROL
C
30
DESIGN B WITH
DAILY VARIANCE
COARSE

25

20
80 70 60 50 40 30
COARSENESS FACTOR

Figure 3.4 Daily Variance Within Workability Box for Aggregate Proportioning

3.5 Interpretation of Graphical Procedures.

3.5.1 Two questions will plague that engineer accustomed to using mathematical bounds on
material variability for materials acceptance or rejection. What is considered “significant” when
judging the retained aggregate on successive sieves? Where in the workability box are the limits
for different methods of pavement placement? The answer to those questions may be answered
only after a catalog of combined aggregate gradings is established for each locale. Each locale
will have different answers because of the variation in aggregate gradings, particle shape, texture
and performance. Variation can also be expected within a locale because of quarry or pit source
differences.

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3.5.2 Percent Combined Aggregate Retained.

3.5.2.1 A generic judgment can be made about the expected performance of concrete pavements
based upon known material characterizations. The first involves selecting aggregate grading
based upon retainage, by mass, on successive sieve sizes.

3.5.2.2 The optimum solution to the well graded aggregate criteria is nominally the classical
“haystack,” Figure 3.5. The “haystack” grading is recommended by The American Concrete
Pavement Association (ACPA)7 for Fast Track paving because it provides for reduced water
demand, increased durability, and better workability. The classic “haystack” is almost impossible
to produce from most local materials at any economic advantage. The question then becomes
how close do I have to be to the “haystack” grading configuration?
25

20

15

10

0
37.5mm 19mm 12.5mm
25mm 9.5mm #4 #8 #16 #30 #50 100 200 325 LIQ PAN

SIEVE SIZE

Figure 3.5 “Haystack” Particle Distribution for a Uniformly Graded Mixture

7
American Concrete Pavement Association, ACPA, Technical Bulletin TB004P, “Fast Track Concrete Pavements.”

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3.5.2.3 By using the percentage retained method of graphing, you may visualize the
approximation of the combined grading to the “haystack” shape. Most combined gradings will
plot as a series of peaks and valleys as illustrated in Example A, Figure 3.6. It is desired that there
be a gradual increase in material retained on each sieve to the stone sizes larger than 12.5mm and
then have a gradual tapering of the curve from the 9.5mm size to the lowest sieve size. A general
rule of thumb is to keep the material retained on each sieve to less than 18 percent but more than
8 percent. An acceptable curve will have peaks prior to the 9.5mm size and then a uniform
transition to the lowest size materials. In Example A of Figure 3.6, the small peak at the No. 4
sieve size would be acceptable since the valley following the No. 4 is about the same percentage
from the deviation of a straight line between the 9.5mm size and the No. 16 sieve size.

25

20

15
% Retained

10

0
50mm 25mm 12.5mm No. 4 No. 16 No. 50
Sieve Size

Figure 3.6 Example A

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3.5.2.4 A typical distribution is a peak at the 12.5mm stone size and a significant reduction
(valley) in the materials from the 9.5mm size to the Number 50 sieve size as shown in Example B,
Figure 3.7. Most aggregates used for concrete mixtures are deficient in the 9.5mm to the No. 30
sieve sizes; therefore, most combined gradings will have a gap in the blend size particles. The
peak at the Number 50 sieve size is there because the Number 50 sieve size is the size of most
natural sand particles. Typically, you would classify this grading as being gap-graded. This
grading is not acceptable because there is a significant valley, more than two adjacent sieve sizes,
between two peaks. Additionally, the peaks for the larger stone sizes exceed the 18 percent
guidelines for two successive sieve sizes. To create a uniform grading for the latter, it is
necessary to add a blend material that would have the missing intermediate size (blend size)
particles.

25

20

15
% Retained

10

0
50mm 25mm 12.5mm No. 4 No. 16 No. 50
Sieve Size

Figure 3.7 Example B

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3.5.2.5 An example of an unacceptable combined grading that incorporates the necessary

blending sizes is shown in Example C, Figure 3.8. For this material, the peak in the curve occurs
at and adjacent to the top size of the aggregate; i.e., the first sieve size which retains material.
The adjacent sieve size is also at the peak. The result is that there is a large quantity, by weight,
of large stone sizes. There is little volume left to provide for the blend and the fine aggregate
sizes. The resulting combined aggregate grading will have a “plums in the pudding” effect. These
mixtures tend to segregate upon vibration and finish poorly because of excessive voids which
must be filled with mortar.

25

20

15
% Retained

10

0
50mm 25mm 12.5mm No. 4 No. 16 No. 50
Sieve Size

Figure 3.8 Example C

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3.5.2.6 When there remains doubts about the suitability of a certain combined grading, it is
recommended that the grading be plotted on a 0.45 power curve, as shown in Figure 3.9. The
grading should wander along the line associated with the top aggregate size. The meander across
and back of the top size line indicates where the material is gap graded. To ascertain what is a
reasonable amount of gap grading, the curve should be examined for the maximum departure
from the maximum density line (top size line).

100 Top Size -1 Top Size Top Size +1

90
80
70
% Passing

60
50
40
30
20
10
0 50mm
0 100 50 30 16 8 4 9.5mm 12.5mm 19mm 25mm 37.5mm
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Sieve Size

Figure 3.9 The 0.45 Power Grading Chart

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3.5.2.7 With the combined grading of the certain aggregate plotted on the 0.45 chart, draw
maximum density lines for the first size of material larger and the first size of material smaller than
the target gradation, Figure 3.9. If the combined aggregate grading curve crosses the lines drawn
on either side of the top size line, it can be generally assumed that the material has excessive
amounts of gap grading and is not an acceptable grading for paving, as shown for Example C
plotted in Figure 3.10.

100
90
80
70
% Passing

60
50
40
30
20
10
0 8 50mm
0 100 50 30 16 4 9.5mm 12.5mm 19mm 25mm 37.5mm
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Sieve Size

Figure 3.10 Example C Plotted on 0.45 Power Chart

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3.6 Fineness Modulus of the Fine Aggregate.

3.6.1 The fine aggregate, as delivered to the stockpile, should be graded within the limits of
ASTM C 33 (see Figure 3.11). The maximum limitation of ASTM C 33 for fineness modulus of
3.1 is NOT applicable for fine aggregate being used for conventional paving applications. The
USAF minimum limitation for fineness modulus is 2.35, while the minimum limitation for fineness
modulus according to ASTM C33 is 2.15, as shown in Figure 3.3. The fine aggregate should be
well-graded and correspond to the general shape of the grading curves shown in Figure 3.5. For
concrete placed by mechanical means, the fine aggregate should have a minimum percent passing
the No. 50 and No. 100 sieves of 5 and 0, respectively. The fineness modulus is calculated by
adding the total percentage of material in the fine aggregate sample that is coarser than each of
the following sieves, and dividing the sum by 100. Sieves used for the analysis include 9.5mm,
No. 4, No. 8, No. 16, No. 30, No. 50, and No. 100. Fine aggregate should be sampled according
to ASTM D 75 prior to performing a sieve analysis according to ASTM C 136.

100 ASTM C33 - FM 3.1

90 ASTM C33 - FM 2.15

USAF - FM 2.35
80

70

60
% Passing

50

40

30

20

10

0
9.5mm 4 8 16 30 50 100
Sieve Size

Figure 3.11 Fine Aggregate Grading Limits

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3.6.2 An example of the fineness modulus calculation is given in Table 3.1. The percent passing
each of the specific sieves, 9.5mm, No. 4, No. 8, No. 16, No. 30, No. 50, and No. 100, is
tabulated. The total amount of material coarser than each of the following sieves is tabulated
next. The sum of the percent cumulatively retained is determined; i.e., 300; and the sum is then
divided by 100 resulting in a fineness modulus or FM of 3.00 in this example.

TABLE 3.1 Fineness Modulus Calculation

Sieve Size % Passing % Cumulatively

Retained
ASTM C-33 ASTM C 33
9.5mm 100 0.00
4 95 5.00
8 80 20.00
16 60 40.00
30 40 60.00
50 20 80.00
100 5 95
300.00
FM = 3.00

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Chapter 4

MIX PROPORTIONING

4.1 The procedure for selecting mixture proportions given in this section is applicable to
normal weight concrete to be placed by slipform or form-in-place machine paving techniques.
Estimating the required batch amounts for the concrete constituents can be accomplished using
the following steps.

4.2 Estimation of Workability.

4.2.1 For the purposes of estimating workability, one method commonly used is the measure of
slump as determined by ASTM C 143, “Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement
Concrete.” The workability of the mixture should be dictated by the type of field placement
method proposed by the contractor. Mix workability should have a maximum slump of 25mm for
slipform paving and a maximum slump of 75mm for form-in-place methods of field placement.

4.3 Nominal Maximum Size of Coarse Aggregate.

4.3.1 The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate should be determined by the contractor
based on the following guidelines: The nominal maximum size used for airfield pavements should
be either 37.5mm, 25mm, or 19mm; and in geographical areas where ‘D’ cracking is known to be
a problem, the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate should be 19mm.

4.4 Estimation of Cementitious Material Content.

4.4.1 The minimum cementitious materials content should not be less than 335 kilograms per
cubic meter (564 pcy) of concrete, and the minimum Portland cement content should not be less
than 307 kilograms per cubic meter (517 pcy) of concrete when fly ash is incorporated into the
mixture. The amount of cementitious material is determined by the amount of portland cement
plus the amount of fly ash. When Class F or C fly ash is utilized, as designated by ASTM C 618,
the mass of fly ash used in the mix should not be less than 15 percent nor more than 25 percent of
the total cementitious material. That is, the ratio of the mass of fly ash divided by the combined
mass of fly ash and the mass of Portland cement should not be less than 15 percent nor more than
25 percent of the total cementitious material.

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4.4.2 When using the minimum amount of flyash, 15 percent, and using the minimum amount of
portland cement described in Section II-D, 307 kilograms per cubic meter (517 pcy), the
following applies:

4.4.2.1 M(fa)/[M(fa) + M(pc)] = 0.15

4.4.2.2 M(fa)/[M(fa) + 307 kg/m3 ]= 0.15

4.4.2.3 M(fa) = 54 kg/m3 (91 pcy)

4.4.2.4 M(cementitious material) = 307 kg/m3 + 54 kg/m3 =361 kg/m3 (608 pcy)

4.4.3 When using the maximum amount of flyash, 25 percent, and using the minimum amount of
portland cement described in Chapter 2, paragraph 2.5.4.1, of 307 kilograms per cubic meter (517
pcy), the following applies:

4.4.3.1 M(fa)/[M(fa) + M(pc)] = 0.25

4.4.3.2 M(fa)/[M(fa) + 307 kg/m3] = 0.25

4.4.3.3 M(fa) = 102 kg/m3 (172 pcy)

4.4.3.4 M(cementitious material) = 307 kg/m3 + 102 kg/m3 = 409 kg/m3 (689 pcy)

4.5 Estimation of Air Content.

4.5.1 Determine the air content for the proposed mix from Table 4.1, based on the nominal
maximum size aggregate and the type of exposure as indicated by weathering regions associated
with the project location. The exposure definitions provided in Portland Cement Association
(PCA) Engineering Bulletin, “Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures,” apply.

TABLE 4.1. Target Air Content for Airfield Pavement Concrete

TARGET AIR CONTENT (PERCENT BY VOLUME)

Nominal Maximum Severe Moderate Mild
Aggregate Size (mm) Exposure Exposure Exposure

37.5mm 5 1/2 4 1/2 2 1/2

25mm 6 4 1/2 3
19mm 6 5 3 1/2
The air content of the delivered concrete to be within -1 to +2 percentage points of the table
target values.8
8
“Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures,” Engineering Bulletin EB001.13T, Portland Cement Association

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4.6 Coarse and Fine Aggregate as Single Aggregate Blend.

4.6.1 The amount of coarse aggregate, blended aggregate, and fine aggregate should be treated
as a single component of the mixture and determined from the limits set forth in the Combined
Aggregate Proportioning Guide and the Percent Combined Aggregate Retained Graph, Figures
3.1 and 3.2, respectively. Aggregate properties are determined by the contractor and should
include dry-rodded unit weight, bulk specific gravity (saturated surface-dry), and percent
absorption, for the coarse aggregate fraction. For the fine aggregate fraction, properties provided
by the contractor should include bulk specific gravity (saturated surface-dry), percent absorption,
and fineness modulus.

4.7 Weighted Average Specific Gravity of Aggregate Blend.

4.7.1 Calculate the weighted average specific gravity (ssd) for the aggregate blend (coarse,
blended and fine aggregate). The weighted average specific gravity should be used to calculate
the estimated unit weight of the fresh concrete mixture. The weighted average specific gravity
(ssd) of the aggregate blend is equal to the sum of the individual percents of aggregates used in
the blend multiplied by their individual saturated surface-dry bulk specific gravity values.

4.7.2 S wa(ssd) = [%CA*S ca(ssd) + %BA*S ba(ssd) + %FA*S fa(ssd)]/100

where:

4.7.2.1 S wa(ssd) - weighted average bulk specific gravity (ssd) of the aggregate blend.

4.7.2.2 %CA - mass percent of the aggregate corresponding to the coarse aggregate fraction.

4.7.2.3 S ca(ssd) - bulk specific gravity (ssd) of the coarse aggregate fraction.

4.7.2.4 %BA - mass percent of the aggregate blend corresponding to the blending aggregate
fraction.

4.7.2.5 S ba(ssd) - bulk specific gravity (ssd) of the blending aggregate fraction.

4.7.2.6 %FA - mass percent of the aggregate corresponding to the fine aggregate fraction.

4.7.2.7 S fa(ssd) - bulk specific gravity (ssd) of the fine aggregate fraction.

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4.8 Estimation of Water Cementitious Material Ratio.

4.8.1 Determine the water cementitious material ratio to produce a workability as determined in
Step 1, not to exceed a maximum value of 0.45. This maximum corresponds to both water
cement ratio, when using only portland cement, and water cementitious ratio when using portland
cement plus fly ash. The optimum water cementitious material ratio should represent the
minumum amount of water required to obtain a given workability for any given aggregate
grading.

4.9 Fresh Concrete Unit Mass in Kilograms per Cubic Meter.

4.9.1 Calculate the wet density of the concrete mix per cubic yard by using the following
formula as described in ACI 211.1, “Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal,
Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete.” This calculation is used to estimate the mass of combined
aggregate required for the concrete mixture.

4.9.2 U = 10* S wa *(100-A) + C*(1 - S wa /Sc) - W*( S wa -1)

where:

4.9.2.1 U = the mass of fresh concrete per cubic meter, in kilograms.

4.9.2.2 S wa = the weighted average saturated surface-dry bulk specific gravity of the coarse and
fine aggregate as determined in Step 6.

4.9.2.3 Sc = the specific gravity of Portland cement, or a Portland cement-fly ash blend. (The
generally accepted value for the specific gravity of Portland cement is 3.15. A weighted
average density for a Portland cement-fly ash blend would be determined as in Step 6.)

4.9.2.4 A = air content in percent as determined in Step 4.

4.9.2.5 W = the mixing water required with SSD aggregate in kilograms per cubic meter, as
determined in Step 7.

4.9.2.6 C = the cementitious materials content in kilograms per cubic meter, as determined in
Step 3.

4.10 Estimation of Combined Aggregate Amount.

4.10.1 The total amount of blended aggregate (coarse, blended and fine) required for the mix, in
kilograms per cubic meter, is calculated by subtracting the amount of required water and
cementitious material in kilograms per cubic meter of concrete as determined in Step 7 and Step 3
respectively, from the unit mass of fresh concrete determined in Step 8.

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4.11 Adjustments for Aggregate Moisture.

4.11.1 The aggregate quantities actually weighed out for the concrete must allow for moisture in
the aggregates. Bulk specific gravities on the basis of mass of saturated surface-dry aggregate
and absorptions of both coarse and fine aggregates are determined according to standard test
methods described in ASTM C 127 and C 128, respectively. Total moisture contents for both
coarse and fine aggregates are determined according the ASTM C 566, “Standard Test Method
for Total Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying.”

4.12 Trial Batch Adjustments.

4.12.1 The calculated mix proportions should be checked by means of trial batches prepared and
tested in accordance with ASTM C 192, “Standard Method of Making and Curing Concrete Test
Specimens in the Laboratory.” The concrete should be checked for unit weight and yield (ASTM
C 138, “Standard Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Content [Gravimetric] of
Concrete), for air content (ASTM C 231, “Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the
Pressure Method), and for determining the minimum required flexural strength, ASTM C 78,
“Flexural Strength of Concrete Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading.”

4.12.2 The concrete shall be proportioned for the minimum flexural strength required by the
specification at 90 days of age determined using the procedures of ASTM C 78. Concrete beam
specimens should be tested at ages of 7, 14, 28, and 90 days.
4.12.3 Adjustments to the mix to provide the required workability and air content should be made
by adjustments in water content (though not to exceed a water cement ratio of 0.45) and by the
use of chemical admixtures. Once the desired strength requirements are satisfied, two other
concrete mixtures should be prepared having two different water cement ratios to evaluate their
effect on flexural strength at 90 days.

4.13 Field Trials.

4.13.1 The contractor should place a test strip of pavement representing 2 hours of mixing and
placing operations and using that concrete and equipment that will be used to perform the work.
The contractor should demonstrate that positive control of edge slump and surface finish can be
established and maintained. The contractor should also demonstrate that this control can be
maintained when environmental conditions change.

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Chapter 5

REFERENCES

5.1 Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Handbook for Concrete and Cement.

5.1.1 CRD-C 5 Concrete Within Batch Uniformity (used for determination of the minimum time
of mixing)

5.1.2 CRD-C 100 Sampling Concrete Aggregate and Aggregate Sources and Selection of
Material for Testing

5.1.3 CRD-C 119 Flat and Elongated Particles in Coarse Aggregate (Rev Jun 1963)

5.1.4 CRD-C 143 Meters for Automatic Indication of Moisture in Fine Aggregate

5.1.5 CRD-C 300 Membrane-Forming Compounds for Curing Concrete

5.1.6 CRD-C 400 Water for Use in Mixing or Curing Concrete

5.2 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Publications.

5.2.1 C 29 Unit Weight and Voids in Aggregate

5.2.2 C 31 Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field

5.2.3 C 33 Concrete Aggregates

5.2.4 C 39 Compressive Strength of Concrete Cylinders

5.2.5 C 70 Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate (R 1985)

5.2.6 C 78 Flexural Strength of Concrete Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading

5.2.7 C 117 Materials Finer Than 75- (No. 200) Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by Washing

5.2.8 C 123 Lightweight Pieces in Aggregate

5.2.9 C 125 Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Concrete and Concrete Aggregates

5.2.10 C 127 Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate

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5.2.11 C 128 Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate

5.2.12 C 136 Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates

5.2.13 C 138 Standard Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of
Concrete

5.2.14 C 142 Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregates (R 1990)

5.2.15 C 143 Standard Test Method for Slump of Portland Cement Concrete

5.2.16 C 150 Portland Cement

5.2.17 C 172 Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete

5.2.18 C 183 Standard Methods of Sampling and Acceptance of Hydraulic Cement

5.2.19 C 192 Standard Method of Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the
Laboratory

5.2.20 C 231 Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method

5.2.21 C 260 Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete

5.2.22 C 295 Petrographic Examination Aggregates for Concrete

5.2.23 C 311 Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use as a Mineral
Admixture

5.2.24 C 494 Chemical Admixtures for Concrete

5.2.25 C 566 Total Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying

5.2.26 C 595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements

5.2.27 C 618 Fly Ash and Raw or Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland
Cement Concrete

5.2.28 C 851 Scratch Hardness of Coarse Aggregate Particles

5.2.29 C 881 Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding Systems for Concrete

5.2.30 C 1157M Standard Performance Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cement

5.2.31 D 75 Standard Practice for Sampling Aggregates

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5.3 American Concrete Institute.

5.3.1 SP 140 High Performance Concrete in Severe Environments

5.3.2 116R Cement and Concrete Terminology, SP-19(78)

5.3.3 201.2R Guide to Durable Concrete (Reaffirmed 1982)

5.3.4 211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass
Concrete

5.3.5 212.1R Admixtures for Concrete

5.3.6 212.2R Guide for Use of Admixtures in Concrete

5.3.7 304 Recommended Practice for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete
(Reaffirmed 1978)

5.3.8 304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete

5.3.9 305R Hot Weather Concreting

5.3.10 306R Cold Weather Concreting

5.3.11 316R Recommendations for Construction of Concrete Pavements and Concrete Bases

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Chapter 6

SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS

6.1 Example No. 1.

6.1.1 General Description.

6.1.2 This example illustrates how fine aggregate that does not meet the grading
requirements of ASTM C-33, but when combined with coarse aggregate in the correct
proportions, the total aggregate grading falls into the correct zone for slipform paving
according to the Aggregate Proportioning Guide for combined aggregate gradings.

6.1.3 Concrete is required for an airfield taxiway at Tyndall AFB in Florida. The
exposure is considered mild as designated by ACI 211. The limits for deleterious
substances and physical property requirements of the coarse aggregate and fine aggregate
can be found in Table 3, class designation 1N, and Table 1 respectively in ASTM C 33.
The contractor plans to use slipform paving equipment to place the concrete, requiring the
workability of the concrete mixture be appropriate for use with that type of equipment.
Structural considerations require a flexural strength of 5 MPa (750 psi) at 90 days. Type I
Portland cement will be used having a specific gravity of 3.15.

6.1.4 The crushed limestone coarse aggregate available for the job corresponds to size
number 467 having a nominal maximum size of 37.5mm to No. 4 according to ASTM C
33, Table 2, “Grading Requirements for Coarse Aggregate.” The sieve analysis for the No.
467 coarse aggregate and the coarse aggregate grading are shown in Table 6.1 and Figure
6.1, respectively.

TABLE 6.1 Coarse Aggregate Sieve Analysis and ASTM C33 Limits for No. 467
Grading

ASTM C33 ASTM C33 % Passing

Sieve Size Grading Limit Grading Limit No. 467
(min) (max)
50mm 100 100 100
37.5mm 95 100 96.6
19mm 35 70 53.7
9.5mm 10 30 16.2
#4 0 5 2

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100
90
80
70

% Passing
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
50mm 25mm 12.5mm #4

Sieve Size

Figure 6.1 Grading of 37.5mm Nominal Coarse Aggregate and ASTM C33 Grading
Limits

6.1.5 The coarse aggregate has a bulk specific gravity (saturated surface-dry) of 2.69
and an absorption of 0.33 percent. The dry-rodded mass of the coarse aggregate is 1650
kilograms per cubic meter (103 pcf).

6.1.6 The fine aggregate is a manufactured sand consisting of limerock screenings

designated as FDOT Code #25 - Fine Screenings, and has a bulk specific gravity
(saturated surface-dry) of 2.68, an absorption of 1.71 percent, and fineness modulus of
3.15. The fine aggregate sieve analysis, fineness modulus calculation, and grading are
shown in Table 6.2 and Figure 6.2, respectively. The minimum fineness modulus required
by the USAF is 2.3, and the maximum limitation of ASTM C33 for fineness modulus of
3.1 is NOT applicable for fine aggregate being used in this example. The fineness modulus
(FM) is determined by summing the percent cumulative retained values from the sieves
shown in Table 6.2, and the result (315), divided by 100, yields a FM value of 3.15.

TABLE 6.2 Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis and ASTM C33 Fine Aggregate Grading

% Cumulative
ASTM C33 ASTM C33 % Passing Retained
Sieve Size Grading Limit Grading Limit FDOT#25 FDOT#25
(min) (max)
9.5mm 100 100 100 0
4 95 100 89 11
8 80 100 73 27
16 50 85 47 53
30 25 60 38 62
50 5 30 25 75
100 0 10 13 87
315

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100

90

80

70

60

% Passing
50

40

30

20

10

0
9.5mm

16

30

50

100
Sieve Size

Figure 6.2 Grading of Fine Aggregate and Grading Limits of Fig. 3.11

6.2 The quantities of ingredients per cubic meter of concrete are calculated as follows:

6.2.1 Step 1 - Mix workability was determined by the contractor as appropriate

for placement by a slipform paver.

6.2.2 Step 2 - The locally available coarse aggregate having a nominal maximum
size of 37.5mm, and graded from 37.5mm to No. 4, has been determined to
be suitable for this paving project.

6.2.3 Step 3 - The amount of cementitious material in the form of Type I

Portland cement was chosen to be 335 kilograms per cubic meter (564 pcy)
of concrete, meeting the minimum cementitious materials factor specified in
this handbook.

6.2.4 Step 4 - From Table 4.1, the amount of air, based on the nominal maximum
aggregate size of 37.5mm, and being in a mild exposure region, should be 2
1/2 percent within -1 to +2 percentage points.

6.2.5 Step 5 - The ratio of coarse to fine aggregate for the combined aggregate is
determined from both the Aggregate Proportioning Guide and the Percent

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Combined Aggregate Retained Graph. The amount of coarse aggregate

and fine aggregate is treated as a single component of the mix, and the
amount of the combined aggregate will be determined in Step 9 of this
sequence.

6.2.5.1 The individual coarse and fine aggregate sieve analyses and the combined
sieve analysis based on 58 percent coarse and 42 percent fine aggregate are
shown in Table 6.3. This ratio is determined by trial-and-error until the
combination of available aggregates meet the requirements specified by the
Aggregate Proportioning Guide and the Percent Combined Aggregate
Retained Graph as defined in Chapter 3 of the handbook. The workability
factor, defined as the amount of combined aggregate material passing the
No. 8 sieve multiplied by 100, is shown to be 30.66. The coarseness
factor, defined as the percent of combined aggregate retained above the
9.5mm sieve divided by that which is retained above the No. 8 sieve, this
ratio multiplied by 100, is calculated to be 70.1.

TABLE 6.3 Sieve Analysis of Combined Aggregate

% Passing % Passing Combined Combined Combined

Sieve Coarse Fine % % Cumulative %
Size Aggregate Aggregate Passing Retained Retained
50mm 100 100 100.00 0.00 0
37.5mm 96.6 100 98.03 1.97 1.97
25mm 68.4 100 81.67 18.33 16.36
19mm 53.7 100 73.15 26.85 8.53
12.5mm 30.2 100 59.52 40.48 13.63
9.5mm 16.2 100 51.40 48.60 8.12
4 2 89 38.54 61.46 12.86
8 0 73 30.66 69.34 7.88
16 47 19.74 80.26 10.92
30 38 15.96 84.04 3.78
50 25 10.50 89.50 5.46
100 13 5.46 94.54 5.04
WF=30.66 CF=70.10

6.2.5.2 The plot of the combined aggregate on the Aggregate Proportioning

Guide, and the Percent Aggregate Retained Graph are shown in Figures
6.3 and 6.4, respectively. The 58 percent coarse and 42 percent fine
combined aggregate data point, in Figure 6.3, is located just above the
centerline within the workability box, which is just where it should be for
placing concrete using slipform paving equipment. Since the combined
aggregate data point is close to being outside of the workability box and
does not include the daily variance, frequent checks on the combined

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aggregate gradation will be required. The Percent Combined Aggregate

Retained plot of the combined aggregate, in Figure 6.4, shows no
significant valley or peak between the 9.5mm sieve size and the finest
reporting sieve size.

45
FINE
WORKABILITY
BOX

WORKABILITY FACTOR
40
AGGREGATE SIZE

B 35
A LINE
ROL
x CONT
30
PLACEMENT TECHNIQUES
COARSE

A - SLIPFORM 25
B - FORM & PLACE
C - HAND
20
80 70 60 50 40 30
COARSENESS FACTOR

Figure 6.3 Aggregate Proportioning Guide for Combined Aggregate

20
18
16
14
% Retained

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
50mm

25mm

19mm

9.5mm
37.5mm

12.5mm

16

30

50

100
4

Sieve Size

Figure 6.4 Percent Combined Aggregate Retained Graph

6.2.6 Step 6 - The weighted average specific gravity (ssd) for the combined
aggregate is calculated from the ratio of coarse aggregate to fine aggregate
that satisfies the aggregate grading control requirements as specified by the
Aggregate Proportioning Guide and the Percent Combined Aggregate

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Retained criteria, and the bulk specific gravities (ssd) of the individual
aggregate fractions. The ratio that satisfies the criteria of Step 5 was 58
percent by mass coarse aggregate and 42 percent by mass fine aggregate.
Therefore, the weighted average specific gravity (ssd) of the aggregate
blend is calculated by the following:

6.2.6.1 S wa(ssd) = (%CA*S ca(ssd) + %BA*S ba(ssd) + %FA*S fa(ssd) )/100

where:

6.2.6.2 %CA = 58
6.2.6.3 S ca(ssd) = 2.69
6.2.6.4 %BA = 0
6.2.6.5 S ba(ssd) = 0
6.2.6.6 %FA = 42
6.2.6.7 S fa(ssd) = 2.68
6.2.6.8 S wa(ssd) = ((58)*(2.69) + (42)*(2.68))/100 = 2.69
6.2.7 Step 7 - The water cementitious ratio required to produce the required
workability for slipform paver placement can be determined by laboratory
testing and field trial batches, and shall not exceed the 0.45 maximum. The
initial estimate of water cementitious ratio was taken to be between 0.40-
0.42, and trial batches made. A starting point for the water cementitious
ratio used in this example was 0.40. A water content of 134 kilograms per
cubic meter (225.6 pcy) of concrete is required based on a cement content
of 335 kilograms per cubic meter (564 pcy) of concrete and a water
cementitious ratio of 0.4.
6.2.7.1 W = (335 kg/m3)*(0.4) = 134 kg/m3
6.2.8 Step 8 - The unit mass of fresh concrete per cubic meter of concrete is
calculated next using the formula described in ACI 211.1.
6.2.8.1 U = 10* S wa *(100-A) + C*(1- S wa /Sc) - W*( S wa -1)

where:

6.2.8.2 Swa = 2.69

6.2.8.3 Sc = 3.15
6.2.8.4 A= 2.5 percent
6.2.8.5 W= 134 kg
6.2.8.6 C= 335 kg
6.2.8.7 U= 2445 kg/m3

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6.2.9 Step 9 - The total amount of combined aggregate required for the mix in
Kg per cubic meter (pcy) of concrete is calculated by subtracting the
amount of required water and cementitious material from the unit mass of
fresh concrete determined in Step 8.

6.2.9.1 For 1 cubic meter of concrete:

6.2.9.2 2445 kg/m3 (4115 pcy) total mass - 335 kg/m3 (564 pcy) of cement - 134
kg/m3 (225.6 pcy) of water = 1976 kg/m3 (3325 pcy) of combined
aggregate (ssd)

6.2.9.3 Of the 1976 kg/m3 (3325 pcy) of combined aggregate calculated in Step 9,
58 percent or 1146 kg/m3 (1929 pcy) of coarse aggregate(ssd), and 42
percent or 830 kg/m3 (1396 pcy) of fine aggregate(ssd).

6.2.9.4 The estimated batch weights for a cubic meter of concrete, in kilograms
are:

Water (mix) 134 kg

Cement 335 kg
Coarse aggregate (ssd) 1146 kg
Fine aggregate (ssd) 830 kg
Total mass 2445 kg

6.2.9.5 From an absolute volume basis per cubic meter are:

Water (mix) 134/1000 = 0.134

Cement 335/(3.15*1000) = 0.1063
Coarse aggregate (ssd) 1146/(2.69*1000) = 0.426
Fine aggregate (ssd) 830/(2.68*1000) = 0.3097
Air 0.025*1.0 = 0.025
Total volume 1.00 m3

6.2.10 Step 10 - Tests indicate total moisture contents of 3 percent over saturated
surface-dry in the coarse aggregate and 5 percent over ssd in the fine
aggregate. Adjusted coarse and fine aggregate mass, in kilograms per
cubic meter of concrete then becomes:

6.2.10.1 Coarse aggregate (wet) = 1146*(1.03) = 1180 kg/m3(1987 pcy)

Fine Aggregate (wet) = 830*(1.05) = 872 kg/m3 (1466 pcy)

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6.2.10.2 The required amount of mix water, in kilograms per cubic meter is then
reduced to:

6.2.10.3 134 - 1146*(0.03) - 830(0.05) = 58.1 kg/m3 (97.93 pcy)

6.2.10.4 The estimated adjusted batch weights, in kilograms per cubic meter of
concrete are:

Water (to be added) 58.1 kg

Cement 335 kg
Coarse aggregate (wet) 1180 kg
Fine aggregate (wet) 872 kg
Total mass 2445.1 kg

6.2.11 Step 11 - Laboratory trial batches are produced and tested in accordance
with ASTM C 192, “Standard Method of Making and Curing Concrete
Test Specimens in the Laboratory.” The concrete is checked for unit
weight and yield, ASTM C138, “Standard Test Method for Unit Weight,
Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete,” for air content,
ASTM C 231, “Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure
Method,” and for determining the minimum required flexural strength,
ASTM C 78, “Flexural Strength of Concrete Using Simple Beam with
Third-Point Loading.”

6.2.11.1 Adjustments to the mix to provide the required workability and air content
should be made by adjustments in water content (though not to exceed a
water cementitious ratio of 0.45) and by the use of chemical admixtures.
Once the desired strength requirements are satisfied, two other concrete
mixtures were prepared having two different water cement ratios to
evaluate their effect on flexural strength at 90 days.

6.2.12 Step 12 - The contractor placed a test strip of pavement representing 2

hours of mixing and placing operations and using that concrete and
equipment to perform the work. The contractor demonstrated that positive
control of edge slump and surface finish could be established and
maintained. He also demonstrated that this control could be maintained
according to environmental conditions.

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6.3 Example No. 2.

6.3.1 General Description.

6.3.2 Concrete is required for an airfield runway at McConnell AFB, Kansas. The
exposure is considered severe as designated by ACI 211. The limits for deleterious
substances and physical property requirements of the coarse aggregate and fine aggregate
can be found in Table 3, class designation 4S, and Table 1, respectively, in ASTM C 33.
The contractor plans to use slipform paving equipment to place the concrete, requiring the
workability of the concrete mixture be appropriate for use with that type of equipment.
Structural considerations require a flexural strength of 5 MPa (750 psi) at 90 days. Type
II Portland cement will be used having a specific gravity of 3.15.

6.3.3 The crushed limestone coarse aggregate available for the job corresponds to size
No. 67 having a nominal maximum size of 19mm to No. 4 according to ASTM C 33-93,
Table 2, “Grading Requirements for Coarse Aggregate.” The sieve analysis for the No. 67
coarse aggregate and the coarse aggregate grading are shown in Table 6.4 and Figure 6.5,
respectively.

TABLE 6.4 Coarse Aggregate Sieve Analysis and ASTM C 33 Limits for No. 67
Grading

ASTM C33 ASTM C33 % Passing

Grading Limit Grading Limit
Sieve Size (min) (max) No. 67
25mm 100 100 100
19mm 90 100 97.24
9.5mm 20 55 33.59
#4 0 10 2.88
#8 0 5 0.57
#16 0 0 0

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100
90
80
70

% Passing
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
25mm 12.5mm 4 16

Sieve Size

Figure 6.5 Grading of 19mm Nominal Coarse Aggregate and ASTM C33 Grading
Limits

6.3.4 The coarse aggregate has a bulk specific gravity (saturated surface dry) of 2.69
and an absorption of 0.33 percent. The dry-rodded unit mass of the coarse aggregate is
1570 kilograms per cubic meter (98 pcf).

6.3.5 The fine aggregate is a manufactured stone sand, and has a bulk specific gravity
(saturated surface-dry) of 2.76, an absorption of 3.3 percent, and fineness modulus of
3.12. The fine aggregate sieve analysis, fineness modulus calculation, and grading are
shown in Table 6.5 and Figure 6.6, respectively. The minimum fineness modulus required
by the USAF is 2.3, and the maximum limitation of ASTM C 33 for fineness modulus of
3.1 is NOT applicable for fine aggregate being used in this example. The fineness modulus
(FM) is determined by summing the percent cumulative retained values from the sieves
shown in Table 6.5, and the result (312), divided by 100, yields a FM value of 3.12.

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TABLE 6.5 Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis and ASTM C33 Fine Aggregate Grading

ASTM C33 ASTM C33 % Passing % Cumulative

Retained
Sieve Size Grading Limit Grading Limit Stone sand Stone Sand
(min) (max)
9.5mm 100 100 100 0
4 95 100 99 1
8 80 100 86 14
16 50 85 50 50
30 25 60 30 70
50 5 30 16 84
100 0 10 7 93
312

100
90
80
70
% Passing

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
9.5mm

16

30

50

100

Sieve Size

Figure 6.6 Grading of Fine Aggregate and Grading Limits of Fig. 3.11

6.4 The quantities of ingredients per cubic meter of concrete are calculated as follows:

6.4.1 Step 1 - Mix workability was determined by the contractor as appropriate

for placement by a slipform paver.

6.4.2 Step 2 - The locally available coarse aggregate having a nominal maximum
size of 19mm and graded from 19mm to No. 4, has been determined to be
suitable for this paving project.

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6.4.3 Step 3 - The amount of cementitious material in the form of Type II

Portland cement was chosen to be 363 kilograms per cubic meter (611
pcy) of concrete, meeting the minimum cementitious materials factor
specified in this handbook.

6.4.4 Step 4 - From Table 4.1, the amount of air, based on the nominal maximum
aggregate size of 19mm, and being in a severe exposure region, should be 6
percent within -1 to +2 percentage points.

6.4.5 Step 5 - The ratio of coarse to fine aggregate for the combined aggregate is
determined from both the Aggregate Proportioning Guide and the Percent
Combined Aggregate Retained Graph. The amount of coarse aggregate
and fine aggregate is treated as a single component of the mix, and the
amount of the combined aggregate will be determined in Step 9 of this
sequence.

6.4.5.1 The individual coarse and fine aggregate sieve analyses and the combined
sieve analysis based on 62 percent coarse and 38 percent fine aggregate are
shown in Table 6.6. This ratio is determined by trial-and-error until the
combination of available aggregates meet the requirements specified by the
Aggregate Proportioning Guide and the Percent Combined Aggregate
Retained Graph as defined in Chapter 3 of the handbook. The workability
factor, defined as the amount of combined aggregate material passing the
No. 8 sieve, is shown to be 33.03. An additional 1.25 percent is added to
the 33.03 determined from the percent passing the No. 8 sieve, since the
cement factor of 363 kg/m3 (611 pcy) is 28 kg/m3 (47 pcy) more than the
base cement factor. Therefore, the adjusted workability factor is 34.28. A
2.5 percent adjustment in the workability factor is required for each 56
kg/m3 (94 pcy) of cement above the base cement factor of 335 kg/m3 (564
pcy). The coarseness factor, defined as the percent of combined aggregate
retained above the 9.5mm sieve divided by that which is retained above the
No. 8 sieve multiplied by 100, is calculated to be 61.48.

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TABLE 6.6 Sieve Analysis of Combined Aggregate

% Passing % Passing Combined Combined Combined

Coarse Fine % % Cumulative %
Sieve Size Aggregate Aggregate Passing Retained Retained
1 100 100 100.00 0.00 0.00
3/4 97.24 100 98.29 1.71 1.71
1/2 60.65 100 75.60 24.40 22.69
3/8 33.59 100 58.83 41.17 16.78
4 2.88 99 39.41 60.59 19.42
8 0.57 86 33.03 66.97 6.37
16 0 50 19.00 81.00 14.03
30 30 11.40 88.60 7.60
50 16 6.08 93.92 5.32
100 7 2.66 97.34 3.42
WF=33.03 CF=61.48

6.4.5.2 The plot of the combined aggregate on the Aggregate Proportioning

Guide, and the Percent Aggregate Retained Graph are shown in Figures
6.7 and 6.8, respectively. The 60 percent coarse and 40 percent fine
aggregate combined aggregate data point, in Figure 6.7, is located just
above the centerline within the workability box, which is just where it
should be for placing concrete using a slipform paving equipment.
However, this does not include the expected daily variance. The Percent
Combined Aggregate Retained plot of the combined aggregate, in Figure
6.8, shows no significant valley or peak between the 9.5mm sieve size and
the finest reporting sieve size.

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45

FINE
WORKABILITY
BOX

WORKABILITY FACTOR
40

AGGREGATE SIZE
C

B 35
A
x NE
N T R OL LI
CO
30
PLACEMENT TECHNIQUES
COARSE

A - SLIPFORM 25
B - FORM & PLACE
C - HAND
20
80 70 60 50 40 30
COARSENESS FACTOR

Figure 6.7 Aggregate Proportioning Guide for Combined Aggregate

25

20
% Retained

15

10

0
25mm

19mm

9.5mm
12.5mm

100
4

16

30

50

Sieve Size

Figure 6.8 Percent Combined Aggregate Retained Graph

6.4.6 Step 6 - The weighted average specific gravity (ssd) for the combined
aggregate is calculated from the ratio of coarse aggregate to fine aggregate
that satisfies the aggregate grading control requirements as specified by the
Aggregate Proportioning Guide and Percent Combined Aggregate
Retained criteria, and the bulk specific gravity’s (ssd) of the individual
aggregate fractions. The ratio that satisfies the criteria of Step 5 was 62
percent by weight coarse aggregate and 38 percent by weight fine
aggregate. Therefore, the weighted average specific gravity (ssd) of the
aggregate blend is calculated by the following:

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6.4.6.1 S wa(ssd) = (%CA*S ca(ssd) + %BA*S ba(ssd) + %FA*S fa(ssd) )/100

where:

6.4.6.2 %CA = 62
6.4.6.3 S ca(ssd) = 2.69
6.4.6.4 %BA = 0
6.4.6.5 S ba(ssd) = 0
6.4.6.6 %FA = 38
6.4.6.7 S fa(ssd) = 2.76
6.4.6.8 S wa(ssd) = ((62)*(2.69) + (38)*(2.76))/100 = 2.72
6.4.7 Step 7 - The water cementitious ratio required to produce the required
workability for slipform paver placement can be determined by laboratory
testing and field trial batches, and shall not exceed the 0.45 maximum. The
initial estimate of water cementitious ratio was taken to be between 0.40-
0.42, and trial batches made. A starting point for the water cementitious
ratio used in this example was 0.42. A water content of 152 kilograms per
cubic meter (257 pcy) of concrete is required based on a cement content
363 kilograms per cubic meter (611 pcy) of concrete and a water
cementitious ratio of 0.42.

6.4.7.1 W = (363 kg/m3)*(0.42) = 152 kg/m3

6.4.8 Step 8 - The unit mass of fresh concrete per cubic meter of concrete is
calculated next using the formula described in ACI 211.1.

6.4.8.1 U = 10* S wa *(100-A) + C*(1- S wa /Sc) - W*( S wa -1)

where:

6.4.8.2 Swa = 2.72

6.4.8.3 Sc = 3.15
6.4.8.4 A = 6 percent
6.4.8.5 W = 152 kg
6.4.8.6 C = 363 kg
6.4.8.7 U = 2345 kg/m3

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6.4.9 Step 9 - The total amount of combined aggregate required for the mix in
kilograms per cubic meter (pcy) of concrete is calculated by subtracting the
amount of required water and cementitious material from the unit mass of
fresh concrete determined in Step 8.

6.4.9.1 For 1 cubic meter of concrete:

6.4.9.2 2345 kg/m3 (3954 pcy) total mass - 363 kg/m3 (611 pcy) of cement - 152
kg/m3 (256.6 pcy) of water = 1830 kg/m3 (3078 pcy) of combined
aggregate(ssd).

6.4.9.3 Of the 1830 kg/m3 (3084 pcy) of combined aggregate calculated in Step 9,
62 percent or 1135 kg/m3 (1912 pcy) of coarse aggregate(ssd), and 38
percent or 695 kg/m3(1172 pcy) of fine aggregate (ssd).

6.4.9.4 The estimated batch weights for a cubic meter of concrete, in kilograms
are:

Water (mix) 152 kg

Cement 363 kg
Coarse aggregate (ssd) 1135 kg
Fine aggregate (ssd) 695 kg
Total weight 2345 kg

6.4.9.5 From an absolute volume basis per cubic meter are:

Water (mix) 152/1000 = 0.152

Cement 363/(3.15*1000) = 0.115
Coarse aggregate (ssd) 1135/(2.69*1000) = 0.421
Fine aggregate (ssd) 695/(2.76*1000) = 0.252
Air 0.06*1.0 = 0.06
Total volume 1.00 m3

6.4.10 Step 10 - Tests indicate total moisture contents of 1 percent over saturated
surface-dry in the coarse aggregate and 2 percent over SSD in the fine
aggregate. Adjusted coarse and fine aggregate mass, in kilograms per
cubic meter of concrete then become:

6.4.10.1 Coarse aggregate (wet) = 1135*(1.01) = 1146 kg/m3 (1932 pcy) Fine
Aggregate (wet) = 695*(1.02) = 709 kg/m3 (1195 pcy)

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6.4.10.2 The required amount of mix water, in kilograms per cubic meter is then
reduced to:

6.4.10.3 152 - 1135*(0.01) - 695(0.02) = 127.25 kg/m3 (214.5 pcy).

6.4.10.4 The estimated adjusted batch weights, in kilograms per cubic meter of
concrete are:

Water (to be added) 127.25 kg

Cement 363 kg
Coarse aggregate (wet) 1146 kg
Fine aggregate (wet) 709 kg
Total weight 2345.25 kg

6.4.11 Step 11 - Laboratory trial batches are produced and tested in accordance
with ASTM C 192, “Standard Method of Making and Curing Concrete
Test Specimens in the Laboratory.” The concrete is checked for unit
weight and yield, ASTM C138, “Standard Test Method for Unit Weight,
Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete,” for air content, ASTM
C 231, “Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method,”
and for determining the minimum required flexural strength, ASTM C 78,
“Flexural Strength of Concrete Using Simple Beam with Third-Point
Loading.”

6.4.11.1 Adjustments to the mix to provide the required workability and air content
should be made by adjustments in water content (though not to exceed a
water cementitious ratio of 0.45) and by the use of chemical admixtures.
Once the desired strength requirements are satisfied, two other concrete
mixtures were prepared having two different water cement ratios to
evaluate their effect on flexural strength at 90 days.

6.4.12 Step 12 - The contractor placed a test strip of pavement representing 2

hours of mixing and placing operations and using that concrete and
equipment to perform the work. The contractor demonstrated that positive
control of edge slump and surface finish could be established and
maintained. He also demonstrated that this control could be maintained
according to environmental conditions.

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UNITED STATES AIR FORCE GUIDE SPECIFICATION

MILITARY AIRFIELD CONSTRUCTION

************************************************************************
Notes to the Specifier:

This specification should be used for airfield pavement re-construction or new

construction where the placed concrete exceeds 3000 cubic meters.

These specifications must be modified to include applicable options. Where options are
to be made, or elective procedures are to be specified, the sections are identified by a
line of preceding asterisks, indentation, and following asterisks (as is this note). Prior
to publication of these documents as part of the project, all comments/instructions/options
which are identified as such are to be deleted from the text.

THIS SPECIFICATION ENCOURAGES “SHARED RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE

PRODUCT” BETWEEN THE CONTRACTOR AND THE AIR FORCE. IT IS
NECESSARY THAT THE ENGINEER AND THE CONTRACTOR MAINTAIN A
POSITIVE PRESENCE ON THE WORK DURING THE PROGRESS OF THE WORK.
THE INTENT OF THE SPECIFICATION IS TO USE PROCESS CONTROL TO
IDENTIFY FAULTY MATERIALS AND/OR PROCEDURES PRIOR TO THE
PLACEMENT OF FRESH CONCRETE.

THIS DOCUMENT WAS DEVELOPED WITH THE PARTICIPATION OF

PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS WHICH REPRESENT THE CONCRETE
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY. MODIFICATIONS OF THE
DOCUMENT MAY VIOLATE THE SPIRIT OF THAT PARTICIPATION.
THEREFORE, APPROVAL OF MODIFICATION IS REQUIRED, BY
HQ AFCESA/CES, FOR OTHER THAN DESIGNATED OPTIONS.

This guide specification incorporates a Quality Assurance/Quality Control

(QA/QC) construction management philosophy. The Government will use the
results from the testing of materials and/or products, accomplished by the
Contractor, for "Assurance" that the construction, as placed, is in reasonable
conformance with this specification. These QA results are used by the Government
for acceptance of the built product. The QA monitor may be people in the employ
of the government or people under contract through professional services
agreements.

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The Contractor is required to provide testing services (QC) to monitor construction
compliance with this specification.

When preparing contract documents for the construction of rigid pavement

systems refer to: AFM 88-6, Chapter 8, "Standard Practice for Concrete
Pavements"; AFP 88-71, "Standard Details for the Construction and Repair of
Airfield Pavement Systems"; AFM 88-6, Chapter 7, "Standard Practice for
Sealing Joints and Cracks in Rigid and Flexible Pavements"; and, AFM 88-6,
Chapter 10, "Repair of Rigid Pavements Using Epoxy-Resin Grouts, Mortars,
and Concretes."

The point of contact for this document is HQ AFCESA/CESC, 139 Barnes Drive-
Suite 1, Tyndall AFB, FL, 32403-5319. The document coordinator is Mr Jim
Lafrenz on (904) 283 6332 or E-mail lafrenzj@afcesa.af.mil.
************************************************************************

RIGID CONCRETE PAVEMENT FOR AIRFIELDS

SECTION

PART 1 - GENERAL

1.1 APPLICABLE PUBLICATIONS: The publications listed below form a part of this
specification. The publications are referred to in the text by basic designation only.

************************************************************************
The designations for publications are those that were in effect when this guide
specification was prepared. To minimize the possibility of error, the letter suffixes,
amendments, and dates indicating specific issues are retained here and are to be omitted
in the project documents.
************************************************************************

1.1.1 Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Handbook for Concrete and
Cement:

CRD-C 55-91 Concrete Within Batch Uniformity (used for determination

of the minimum time of mixing)

CRD-C 119-91 Flat and Elongated Particles in Coarse Aggregate

(Rev Jun 1963)

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CRD-C 400-63 Water for Use in Mixing or Curing Concrete

1.1.2 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Publications:

A 120-84 Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped Zinc- Coated

(Galvanized) Welded and Seamless, for Ordinary Uses

A l84/A 184M-90 Fabricated Deformed Steel Bar Mats for Concrete

Reinforcement

A l85-94 Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Plain

A 497-94a Welded Deformed Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete

Reinforcement

A 6l5/A 615M-95b Bars, Deformed and Plain, Billet-Steel, for Concrete

Reinforcement

A 6l6/A 616M-95b Bars, Deformed and Plain, Rail Steel, for Concrete
Reinforcement

A 617/A 617M-95b Bars, Deformed and Plain, Axle-Steel, for Concrete

Reinforcement

C 3l-91 Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field

C 33-93 Concrete Aggregates

C39-94 Compressive Strength of Concrete Cylinders

C 70-94 Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate (R 1985)

C 75-87 Standard Practice for Sampling Aggregates

C 78-94 Flexural Strength of Concrete Using Simple Beam

with Third-Point Loading

C-88-90 Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use

of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate

C l23-94 Lightweight Pieces in Aggregate

C-127-88 Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity and

Absorption of Coarse Aggregate

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C-128-93 Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity and
Absorption of Fine Aggregate

C-131-89 Resistance to Degradation of Small Size Coarse

Aggregate by the Los Angeles Abrasion Machine

C l36-95a Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates

C l42-78 (1990) Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregates (R 1990)

C l50-95 Portland Cement

C 172-90 Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete

C 23l-91b Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure

Method

C 260-94 Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete

C 289-94 Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Aggregates

C 295-90 Petrographic Examination Aggregates for Concrete

C 309-94 Liquid Membrane-Forming Compounds for Curing

Concrete

C 311-94b Sampling and Testing Flyash or Natural Pozzolans

for use as a Mineral Admixture

C 494-92 Chemical Admixtures for Concrete

C 535-89 Resistance to Degradation of Large Size Coarse

Course Aggregate in the Los Angeles Abrasion Machine

C 566-89 Total Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying

C 595M - 95 Blended Hydraulic Cements

C 618-89a Fly Ash and Raw or Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral
Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete

C 881-90 Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding Systems for Concrete

C 1064 - 86 Temperature of Freshly Mixed Portland Cement Concrete

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D 1751 Preformed Expansion Joint Filler for Concrete Paving and

Structural Construction (Nonextruding and Resilient
Bituminous Types)

D l752 Preformed Sponge Rubber and Cork Expansion Joint

Fillers for Concrete Paving and Structural Construction

1.1.3 U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards:

National Bureau of Standards (NBS) Handbook 44 - Specification, Tolerances, and

Other Technical Requirements for Weighing and Measuring Devices.

1.2 ACCEPTANCE TESTING/ QUALITY CONTROL (QC) PROCEDURES:

1.2.1 Acceptance Testing: The Government may supplement the results of the material
testing which is accomplished by the Contractor to evaluate construction for acceptance.
The Contractor shall provide copies of all QC testing results and daily reports to the
Contracting Officer representative within 24-hours of the work represented. The
government may elect to supplement the quality control testing with quality assurance
testing accomplished by another party.

1.2.2 Quality Control (QC) Testing by Contractor: The Contractor shall perform the
Quality Control (QC) functions required by this specification. The QC Laboratory ( QC
LAB) shall accomplish concrete mixture proportioning and the daily monitoring of the
concrete mixing and placing. The minimum daily monitoring requirements are described
in paragraph CONTRACTOR QUALITY CONTROL, in Part 3, of this specification.
Within 15 days after the Notice to Proceed date, the Contractor shall submit a
qualifications statement of the proposed QC LAB. The Government will review the
qualifications of the laboratory and, if necessary, visit the QC LAB. Evaluation criteria will
include respective State or National accreditation and/or certification programs.

1.2.2.1 The Contractor shall retain the services of an independent commercial

testing laboratory to perform the QC LAB functions; and/or,

1.2.2.2 The Contractor can use a contractor owned quality control staff provided
that all of the following conditions are met to the satisfaction of the Contracting
Officer.

a. The Contractor's quality control function is and has been a part of the
organization for a minimum of 2-years;

b. Each quality control technician is qualified through certification by a national

organization, or has a degree in a related engineering field;
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c. The quality control manager shall be a full time employee of the Contractor, shall
have a minimum of 5 years' experience in construction materials testing and shall
have authority to stop all work associated with the incorporation of non-conforming
materials into the project; and

d. Certification from a State or National entity that the equipment used by the
Contractor to perform quality control testing conforms to the applicable testing
standards and that calibrations of the testing equipment are current.

1.2.3 Concrete Mixture Proportioning Studies: After the aggregate source is

approved, as described in paragraph MATERIAL ACCEPTANCE TESTING, below,
and at least 45-days before the time when placing of concrete is expected to begin, the QC
LAB shall start mixture proportioning studies.

1.2.4 Pavement Construction Test Section: The Contractor shall demonstrate

performance to the intent of this specification.

1.2.4.1 The intent of the test section is to allow the Contractor to demonstrate that
the concrete can be placed within the specified conditions. The Contractor is
expected to adjust the mix, adjust equipment, and modify procedures such that by
the end of the test strip the best possible product is attained. That part of the test
strip which does not meet the minimum requirements of these specifications shall be
removed and replaced without additional cost to the Government.

1.2.4.2 The Contractor shall demonstrate mixing, transporting, placing, finishing,

application of cure, protection, construction of transverse joints, and the
performance of the quality control functions specified. Any adjustments of the mix,
placing, or finishing procedures to meet field conditions will be coordinated with the
Contracting Officer representative prior to implementation by the Contractor. The
Contractor shall obtain written approval of the test section, from the Contracting
Officer, before proceeding with the work. The test section approval/rejection will be
issued by the Government at the end of the day on which the test section is placed.

1.2.5 Daily "Pour Agreement": The Contractor, or designated representative, the

Government representative, and the QC LAB representative shall sign an agreement at the
close of each day of concrete placement. The agreement shall state that the procedures
used for the day's placement meet or exceed the performance demonstrated at the test
section and that the next placement may proceed. Any one of the signatory persons may
elect to not sign. All signatory members have equal authority. When a signatory member
does not sign, the reasons shall be stated and the deficiency corrected or agreement shall
be made on the corrective action. Those people designated to execute the agreement shall
be participants at the test section construction.

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1.3. MATERIAL ACCEPTANCE TESTING:

1.3.1 Preconstruction Sampling and Testing:

1.3.1.1 Aggregates: Aggregates shall be produced from sources of the

Contractor's choice. The aggregates shall be tested to determine specific gravity,
absorption, Los Angeles abrasion, sulfate soundness, soundness, alkali or carbonate
reaction, and organic impurities. A petrographic analysis shall be performed on all
aggregates unless there is a record of performance, of at least five years, for the
aggregate source.

1.3.1.2 Sampling and Testing: The Contractor shall accomplish aggregate

sampling and testing of the aggregates for quality determination. The Government
will observe the aggregate sampling. The Contractor shall provide split samples to
the Government. All quality testing results shall be provided to the Contracting
Officer at least 10 days before starting a mixture proportioning study.

1.3.1.3 Portland Cement: The Contractor shall submit the identity of the cement
manufacturer, the engineering and chemical qualities of the cement, and a
manufacturer's statement which states that the cement complies with the intent and
requirements of this specification. The Contractor, or the supplier, is prohibited
from changing cement sources during the progress of the work without submitting
the same information which qualified the original source. The submittal shall be
made at least 10 days before starting a mixture proportioning study. When the
Contractor changes sources of cement, strength testing shall be accomplished as if
the work were just beginning.

1.3.1.4 Admixtures: The Contractor may use admixtures. Within 15-days after
date of notice to proceed, the Contractor shall provide a listing of all chemical and
mineral admixtures proposed for use in the concrete mixture. The Contractor
assumes all responsibility for the use of admixtures and the results of that election.
All mixture proportioning studies will be accomplished with the proposed
admixtures included.

1.3.1.4.1 Chemical Admixtures: The chemical admixtures used in the

concrete mixture shall be chemically compatible and shall not result in an
adverse chemical reaction when combined with other ingredients. The
Contractor shall produce a history of performance when admixtures are being
supplied by multiple vendors. High-range water-reducing admixtures are not
allowed.

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1.3.1.4.2 Mineral Admixtures: The Contractor may use flyash as a part of
the concrete mixture. The Contractor shall submit, within 15-days after date
of notice to proceed, data which identifies the source and the characteristics of
the flyash proposed for use in the concrete mixture.

1.3.1.5 Curing Compound: At least 30 days before the material will be used on
the work, the Contractor shall submit a manufacturer statement which certifies that
the material conforms to the intent and requirements of these specifications. The
Contractor shall not incorporate the curing compound into the work unless the
Contracting Officer has provided specific written acceptance of the product
proposed. The Contractor shall provide the Government a one gallon sample from
the lot(s) of material used on the work at the beginning of the work.

1.3.1.6 Epoxy-Resin Material: At least 30 days before the material is used, the
Contractor shall submit a warrant by the manufacturer that the material conforms to
the requirements of these specifications. When epoxy resin arrives at the job site,
the Government shall sample the material and may either test the sample or retain in
storage.

1.4. GRADE AND SURFACE-SMOOTHNESS REQUIREMENTS: The finished

surface of pavements shall conform to the elevations provided in the contract drawings.
The smoothness requirements of Table 4.2 are applicable.

1.4.1 Grade Control: Line and grade shown on contract drawings shall be established
and maintained by the Contractor. Elevations of bench marks at the site of work will be
determined, established, and maintained by the Government.

1.4.2 Plan Grade: Finished surfaces shall conform to the grade and cross sections
indicated on drawings. Deviations from the plan elevation will be permitted only where
the proper functioning of drainage, appurtenant structures, or matching to existing
pavement elevation is required. The grade controls of Table 1.4.2 shall not be exceeded.

************************************************************************
The Table 1.4.2 is to be edited to delete the pavement category which does not apply to
the work being specified. The Table 1.4.2 applies to operational surfaces only. Criteria
for shoulders, overruns, etc., should be specified in the surfacing specification for the
respective pavement category. Reference AFR 86-14, Airfield and Heliport Planning
Criteria, for criteria for other airfield pavement categories.

************************************************************************

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TABLE 1.4.2 GRADE CONTROLS FOR AIRFIELD PAVEMENT

OPERATING SURFACES

Pavement Longitudinal Transverse

Category

Runway Max Grade 1.0%. Maximum 0.167% Max Grade 1.5%

change per 30 linear meters of Min Grade 1.0%
runway.

Taxiway Max Grade 1.5%. Maximum 1.0% Max Grade 1.5%

change per 30 linear meters of Min Grade 1.0%
taxiway.

Apron Max Grade 1.5% Max Grade 1.5%

Min Grade 0.5% Min Grade 0.5%

Other Same as Apron Same as Apron

Notes for Table 1.4.2:

(1) On runways, the maximum rate of longitudinal grade change is produced by vertical
curves having 185 meter lengths for each percent of algebraic difference between two
grades. A grade change is not allowed within the first 915 meters from the runway end.
(2) On runways, the transverse grade is to remain constant except at intersections where
pavement surfaces must be warped.
(3) On taxiways, the minimum distance between two points of intersection for a change in
grade is 150 meters. Changes in grade are done using vertical curves.

1.4.3 Surface Smoothness:

1.4.3.1 Surface Smoothness: Finished surfaces shall not deviate from the testing
edge of a 3.5 meter straightedge more than tolerances shown for the respective
pavement category in Table 1.4.3.

************************************************************************
The Table 1.4.3 shall be edited to delete the pavement category(s) which do not apply to
the proposed work.
************************************************************************

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TABLE 1.4.3. SURFACE-SMOOTHNESS TOLERANCES

Pavement Category Direction of Testing Allowable Tolerance

Runway and Taxiway Longitudinal 3 mm
Transverse 6 mm
Calibration Stands and Longitudinal 5 mm
Compass Swing Bases Transverse 5 mm
All Other Airfield Areas Longitudinal 6 mm
Transverse 6 mm

1.4.3.2 Edge Slump: Edge slump is the downward movement of the concrete
along the pavement edge measured not more than 450 millimeters from the free
edge. When a slip-form paver is used, 85 percent of the pavement, within a distance
of one full slab length, shall have an edge slump less than 6 millimeters, and 100
percent of the pavement, within a distance of one full slab length, shall have an edge
slump less than 9.5 millimeters. Edge slump will be determined by using the
procedures described in paragraph EDGE SLUMP DETERMINATION, below.
The use of paving equipment and/or procedures that fail to provide pavement edges
within the above limitations shall not be allowed.

1.4.4 Surface Evaluation Techniques: The finished surface shall be evaluated for
conformance with the plan grade and surface smoothness and edge slump by the
Contractor.

1.4.4.1 Equipment: The Contractor shall furnish and keep at the job site one 3.5
meter straightedge for each operating paver. The straightedge shall be used for
testing the surface smoothness and/or edge slump of placed concrete. Wood shall
not be used. The straightedge shall have a flat bottom and shall be adequately rigid
to assure accuracy.

1.4.4.2 Surface-Smoothness Determinations: When the concrete is hard enough

to walk upon without damage to the surface, but not later than 24 hours after
placement, the Contractor shall test the pavement surface for smoothness. The
testing will be observed by the Government. Testing shall be accomplished using a
3.5 meter straightedge which shall be placed to reveal surface irregularities. The
entire area of the pavement shall be tested in both the longitudinal and transverse
direction. The straightedge shall be held in contact with the surface and moved

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ahead one-half the length of the straightedge for each successive measurement and
continuing across transverse joints.

1.4.4.2.1 Deviations: Deviations from the smoothness criteria caused by the

edge slump shall not be considered. Deviations caused by high areas along
construction joints shall be considered.

1.4.4.2.2 High Areas: The height of a high area on a pavement surface shall
be determined by placing the center of the straightedge at the center of the
high area and rocking the straightedge until one end comes in contact with the
pavement. With one end of the straightedge grounded, measure the distance
between the pavement surface and the bottom of the straightedge at the
opposite end. One-half the measurement will be the high area height.

1.4.4.3 Edge Slump Determination: When the concrete will support walking
without damage to the surface, the pavement shall be tested by the Contractor with
a 3.5 meter straightedge. The edge slump shall be determined at each free edge of
each paving lane. The straightedge will be placed transverse to the direction of
paving with the end of the straightedge at the free edge of the paving lane.
Measurements will be made at increments of not more than one slab length.

1.4.5 Surface Deficiencies and Corrections:

1.4.5.1 High Areas: High areas shall be reduced by grinding the hardened
concrete. Grinding shall only be accomplished when the concrete can support the
weight of the equipment without damage to the surface.

1.4.5.2 Excessive Edge Slump: Adding concrete to or otherwise manipulating the

fresh concrete shall not be used as a method to correct edge slump. Edge slump
shall be corrected by adjustment of the concrete mixture or the paving machine.
Where edge slump exceeds the allowable, the placed concrete exceeding the limits
of edge slump shall be removed and replaced. Removal shall be done according to
paragraph REMOVAL AND REPLACEMENT OF DEFECTIVE
CONCRETE. Removal shall be across the full width of the pavement lane or to the
nearest planned longitudinal joint when multiple lanes are placed. Removal shall be
to the nearest planned transverse joints which isolates the edge slump deficiencies.

1.5. EQUIPMENT AND CONSTRUCTION METHODS ACCEPTANCE:

1.5.1 Plant and Equipment: The Contracting Officer representative retains right of
access to Contractor's equipment during the progress of the work. The purpose is to
evaluate operation of the plant, verify proportions, temperature, mixing time, and
character of the materials. The Contractor shall submit descriptions of the equipment
proposed for use on the project.

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1.5.1.1 Batch Plant and Mixers: The Contractor shall submit detailed
specifications of the concrete plant.

1.5.1.2 Transport Equipment: The Contractor shall provide the quantity and
description of the equipment proposed for transporting concrete from the mixing
plant to the placing equipment.

1.5.1.3 Placing Equipment: The Contractor shall describe the equipment

proposed to place concrete.

1.5.1.4 Finishing Equipment: The Contractor shall describe the equipment

proposed to finish the surface and the method of surface texturing.

1.5.2 Construction Methods: The Contracting Officer representative will review and
approve (or reject) proposed special construction methods which may be necessary
because of weather conditions encountered during the work.

1.5.2.1 Cold Weather Requirements: The Contractor shall prepare a cold

weather concreting plan which describes the materials and methods to be used by
the Contractor when protection is required.

1.5.2.2 Hot Weather Requirements: The Contractor shall prepare a plan which
describes the methods and materials which shall be used to protect concrete under
hot weather conditions. Hot weather conditions shall be assumed to prevail when
the surface evaporation rate exceeds 0.2 pounds per square foot per hour as
determined by using the chart included in ACI 305R-91, Hot Weather Concreting,
Fig 2.1.5. All concrete placement shall cease when the temperature of the fresh
concrete exceeds 90 degrees F.

1.5.3 Pavement Test Section:

1.5.3.1 Construction Methods: The Contractor shall place a pavement test

section, within the limits of the work, at a location agreed to by the Contracting
Officer and the Contractor. The Contractor shall place and finish concrete using the
people, procedures, and equipment which will be used on the work. A minimum of
2 hours of mixing and placing concrete, at anticipated production capacity, shall be
incorporated into the test section.

1.5.3.2 Test Section Acceptance: Those individuals designated to execute the

daily pour agreements will observe the construction of the test section. When the
section is rejected, or portions thereof, the cause shall be documented and reasons
for rejection provided. The concrete placed within a test section that is not accepted
shall be removed and replaced, by the Contractor, without cost to the government.
The work will not proceed until the Contractor can demonstrate the placement and
finish of an acceptable test section.
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1.6 MATERIAL DELIVERY, STORAGE, AND HANDLING:

1.6.1 Cementitious Materials: Cementitious materials include Portland cement and

flyash.

1.6.1.1 Transportation: When bulk cement and/or flyash is transported to the

batching plant, it shall be transported within a weathertight conveyance that protects
the cement and/or flyash from exposure to moisture.

1.6.1.2 Storage: Cementitious materials shall be stored in dry, weathertight, and

properly ventilated structure(s). There shall be sufficient cementitious materials in
storage at the batch plant to sustain operations for the duration of the planned
placement.

1.6.2 Aggregates:

1.6.2.1 Storage: Each size of aggregate, from each source, as defined in the
mixture proportioning study, shall be stored separately in free-draining stockpiles.
There shall be a sufficient quantity of aggregates at the mixing plant to permit
continuous uninterrupted operation for the duration of the planned placement.

1.6.2.2 Handling: Aggregate shall be handled in a manner to prevent segregation

and breakage. Vehicles used for stockpiling or moving aggregate shall be kept clean
of foreign materials. Aggregates shall be stockpiled upon a stabilized surface which
precludes the possibility of introducing earth or foreign debris into the stockpile.
Stockpiles found to be contaminated by earth or placed in a manner which allows
segregation shall be rejected. Determination of contamination and segregation
mitigation shall be accomplished by the signature delegates to the “pour agreement.”

END PART 1 - GENERAL

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PART 2 - PRODUCTS AND MATERIALS

2.1 PAVEMENT QUALITY CONCRETE MIXTURES: Materials used for the

concrete mixture shall include Portland cement, admixtures (chemical and/or mineral
selected by the Contractor), aggregate, and water. The proportions of the mixture shall be
determined by the Contractor.

2.1.1 Portland-Cement: Portland cement shall conform to ASTM C-150, Type _____
and shall be delivered to the site of the mixing plant in dry sealed containers. The
temperature of the cement as delivered to the site of the mixing plant shall not exceed 150
degrees Fahrenheit.

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Note: The type of cement to be used will be specified by using one of the following
designations.

Type I - For general purpose use when the special properties specified for any other
type are not required.

Type II - For general use and when moderate sulfate resistance or moderate heat of
hydration is desired.

Type III - For use where high early strength is desired. Type III is generally not used for
airfield pavement construction. It may be used for special conditions such as slab
replacements on primary surfaces which cannot be closed for more than 7-day periods.
The use of high cement factor concrete with Type I or II is encouraged before Type III is
specified.

Type V - For use where high sulfate resistance is desired.

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2.1.2 Admixtures: The use of chemical and/or mineral admixtures is the option of the
Contractor subject to review and acceptance by the Contracting Officer. When
admixtures are used they shall be incorporated into all mixture proportioning studies.

2.1.2.1 Chemical Admixtures: Admixtures shall comply with the requirements

of ASTM C 260 or ASTM C 494 and shall be compatible with other mixture
components. The addition of the admixtures shall not result in a chemical reaction
or change in physical properties of the concrete mixture that are adverse to
pavement quality concrete.

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2.1.2.2 Mineral Admixture: Flyash may be a component when used as a mineral
admixture. It shall conform to ASTM C 618, Class F or C. When flyash is used,
there shall be a minimum cement content of 307 kilograms per cubic meter. The
weight of flyash used in the mix shall not be less than 15 percent nor more than 2
percent when determined by dividing the weight of flyash by the combined weight
of flyash and Portland cement.

2.1.3 Aggregates: Aggregates shall comply with the quality requirements of

ASTM C-33. The grading requirements for coarse aggregates of ASTM C 33 do not
apply. Aggregates shall be combined to produce an aggregate grading which satisfies the
grading criteria of the approved mixture proportioning study. Crushed Portland cement
concrete may be used as an aggregate when the specified quality requirements are
satisfied.

2.1.3.1 Coarse Aggregate: Coarse aggregate is defined as that material retained

on and above the Number 4 ASTM Standard Sieve (#4 sieve) size.

2.1.3.1.1 Composition: Coarse aggregate shall be washed and shall

consist of gravel, crushed gravel, crushed stone, or a combination thereof.

2.1.3.1.2 Quality: Coarse aggregates, as delivered to stockpiles for use in

the project, shall consist of washed clean particles which satisfy the limits
for deleterious substances and physical property requirements of
ASTM C-33, Table 3.

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Note to the specifier: If the project is located within a severe weathering region, and
local concrete pavements have excessive popouts, or there is D-cracking, the limits for
the maximum allowable deleterious substances should be reduced to one-half of the given
values in ASTM C-33. The more restrictive limits should not be used for abrasion or
sulfate soundness.
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2.1.3.1.3 Particle Shape: Particle shape of the coarse aggregate shall be
generally rounded if gravel and cubical in shape if crushed. The quantity of
flat and elongated particles in any size group shall not exceed 20 percent,
by weight, as determined by CRD-C-119. A flat particle is defined as one
with a ratio of width to thickness greater than three. An elongated particle
is one having a ratio of length to width greater than three.

2.1.3.1.4 Size and Grading: The nominal maximum aggregate size shall
be ______inch, Class designation ________ as defined in ASTM C-33.

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The nominal maximum aggregate size is defined as the first sieve size less than the sieve
for which 100 percent of the material may pass. The nominal maximum sieve sizes used
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for airfield pavements are 37.5 millimeters, 25 millimeters, and 19 millimeters. In
geographical areas where D-cracking is a known distress, the maximum size shall be 19
millimeters.

Class designations include 1N for tropic environments, 4M for sub-tropic (moderate)

environments, and 4S where there are numerous cycles of freeze-thaw and/or harsh
environments where pavements are exposed to salts and severe cold temperatures.
Reference ASTM C-33 for weathering zone maps.
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2.1.4 Blending Sizes: Blending sizes are defined as intermediate size particles nominally
passing the 9.5 millimeter sieve and retained above the ASTM Number 50 Standard Sieve
(#50 sieve) size.

2.1.4.1 Composition: Blending sizes shall be washed clean materials of either

natural deposits, manufactured products, or combinations thereof.

2.1.4.2 Quality: Blending sizes shall meet the limits of deleterious substances
and/or physical property requirements of ASTM C 33 based upon the aggregate
sizes. Material which is of the coarse material size, by definition, shall meet coarse
aggregate quality requirements. The material portion which meets the definition of
the fine aggregate shall meet the quality requirements of the fine aggregate.

2.1.4.3 Particle Shape: The particles shall be generally cubical in shape without
the presence of elongated or slivered materials.

2.1.5 Fine Aggregate: Fine aggregate is defined as clean granular material which passes
an ASTM Number 4 Standard Sieve (#4 sieve) size.

2.1.5.1 Composition: Fine aggregate shall be natural sand(s), or, a blend of

mechanical (manufactured) sand and natural sand(s).

2.1.5.2 Quality: The limits for deleterious substances in the fine aggregate shall
not exceed those given in ASTM C 33, Table 1.

2.1.5.3 Grading: The fine aggregate, as delivered to the stockpile, should be

proportional to the limits of ASTM C 33 and geometrically similar to the lower
limit grading curve. The maximum limitation of the fineness modulus of 3.1
specified in ASTM C-33 is not applicable and may be exceeded. The fineness
moduli shall not be less than 2.3.

2.1.6 Water: Water for washing aggregates and for mixing concrete shall be fresh and
free from injurious amounts of oils, acid, salt, alkali, organic matter, and/or other
deleterious substances. The properties of the water shall exceed the minimum
requirements given in CRD C-400.
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2.2. MIXTURE PROPORTIONS: The concrete mixture proportions shall be

determined by the Contractor QC LAB. The proportioning shall be accomplished such
that workability, finish, and strength are achieved. Durability requirements will be
assumed to be satisfied when the mixture is proportioned as a well graded combined
aggregate and the range for air content and specified water-cement ratio are satisfied.
Workability shall be judged by the Contractor giving consideration to the intended method
of placement. An individual mixture proportion shall be developed for each expected
method of concrete placement; i.e., slipform, fixed form, or hand placement.

2.2.1 Composition: Concrete composition shall be Portland cement, water, aggregates,

and air entraining admixtures. Other chemical or mineral admixtures may be used at the
option of the Contractor.

2.2.2 Control of the Mixture: The Contractor is expected to adjust the mixture
proportions, as necessary, to maintain the workability depending on the construction
environment. The Contracting Officer shall be informed, by the Contractor, of any
changes to the mixture proportions after the performance of the test strip construction.

2.2.3 Combined Aggregate Grading:

2.2.3.1 Aggregate Grading Controls : The coarse aggregate, blending sizes

(when required), and fine aggregate shall be combined to be graded from the
coarse to the fine. Reports of grading shall include sieve sizes 50 millimeters, 37.5
millimeters, 25 millimeters, 19 millimeters, 12.5 millimeters, 9.5 millimeters, No.4,
No. 8, No. 16, No. 30, No. 50, and No. 100.

2.2.3.2 Percent Aggregate Retained Graph: The combined grading shall be

plotted on a graph as the percentage retained for each reporting sieve size versus
the considered sieve size. The Y-axis is the percent retained. The X-axis is the
sieve size. The plot of the graph should be a smooth curve showing a transition
between coarse and fine aggregate. The plot shall not have a significant valley or
peak between the 9.5 millimeter size and the finest reporting sieve size.
Interpretation of the grading requirement and examples of the presentation is given
in US Air Force publication, Proportioning Concrete Mixtures with Graded
Aggregates, A Handbook for Rigid Airfield Pavements.

2.2.3.3 Coarseness Factor/Workability Factor: The combined gradation shall

be used to calculate a coarseness factor and a workability factor.

2.2.3.3.1 The coarseness factor is defined as the percent of combined

aggregate retained on the No. 8 sieve which is also retained on the 9.5
millimeter sieve. It is calculated by dividing the percent of material
retained above the 9.5 mm sieve by the percent retained above the No. 8
sieve, times 100.
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2.2.3.3.2 The workability factor is defined as the percentage of combined

aggregate finer than the No. 8 sieve. The workability factor is adjusted by
2.5 units for each 43 kilograms per cubic meter of cementitious material
above or below a mixture cementitious materials content of 335 kilograms
per cubic meter. If the total cementitious material is 335 kilogams per
cubic meter, there is no adjustment.

2.2.3.3.3 The factors, defined above, shall be plotted on a chart similar to

Figure 2.2.3. The coarseness factor shall not be greater than 80 nor less
than 30. The plot of the workability factor and the coarseness factor shall
be a single point above the control line. The plot shall not be below the
control line. The aggregate grading shall be selected to allow for a
variance in the stockpile grading.
Figure 2.2.3 - Aggregate Proportioning Guide

45

40
WORKABILITY FACTOR

35

30
C O N T R O L L IN E

25

20
80 70 60 50 40 30

C O A R S E N E S S F A C TO R

2.2.4 Cementitious Materials Content: The minimum cementitious materials content

shall be 335 kilograms per cubic meter of concrete.

2.2.5 Water Cementitious Materials Ratio: The weight of water to weight of

cementitious materials ratio shall not exceed a value of 0.45.

2.2.6. Air Content: The air content, by volume, shall be ___________percent. The mix
proportioning study shall allow for air loss, or gain, because of mixing, transporting,
placement, temperature, and finishing. The air content for acceptance will be measured
from concrete samples selected from in front of the paver. Appropriate adjustments for
the air content at discharge from the mixer shall be included in the proportioning studies.
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Note to the Specifier: The target air content shall be selected from Table2.2.6. The
allowable variance during production is plus two and minus 1 percentage from the
target. The air loss between mixer and placement should be determined at the start of
production to allow for adjustment at the mixing plant.

TABLE 2.2.6 TARGET AIR CONTENT FOR CONCRETE

NOMINAL SEVERE MODERATE NEGLIGIBLE

MAXIMUM EXPOSURE EXPOSURE EXPOSURE
AGGREGATE
SIZE
37.5 mm 5 1/2 4 1/2 2 1/2
25 mm 6 4 1/2 3
19 mm 6 5 3 1/2

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2.2.7 Concrete Strength: The concrete shall be proportioned for a minimum flexural
strength of ____________ MPa at 90 days of age determined using the procedures of
ASTM C 78. The proportioning study shall be provided in report format and will include
a graph of the flexural strength versus time (in days) for the selected mixture proportions.
Concrete specimens shall be tested at the ages of 7, 14, 28 and 90 days, minimum. The 90
day test criteria will be waived when the 28-day strength exceeds 90 precent of the
strength specified.

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Note to the Specifier: The designer will specify the 90-day flexural strength used for the
thickness design of the pavement system. The value shall not exceed 4.5 MPa unless
local pavement construction history demonstrates that higher strengths are easily
achieved.
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2.2.8 Optional Concrete Strength Determination: The Contractor may elect to

develop a correlation between the flexural strength and the compressive strength of the
concrete. If the option is selected, the compressive strength criteria may be used in lieu of
flexural strength for concrete testing. The compressive strength correlation shall be
developed for each mixture to be used for the work. A total of fifteen (15) sets of
companion compressive cylinder specimens shall be made for the correlation from the first
fifteen sets of beams cast in the field. Minimum frequency for flexural testing is described
in paragraph CONTRACTOR QUALITY CONTROL, in Part 3 of this specification.

2.2.9 Concrete Mixture Proportions Adjustments: The Contractor shall adjust field
batch proportions to conform to the approved mixture proportioning study and when
necessary to adapt to environmental changes which vary the placement conditions.
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2.3. OTHER MATERIALS:

2.3.1 Reinforcement and Tie Bars: All materials used for reinforcement or tie bars shall
be free from loose flaky rust, loose scale, oil, grease, mud, or other deleterious materials
which would reduce the bond with the concrete.

2.3.1.1 Bar mats shall conform to ASTM A 184. Welded wire fabric shall
conform to ASTM A 185.

2.3.1.2 Tie bars shall be deformed steel bars conforming to ASTM A 615, A 616,
or A 617 with sizes and lengths indicated on the drawings.

2.3.2 Dowel Bars: Dowels shall be smooth steel bars fabricated or cut to length at the
shop or mill before delivery to the site. Dowels shall be free of loose flaky rust and loose
scale and shall be clean and straight. Dowels may be sheared to length provided that the
deformation from true shape caused by shearing does not exceed 1 millimeter on the
diameter of the dowel and does not extend more than 1 millimeter from the end of the
dowel. Dowels shall be epoxy coated steel bars, or painted on all surfaces with one coat
of paint meeting Federal Spec TT-P-664. Dowel bars shall conform to ASTM A 615,
grade 40 or 60; ASTM A 616, grade 50 or 60; or ASTM A 617, grade 40 or 60.

2.3.3 Epoxy Resin: All epoxy resin materials shall be two component materials
conforming to the specification of ASTM C-881, Type III or Type V.

2.3.3.1 The materials used for bonding freshly mixed Portland concrete to
hardened concrete shall be Type V materials.

2.3.3.2 The materials used for patching of spalls or other minor surface voids and
for use for embedding dowels shall be Type III. The grade used for embedding
dowels shall be Grade 3.

2.3.4 Joint Filler for Expansion Joints: Filler shall be preformed materials conforming
to ASTM D 1751 or ASTM D 1752.

2.3.5 Curing Materials: Membrane forming curing compounds shall be Type 2, Class
A, meeting the ASTM C 309-94 requirements.

END OF PART 2 - PRODUCTS AND MATERIALS

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PART 3 - EXECUTION

3.1. PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE:

3.1.1 Location of Plant: The drawings will identify the location of the mixing plant, the
stockpile areas, and egress when the mixing plant can be located on Government property.

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The specifier should check to see if the plant location, access to utilities, and haul routes
are clearly shown on the plans when a plant site is allowed on government property.
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3.1.2 Batching Plant: The batching plant will produce a mixture which is uniform and
consistent. The batching plant will have the capacity to produce a steady and consistent
supply to the paver. The capacity of the batching plant shall be consistent with the
placement capacity.

3.1.2.1 Equipment: The batching controls shall be either semiautomatic or

automatic. Separate bins or compartments shall be provided for each size group of
aggregate and for cementitious materials. If measured by weight, water shall not be
weighed cumulatively with another ingredient, and filling and discharging valves
shall be interlocked so that the discharge valve cannot be opened before the filling
valve is closed. An accurate mechanical device for measuring and dispensing each
admixture shall be provided.

3.1.2.2 Scales: Scales shall be provided for the accurate measurement and control
of each of the materials in each batch of concrete. The Contractor shall provide
standard test weights and any other auxiliary equipment required for checking the
operating performance of each scale or other measuring device.

3.1.2.3 Moisture Control: The plant shall be capable of adjustment to compensate

for moisture contents variations within aggregate stockpiles.

3.1.3 Concrete Mixers:

3.1.3.1 General: The mixer(s) shall not be charged in excess of the capacity
recommended by the manufacturer. The mixer drum(s) shall be kept free of
hardened concrete.

3.1.3.2 Mixers: Mixers shall be provided with an acceptable device to lock the
discharge mechanism until the required mixing time has elapsed.

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3.1.3.3 Mixing Time and Uniformity: The mixing time for each batch, after all
solid materials are in the mixer, will be determined using CRD-C 55 procedures.
The mixer discharge product shall meet the requirements of TABLE 3.1.3. Mixer
uniformity shall be determined prior to start of concrete mixing and placement by
the Contractor QC LAB.

TABLE 3.1.3 UNIFORMITY TOLERANCES IN CONCRETE MIXERS

Parameters Tested For Maximum permissible range

in results of tests and
samples taken from three
locations in the concrete
batch.

Weight per cubic meter of mortars 1.0

calculated to an air-free
basis, kg per cubic meter

Air content, volume percent of 1.0

concrete

Coarse aggregate content, portion 6.0

by weight of each sample retained
on No. 4 sieve, percent

Average compressive strength at 7 10.0

days for each sample based on
average strength of all test
specimens, percent

Water content, portion by weight 1.0

of each sample passing No. 4
sieve, percent

3.2. TRANSPORTING EQUIPMENT: Concrete shall be transported to the point of

discharge without segregation. Concrete may be placed directly in front of the paver by
the transport vehicle provided the vehicle can traffic the base surface without causing
rutting or deformation of the surface. The surface on which the pavement is being placed
shall be maintained free from foreign materials and concrete that has begun to harden.

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3.3. PLACING:

3.3.1 General: Concrete shall be placed within 45 minutes from the time water and
cement are charged into the mixing drum. Concrete shall be deposited as close as possible
to its final position. The placement of the concrete shall be uniform and continuous.
Workmen with foreign material on their footwear, or construction equipment that might
deposit foreign material, shall not be permitted in the placed concrete mixture.

3.3.2 Equipment: Mechanical pavers shall be self-propelled and shall be capable of

consolidating and shaping the plastic concrete to the desired cross section in one forward
pass. The paver shall finish the surface, and free edges, so that hand finishing is minimal.
The paver shall have sufficient weight and power to handle the amount of concrete
required for the full-lane width and depth without drag or distortion of the paver
components. The paver shall be equipped with vibrators automatically controlled so that
the vibrators stop as motion ceases.

3.3.3 Spreading: Spreading shall be by machine method except when transporting

equipment is permitted on the placement surface. When placed directly in front of the
paver, the concrete shall be spread evenly across the full width of the paving lane. Hand
spreading will be permitted only where required for odd widths or shapes. Hand
spreading shall be done with shovels; rakes are not allowed. Machines that cause
displacement of forms or rut the prepared placement surface shall not be used on the
project.

3.3.4 Vibration: Concrete shall be consolidated with mechanical vibrating equipment.

The number of vibrator units and the power of each shall be adequate to properly
consolidate the concrete. The vibrating unit shall be mounted on a frame with controls
which allow operation at any desired depth including withdrawal. Vibrators shall not be
used to spread the concrete.

3.3.5 Placing Reinforcing Steel:

3.3.5.1 Pavement Thickness Greater Than 300 Millimeters: Reinforcement

steel shall be installed by pressing it into plastic concrete which has been deposited
on the underlying material, consolidated, and struck to an elevation slightly higher
than the design elevation of the steel reinforcement. A cover layer of concrete will
be placed and consolidated within 30 minutes of the initial layer being placed.

3.3.5.2 Pavement Thickness Less Than 300 Millimeters: Reinforcement steel

shall be positioned on suitable chairs before concrete placement.

3.3.6 Placing During Inclement Weather: The Contractor shall submit to the
Contracting Officer a plan which describes the procedures for placement, finishing, curing,
and protection of concrete during periods of inclement weather.

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3.3.6.1 Placing During Cold Weather: Concrete placement shall be discontinued
when the ambient air temperature reaches 40 degrees Fahrenheit and is falling.
Placement may begin when the ambient air temperature, and the placement surface,
is at 35 degrees Fahrenheit and is rising. Provision shall be made to protect the
concrete from freezing during the curing period. Concrete damaged by freezing
shall be removed and replaced as specified in paragraph REMOVAL AND
REPLACEMENT OF DEFECTIVE CONCRETE.

3.3.6.2 Placing During Hot Weather: When the hot weather concreting
procedures are likely to apply, forms and the underlying material shall be sprinkled
with water immediately before placing the concrete. Concrete shall be placed at the
coolest temperature practicable, but in no case shall the temperature of the concrete,
when placed, exceed 90 degrees Fahrenheit.

3.4. FINISHING: Finishing operations shall be started immediately after placement of

the concrete. Hand methods of finishing are permitted only on odd shapes and in the
event of breakdown of the mechanical equipment. Finishing equipment and tools shall be
clean and in good condition.

3.4.1 Equipment: The finishing machines shall operate at a continuous and uniform
motion without dragging or distortion.

3.4.1.1 Transverse Finishing: Directly after placement, concrete shall be struck

off and screeded to the crown and cross section of the design drawings. Water shall
not be put on the surface of the concrete to facilitate finishing operations. Excessive
manipulation that builds mortar and water on the surface are not permitted.

3.4.1.2 Mechanical Floating: After completion of screeding, a mechanical float

may be operated to smooth and finish the pavement. The float shall be operated so
as to maintain contact with the surface at all times. Components of mechanical
devices which are used to float and finish the pavement surface shall have provision
to disperse water and slurry buildup.

3.4.2 Finishing After Slipform Paving: The slipform paver shall finish the surface and
the paving lane edges as the equipment maintains forward motion. The finishing
equipment shall be limited to the paver screed and a float. Floating may be accomplished
by hand and by mechanical bull floating. Under no circumstances shall concrete slurry be
accumulated on the surface of the finished concrete nor shall concrete slurry be permitted
to run down the vertical edges of the placed pavement. Concrete slurry shall not be used
to build up along the edges of the concrete to compensate for excessive edge slump.

3.4.3 Hand Finishing (Odd Shaped Slabs and Equipment Breakdown):

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3.4.3.1 Equipment: A straightedge and a longitudinal float shall be provided. The
handle for each shall be longer than one-half the width of pavement being finished.
The longitudinal float shall be at least 3 meters long, of rigid design and
construction, and substantially braced as to maintain a plane surface.

3.4.3.2 Finishing and Floating: As soon as placed and vibrated, the concrete shall
be struck off, screeded to the crown and cross section detailed, and the entire
surface floated.

3.4.4 Surface Correction and Testing: After finishing is completed but while the
concrete is still plastic, minor irregularities and score marks in the pavement surface shall
be eliminated by using straightedges. Straightedges shall be 4 meters in length (minimum)
and shall be operated from the sides of the pavement or from bridges. A straightedge
operated from the side of the pavement shall be equipped with a handle longer than one-
half the width of the pavement. The surface shall then be tested for trueness with a
straightedge held in successive positions parallel and at right angles to the center line of
the pavement as necessary to detect variations.

3.4.5 Texturing: A texture shall be applied after the surface sheen (bleed water)
disappears and prior to initial set. Hand texturing using the specified devices is allowed
for irregular or odd shaped slabs.

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Note to the Specifier: The specific type of texturing to be used depends on the planned
use of the pavement. Specific texturing requirements should be noted on the plans.
Artificial turf, burlap-drag, and broom finishing are all generally acceptable for most
pavements. The Air Force requires texturing for new runways and high-speed taxiways.
Subparagraphs of paragraph 3.4.5 .should be prepared from the following information to
match the specific project requirements.

Burlap-Drag Texture: Surface texture shall be applied by dragging the surface of

the pavement, in the direction of the concrete placement, with an approved multiple-
ply burlap drag at least 3 feet in width and equal in length to the width of paving.
The leading edge of the burlap shall be cleaned and changed as required. The
dragging shall be done so as to produce a uniform surface texture without
disfiguring marks.

Wire Comb Texture: Surface texture shall be applied using an approved wire comb.
The wire comb shall be mechanically operated with the width of the comb parallel to
the pavement center line. The comb shall be capable of traversing the full width of
the pavement in a single pass at a uniform speed and with a uniform pressure.
Texturing shall be completed before the comb mark edges will be unduly torn, but
after where the serration will not close up.

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Broom Texturing: Surface texture shall be applied using an approved hand or
mechanical stiff bristle broom of a type that will produce uniform corrugations. For
hand brooming, the brooms shall have handles longer than half the width of slab to
be finished. The hand brooms shall be drawn transversely across the surface from
the center line to each edge with slight overlapping strokes. For mechanical
operations, the broom shall be operated with the width of the broom parallel to the
pavement center line. The broom shall be capable of traversing the full width of the
pavement in a single pass at a uniform speed and with a uniform pressure.
Successive passes of the broom shall be overlapped the minimum necessary to
obtain a uniformly textured surface. Brooms shall be washed thoroughly and dried
at frequent intervals during use. Brooming should be completed before the concrete
surface will be unduly torn or roughened, but after mortar will not flow and
attenuate the texture.

Artificial Turf Texturing: Surface texture shall be applied by dragging the surface of
the pavement in the direction of concrete placement with a full-width drag made
with artificial turf. The leading transverse edge of the artificial turf drag will be
securely fastened to a lightweight pole on a traveling bridge. At least 600
millimeters of the artificial turf shall be in contact with the concrete surface during
dragging operations. The turf drag shall be maintained free of cement or aggregate
build-up and shall not result in dislodging of aggregates from the surface.

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3.4.6 Outlets in Pavement: Recesses for tie-down anchors, lighting fixtures, and other
outlets in the pavement shall conform to the details and dimensions given in the drawings.

3.5. FORM REMOVAL: Forms shall remain in place at least 12 hours after the
concrete has been placed. When conditions are such that the strength gain of the concrete
is delayed, the forms shall be left in place for a longer period. Forms shall be removed
without injuring the concrete. Bars or heavy tools shall not be used to pry against the
concrete while removing the forms.

3.6. CURING:

3.6.1 General: Concrete shall be protected against loss of moisture for at least 7 days
from the time of concrete placement. Plastic concrete shall be protected from rain and
flowing water.

3.6.2 Membrane Curing: A uniform coating of white-pigmented membrane-curing

compound shall be applied to the surface of the concrete as soon as the free water (bleed
water) disappears and after texturing is done. Formed surfaces shall be coated
immediately after the forms are removed. Curing compound will be re-applied to concrete
surfaces subjected to rainfall which occurs within 3 hours after the initial application.
Concrete surfaces to which membrane-curing compounds have been applied shall be
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protected during the entire curing period from pedestrian and vehicular traffic except as
required for joint-sawing operations and surface smoothness tests.

3.6.2.1 Machine Application: The curing compound shall be applied to the

finished surfaces using an automatic spraying machine. The machine shall be self-
propelled and shall straddle the paved lane. The machine shall have spraying nozzles
that can be controlled to cover the pavement surface with a uniform application of
curing compound. The drum used for supply to the spray nozzles shall be
continuously agitated mechanically for the full depth of the drum during the
application. Spray equipment shall have a wind guard. The curing compound shall
be applied with an overlapping coverage in two coats. The total coverage shall not
be more than 5 square meters per liter of curing compound.

3.6.2.2 Hand Application: Hand-operated pressure sprayers will be permitted

only on odd widths or on concrete surfaces exposed by the removal of forms. When
the application is made by hand-operated sprayers, the second coat shall be applied
in a direction at right angles to the direction of the first coat

3.7. JOINTS:

3.7.1 General: Joints will be constructed to the details of the drawings. All joints shall
be perpendicular to the finished grade of the pavement. Transverse expansion and
contraction joints shall be straight and continuous from edge to edge of the pavement.

3.7.2 Longitudinal Construction Joints: Dowel bars shall be installed in longitudinal

construction joints except where thickened edge construction and an expansion joint is
required. Tie bars will be installed at locations indicated on the drawings. Dowels and tie
bars shall be installed in conformance with paragraph DOWELS AND TIE BARS,
below.

3.7.3 Transverse Construction Joints: Transverse construction joints shall be installed

at the end of each day's placing operations and at any other location when concrete
placement is interrupted for more than 45 minutes. These joints shall be located at a
planned joint, except in case of equipment breakdown. When concrete placement cannot
be continued, the transverse construction joint may be installed within a planned slab unit
but not less than 3 meters from a planned transverse joint. Dowels shall be installed in
transverse construction joints.

3.7.4 Expansion Joints: Expansion joints shall be formed by placing a preformed filler
material at a construction joint. Expansion joints shall be formed around features that
project through, into, or against the pavement.

3.7.5 Contraction Joints: Transverse and longitudinal contraction joints shall be of the
weakened-plane or dummy type formed by sawing a groove in the hardened concrete with

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a power-driven saw blade. The depth of the groove formed by sawing shall be one fourth
of the concrete thickness or deeper.

3.7.5.1 Sawed Joints: Sawed joints shall be constructed by sawing a groove in the
concrete. The time of sawing shall vary but shall be done before uncontrolled
shrinkage cracking occurs. Sawing of the joints shall commence as soon as the
concrete has hardened sufficiently to permit cutting the concrete without chipping,
spalling, or tearing. The sawed faces of joints shall be inspected for undercutting or
washing of the concrete caused by early sawing. The saw cut shall not vary more
than 12 millimeters from planned joint alignment. A planned joint shall not be saw
cut if a crack has formed near the planned joint location. Sawing of the affected
joint shall be discontinued when a crack develops ahead of the saw cut. An
adequate number of sawing units shall be provided to complete the sawing before
the development of shrinkage cracks.

3.7.5.2 Protection of Sawed Joints: Directly after sawing of joints, and before
any type of traffic is allowed on the pavement surface, the sawcut joint shall be
protected from moisture loss and debris intrusion. The minimum level of protection
is an application of curing compound into the sawcut and continual sweeping of
foreign debris. The Contractor will not allow traffic on the concrete unless
measures are taken to minimize foreign materials from being introduced into
sawcuts. Traffic will not be allowed on pavements for which joint protection
measures have not been adopted.

3.7.5.3 Joint Seal Reservoir. After expiration of the minimum concrete curing
period specified by the joint seal manufacturer, the upper portion of the groove shall
be widened by sawing to the width and depth required for the joint seal reservoir.

3.8. DOWELS AND TIE BARS:

3.8.1 Contraction Joints: When indicated in the drawings, dowels (or tie bars) shall be
placed at contraction joints during placing of the concrete. The dowels shall be welded to
an assembly or held firmly by mechanical locking arrangements that prevent the dowels
from rising, sliding out, or becoming distorted during paving operations. The dowel
assemblies shall be held securely in the proper location by means of pins or anchors.

3.8.2 Construction Joints: Dowels in construction joints shall be placed in drilled holes
in the hardened concrete. Holes, 3 millimeters larger in diameter than the dowels, shall be
drilled with rotary-type percussion drills. Drills will be held securely in place by a jig to
assure that the drill is perpendicular into the vertical face of the pavement. Dowels shall
be bonded in the drilled holes by using an epoxy resin material injected into the drilled
hole. The epoxy resin shall be mixed in accordance with the product manufacturer
instructions. The area around dowels is to be completely filled with epoxy grout.

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3.8.2.1 Dowels (or tie bars) shall be omitted when the center of a dowel will be
within one slab thickness or one dowel spacing, whichever is less, from a planned
joint, either contraction or construction.

3.8.2.2 Automatic dowel bar inserters, either in the plane of paving or out of plane
of paving, shall be allowed only when the Contractor can demonstrate that
placement of the dowel can be made without starting and stopping the paver. The
inserter shall place the dowel without the need for adjustment after placement into
fresh concrete. When dowels cannot be placed without adjustment, within the
specified tolerances, the inserter shall not be used.

3.8.3 Special Requirements: The dowel end intended to be covered with fresh concrete
shall be wiped clean and coated with a thin even film of lubricating oil before the concrete
is placed. Dowel bars shall be installed to within 3 millimeters of alignment, for the length
of the exposed dowel bar, as measured perpendicular to the face of the pavement joint.
Dowel bars shall not be moved or adjusted for alignment after fresh concrete is placed and
consolidated.

3.8.4 Replacing Defective Dowel Bar(s): A dowel bar which is placed, found to be
defective, and the bonding has set, shall be cut off. A new bar shall be installed not closer
than 3 but not more than 6 bar diameters from the specified bar location. When the
dowels are defective for more than half of the bars in a slab length, all of the bars shall be
cut off and new bars installed at half distance between placed dowels.

3.9. SEALING JOINTS: Joints shall be sealed following curing of the concrete and as
soon as possible after completion of the cutting of the joint seal reservoir as weather
conditions permit.

3.10. REMOVAL AND REPLACEMENT OF DEFECTIVE CONCRETE:

Defective concrete shall be removed and replaced with pavement of the thickness and
quality required by this specification. Full depth saw cutting between the defective
pavement and the pavement to remain is required. The removal and replacement of
concrete will not result in a slab less than a full panel size (to the nearest planned
longitudinal joint, when paving multiple lanes, and planned transverse joint). Defective
concrete shall be removed carefully so that the adjacent pavement will not be damaged.
Prior to placement of new concrete, the face of the adjacent slab shall be cleaned of debris
and loose concrete. Dowel bars shall be installed as required for construction joints.

3.11. PAVEMENT PROTECTION: The Contractor shall protect the pavement from
damage prior to final acceptance. Traffic shall be excluded from the pavement by erecting
and maintaining barricades and signs until the concrete is at least 14 days old, or for a
longer period, if so required. As a construction expedient, paving of fill-in lanes and
operation of the hauling equipment will be permitted on the pavement after the pavement
cures for 7 days, or strength exceeds 2.8 MPa flexural (or relevant equivalent compressive
strength), and the joints are sealed or minimum levels of protection implemented. Also,
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the subgrade planer, concrete finishing machines, and similar equipment may be permitted
to ride upon the edges of previously constructed slabs when the concrete has attained a
minimum flexural strength of 2.8 MPa (or relevant equivalent compressive strength) and
adequate means are furnished to prevent damage to the slab edge.

3.12. CONTRACTOR QUALITY CONTROL (QC): The Contractor shall perform

the inspections and testing described. The results of these inspections and tests require
that the Contractor take proactive action when the materials or the environment change.
Results of testing shall be reported daily.

3.12.1 Inspection Details and Frequency of Testing: The number and types of testing
are minimum requirements for the acceptance of the materials and the products.

3.12.1.1 Concrete Quality Control Determination: Concrete samples shall be

obtained, using the procedures of ASTM C 172.

3.12.1.2 Air Content: Air content shall be determined using the procedures of
ASTM C 231.

3.12.1.3 Flexural Strength Tests: Specimens shall be tested using the procedures
in ASTM C 78.

3.12.1.4 Compressive Strength Tests: Specimens shall be tested using the

procedures in ASTM C 39.

3.12.2 Mixer Performance: Before the start of concrete production the uniformity of
the mixed concrete shall be determined and the mix time adjusted. Adjustments in the
mixer shall be accomplished until the variation in the control parameters are within
allowed limits. Mixer performance shall be validated after repair of a mechanical
breakdown which affects the mixing characteristics of the plant; or when there is extreme
variability in the fresh concrete.

3.12.2.1 Scales: The accuracy of the scales shall be determined and scales
certified prior to the start of production of concrete. Scales shall also be checked
when the mixture is variable in consistency and the indicated proportions do not
appear to have varied from the selected proportions. Scales shall be certified after
each 20,000 cubic meters of concrete mixing.

3.12.2.2 Batch-Plant Control: The measurement of all constituent materials of

the concrete mixture shall be continuously controlled and monitored. A daily
report shall be prepared by the Contractor which identifies the mixture
proportions, the variance from the design mixture, and annotations where mix
proportions are modified to account for variation in moisture in the aggregate,
aggregate grading, and/or environmental conditions.

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3.12.3 Aggregate Testing: The testing requirements for aggregates are dependent upon
the source of stockpile development. Aggregate stockpiles developed as project dedicated
sources; i.e., those developed for relocatable mixer sites -- shall be sampled and tested as
the material is delivered to the stockpile. At fixed plant sites and when stockpiles are to
be developed from existing stockpiles, the quantities required for the project shall be
identified and stockpiled to other locations. Relocated stockpiles shall be treated as new
stockpiles. Stockpiles shall be established and maintained in recognized methods for
protecting the stockpile from segregation and contamination.

3.12.3.1 Aggregate Grading: The grading of each aggregate shall be determined

as material is delivered to the project stockpiles. Grading samples shall be taken,
beginning with the initial delivery, at intervals of 200 short tons for ten (10)
consecutive tests. After the 10 initial tests, grading tests shall be accomplished at
intervals of each 500 short tons. Sampling frequency will be increased when large
deviations from the design gradation are observed. Test samples shall be taken
from the stockpile.

3.12.3.1.1 Reporting Format: Each grading test, for each stockpile, shall
be plotted on charts which report sieve sizes and the variation from the
selected grading.

3.12.3.1.2 Determination of Combined Grading: The mathematical

calculation of the combined aggregate grading, using the proportions
selected for the design mixture, shall be used to determine the coarseness
and workability factors. Each calculation result shall be plotted on a
combined aggregate proportioning guide. Materials which have not been
tested for grading shall not be placed in the mixer or incorporated into the
work.

3.12.3.2 Aggregate Moisture Content: Moisture content of the aggregate shall

be monitored by the Contractor. Additional testing and more frequent testing shall
be made when the consistency of the delivered mixture is variable and the portions
of aggregate and air content have not varied from the design mixture proportions.

3.12.3.2.1 Fine Aggregate Moisture: The fine aggregate bin shall be

fitted with a moisture meter. The moisture meter shall be calibrated by
gravimetric moisture determination a minimum of two times each day. One
calibration test shall be at the start of each production day and the second
test at the 50 percent level of the expected production for the day.

3.12.3.2.2 Coarse and Blending Aggregate Moisture: The coarse

aggregate and the blending aggregate gravimetric moisture shall be
determined a minimum of two times each day. One test shall be at the start
of each production day and the second test at the 50 percent level of the
expected production for the day.
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3.12.4 Concrete: Concrete samples shall be collected by the Contractor from fresh
concrete placed in front of the paver.

3.12.4.1 Strength Tests: A minimum of one set of test beams for flexural
strength determination shall be made for each 400 cubic meters, or portion thereof,
of concrete placed during each day's production. A sufficient number of specimens
shall be made to allow for testing at 7 days, 14 days, 28 days, and 90 days. The
Contractor shall break three beams, with the results averaged, for each test age.
Beams shall be tested using the procedures of ASTM C 78. When the strength of
the concrete is determined to equal or exceed the strength for the respective age of
the strength gain curve of the design mix, the concrete shall be accepted for
strength.

3.12.4.2. Alternative Strength Test: After the Contractor has done a minimum
of 15 compressive strength tests and 15 flexural strength tests, the strength of the
concrete may be determined with cylinders tested in compression. When the
Contractor can demonstrate that compressive strength test results remain within
one-standard deviation for the testing accomplished to date, all flexural strength
testing may be suspended. The standard deviation does not apply to the
correlation with flexural strength.

3.12.4.3 Water - Cementitious Materials Ratio: The Contractor shall establish

a procedure to determine the relative value of the water to cementitious materials
ratio. The value shall be recorded on a control chart a minimum of four times, at
random, for each 400 cubic meters of fresh concrete mixed. More observations
shall be made when the mixture consistency is variable.

3.12.4.3.1 Determination of Ratio: It is not necessary to determine the

absolute value of the water content of the mixture. The sum of the
gravimetric aggregate moisture and the weighed make-up water is
adequate. A Troxler Model 4430, Water-Cement Gauge may be used
provided that proper calibration curves are established.

3.12.4.3.2 Interpretation of Data: When a sufficient number of values

are recorded and standard deviation units can be established, a minimum of
15 tests, limits shall be established consisting of one standard deviation and
two standard deviations. When the concrete strength tests exceed the
specified requirements, the entrained air content is within specification
tolerance, and the water- cementitious ratio remains within one standard
deviation, strength testing may be suspended.

3.12.4.4 Air Content: Air content shall be determined four times at random for
each 400 cubic meters, or portion thereof, of concrete placed on the work.
Additional tests shall be accomplished when there is variation in the workability of
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the concrete being placed. The results shall be plotted on a control chart with the
upper limit at 2 percent above the specified value and the lower limit at 1 percent
below the specified value.

3.12.5 Placing: The Contractor shall maintain a log recording the concrete temperature,
ambient temperature, wind velocity, and humidity, on a two hour interval, during concrete
production, placement, and finishing.

3.12.6 Finished Surface: The Contractor shall accomplish that testing which is required
for grade, smoothness, and edge slump on a daily basis.

3.13 Deficiencies Identification/Correction/Action Requirements: The Contractor

shall take the following actions when deficiencies are observed.

3.13.1 Aggregate Grading: The Contractor shall plot the mathematical combined
gradings of the results of testing of the stockpiles. The initial point shall be established by
the mixture proportioning study. The point may be relocated based upon mixture
adjustments made during placement of the test strip. Based upon stockpile samples, any
deviation of the point, caused by material variability, which is along a line parallel to the
control line of the Aggregate Proportioning Guide, is acceptable.

3.13.1.1 Tolerance for Aggregate Grading: A movement of the point vertically

on the Aggregate Proportioning Guide is acceptable provided that the movement
does not exceed 3 units on the workability scale. The horizontal movement shall
not vary by more than 5 units on the coarseness factor scale. When the variance
exceeds the given tolerance, the grading shall be determined to be out of control.
When proportioning can remedy the problem, adjustments to weights shall be
made. When proportioning adjustments will not correct the problem, new
aggregate stockpiles shall be used.

3.13.1.2 Aggregate Stockpile Rejection: The combined grading, based on

stockpile testing, shall not have a coarseness factor greater than 80 nor less than
30. When the combined grading shows the control variables on or below the
control line, the materials used to produce the combined gradation shall be rejected
and not incorporated into the work.

3.13.2 Scales: When the proportions are determined to be out of control, the scales shall
be checked. If the scales are defective or out of calibration, the production process shall
be halted and corrections made before resuming production.

3.13.3 Concrete Quality:

3.13.3.1 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio: Strength testing shall be

resumed when the water cementitious materials ratio exceeds one standard
deviation, higher than the design ratio for two consecutive batches. Strength
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testing shall be sampled from the batch with the high standard deviation. No
action is required when the deviation is below the design ratio. Concrete
production shall be suspended when the water-cement ratio exceeds two standard
deviations, higher than the design ratio, for two consecutive batches.

3.13.3.2 Air Content: When the air content approaches either the lower limit or
the upper limit of the control chart, the mix proportions shall be changed.
Additional testing shall be accomplished until the air content trend is steady and
within the specified values. When two consecutive points are outside the air
content control chart, the production of concrete shall cease until corrections can
be implemented.

3.13.4 Reports: All results of testing, control charts, batch proportions, etc., shall be
maintained in a book which shall reflect the results of all actions and is current to the
preceding twenty-four hours. The Contractor shall report immediately, verbally at
incidence and followed by a written notification, of the breakdown of equipment, test
failure reports, or construction deficiencies.

3.14. GOVERNMENT TESTING FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE: The government

will accomplish testing of the mixture when, in the opinion of the Contracting Officer
representative, the combined aggregate gradations are gap graded, the aggregates are not
of the same gradation as the approved mixture design, that proportions are not within the
limits of the mixture design proportions, or the mixture is highly variable and not within
the intent of the quality requirements of the project. The costs of the testing are paid for
by the government. When the quality assurance testing reveals a failed test, the cost of the
testing shall be paid for by the Contractor.

3.14.1 Combined Aggregate Grading: Samples shall be collected by the government

from the fresh concrete mixture from in front of the paver. The sample shall be washed
over a series of screens and the combined aggregate gradation determined. The resulting
gradation shall be used to calculate the coarseness factor and the workability factor.
Should the resulting plot be outside the design mixture variability history, or outside of
defined limits, the discrepancies will be identified to the Contractor. The pour agreement
shall not be executed until the discrepancies are resolved.

3.14.2 Concrete Quality Testing: When a combined aggregate test is accomplished, the
government will perform tests for air content and strength. Samples shall be taken from
the material sampled for the aggregate grading.

END OF PART 3 - EXECUTION

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 DISTRIBUTION LIST

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

Defense Commissary Service (1) Defense Technical Information

Director of Facilities Center (1)
Bldg 8400 ATTN: DTIC-FDA
Lackland AFB TX 78236-5000 Alexandria VA 22034-6145

AAFES/ATTN: CFE (1)

PO Box 660320
Dallas TX 75266-0320

SPECIAL INTEREST ORGANIZATIONS

IHS (S. Carter) Construction Criteria Database (1)

15 Inverness Way East Stop A-111 National Institute of Bldg Sciences
Englewood CO 80112 1201 L Street NW, Suite 400
Washington DC 20005

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APPENDIX C

ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

C-1 APPLICATION. Procedures and criteria described in this appendix are

applicable to the design and construction of roller-compacted concrete (RCC) pavement
(RCCP).

C-2 GENERAL. Roller-compacted concrete pavement employs a concrete paving

technology that involves laydown and compaction of a zero-slump concrete mixture
using equipment similar to that used in placement and compaction of asphaltic concrete
pavement. By using these construction techniques, the potential exists to save one-third
or more of the cost of conventional concrete pavement. Although the concept and
technology behind RCCP is relatively new, RCCP has already proven itself cost-
effective in several projects including log-sorting yards, port facilities, heavy equipment
parking areas, tank trails, and haul roads.

C-3 SUBGRADE AND BASE COURSE PREPARATION. The subgrade and base
course should conform to the requirements outlined in TM 5-822-6/AFM 88-7, chapter 3,
or TM 5-824-3/AFM 88-6, chapter 3. The freeze -thaw durability of RCCP is not fully
understood yet, but is presently being studied at the US Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station (WES) and the Cold Regions Research Engineering Laboratory
(CRREL). Good performance has been observed in the field; however, marginal
performance has been observed in the laboratory. For this reason, in areas where the
pavement or base course might be subjected to seasonal frost action, particular
attention should be given to providing a base course that will adequately drain any
water that infiltrates through the pavement or subgrade. The base course should
provide sufficient support to permit full consolidation of the RCCP through its entire
thickness upon compaction.

C-4 SELECTION OF MATERIALS.

C-4.1 General. One of the most important factors in determining the quality and
economy of concrete is the selection of a suitable aggregate source. This is as true for
RCC as for conventional concrete. Aggregate for RCC should be evaluated for quality
and grading, and should comply with the provisions outlined in paragraph 4, with the
exceptions noted in the following discussion.

C-4.2 Coarse Aggregate. The coarse aggregate may consist of crushed or

uncrushed gravel, recycled concrete, crushed stone, or a combination thereof. The
quality of coarse aggregate used by the Corps of Engineers to date in RCCP has
generally complied with ASTM C 33, although satisfactory RCC maybe possible with
coarse aggregate not meeting these requirements. Local state highway department
coarse aggregate grading limits, for example, should generally be acceptable. A primary
consideration should be that, regardless of the grading limits imposed, the grading of
the aggregate delivered to the project site be relatively consistent throughout the
production of RCC. This is an important factor in maintaining control of the workability of

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the concrete mixture. The nominal maximum aggregate size normally should not
exceed 3/4 inch, particularly if pavement surface texture is a consideration. When
aggregate larger than 3/4 inch is used, segregation and resulting rock pockets are likely
to occur.

C-4.3 Fine Aggregate. The fine aggregate may consist of natural sand,
manufactured sand, or a combination of the two, and should be composed of hard,
durable particles. The fine aggregate quality should generally be based on the limits
given in ASTM C 33 except that consideration should be given to relaxing the maximum
5.0 percent limit of material finer than the No. 200 sieve. The amount of material
passing the No. 200 sieve has been increased in Canada to 8 percent of the total
weight of aggregates with acceptable results. Sands with higher quantities of nonplastic
silt particles maybe beneficial as mineral filler and may allow some reduction in the
amount of cement required. However, mixtures made with fine aggregates having an
excessive amount of clay may have a high water demand with attendant shrinkage,
cracking, and reduced strength. Determination of the specific gravity and absorption of
these sands with high quantities of fines should be made according to Note 3 in ASTM
C 128.

C-4.4 Other Aggregates. Recent experience with RCC has shown that aggregate
produced for uses other than portland cement concrete may also be success-fully used
as aggregate for RCC. Material produced for asphalt paving and base courses have
both been used effectively as RCC aggregate. These materials typically have a higher
percentage of fines passing the No. 200 sieve than conventional concrete aggregates
and, as a result, may produce a “tighter” pavement surface texture. Because these
aggregates range in size from 3/4 inch to the No. 200 sieve, control of the grading may
be more difficult due to segregation. Therefore, careful attention must be directed
toward stockpile formation and subsequent handling of a single size group aggregate.

C-4.5 Cement. Any available portland cement except for Type III portland cement,
any blended hydraulic cement, or combination of portland cement with pozzolan or
blended hydraulic cement with pozzolan should be investigated. If sulfate exposure is a
problem, either Type II, Type V, or a moderate sulfate-resistant blended hydraulic
cement should be used. The use of Type III portland cement will almost never be
justified or practical for use in RCC due to shortened working times with this cement.

C-4.6 Admixtures. A proper air-void system must be provided to prevent frost

damage in concrete which freezes when critically saturated. Air-entraining admixtures
have not proven to be effective in creating such air-void systems in RCC even when
added at dosage rates 10 times that of conventional concrete. Therefore, to
compensate for an inadequate air-void system, RCCP should have a low water-cement
ratio, be fully compacted, and have a well draining base under the pavement. The low
water-cement ratio and good compaction provide a material with a minimum amount of
freezable water in the capillaries and has low permeability. As long as the RCCP is not
critically saturated, it will not be damaged by freezing and thawing. Durability for
resistance to freezing and thawing of RCCP is currently being investigated. Neither
water-reducing nor retarding admixtures have been shown to improve the fresh
properties of RCC in limited laboratory investigations. If the use of these admixtures is

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proposed, such use should be based on investigations which show them to produce
benefits greater than their cost.

C-5 MIXTURE PROPORTIONING.

C-5.1 General. The basic mixture proportioning procedures and properties of

conventional concrete and RCC are essentially the same; however, conventional
concrete cannot be reproportioned for use as RCC by any single action such as (1)
altering proportions of the mortar and concrete aggregates, (2) reducing the water
content, (3) changing the water-cement ratio, or (4) increasing the fine aggregate
content. Differences in mixture proportioning procedures and properties are mainly due
to the relatively dry consistency of the fresh RCC and the selected use of
nonconventionally graded aggregates. The primary differences in the properties of RCC
are (1) RCC generally is not air entrained, (2) RCC has a lower water content, (3) RCC
has a lower paste content, and (4) RCC generally requires a higher fine aggregate
content to limit segregation. A number of methods have been used to proportion RCC
including those found in ACI 211.3, ACI 207.5R, and ASTM D 558. The first two of
these methods follow an approach similar to that used in proportioning conventional
concrete. The third method treats the material as cement stabilized soils rather than
concrete and establishes a relationship between moisture and the density obtained from
a particular compactive effort.

C-5.2 ACI 207.5R Method. WES has used the method described in ACI 207.5R,
with some modifications, on all RCCP mixtures proportioned by WE S to date (further
information on this procedure may be obtained at WESGP/SC, PO Box 631, Vicksburg,
MS 39180). The primary consideration when using this method is proper selection of the
ratio (Pv) of the air-free volume of paste (Vp) to the air-free volume of mortar (Vm). This
selection is based primarily upon the grading and particle shape of the fine aggregate.
The Pv affects both the compactability of the mixture and the resulting surface texture of
the pavement. Ratios of 0.36 to 0.41 have been found to be satisfactory for mixtures
having nominal max-imum size aggregate of 3/4 or 1 1/2 inch. The fraction of fine
aggregate finer than the No. 200 sieve should be included in Vp when calculations are
made using Pv.

C-5.3 Consistency Measurements. Since RCC has no slump, an alternative

means of measuring mixture consistency must be used. Two consistency measurement
methods have been used to date. One uses the Vebe apparatus as described in ACI
211.3, with the following modifications: (1) a 29-pound loose-filled sample is placed in
the container and hand leveled, and (2) a total surcharge weight of 27.5 pounds is
added. Consolidation is considered complete when mortar is visible around the bottom
edge of the plastic surcharge disk. The second method follows the procedures generally
described in ACI 207.5R. This method consists of measuring the time required to fully
consolidate a sample of no-slump concrete by external vibration. Although both
methods have been used successfully, the latter is more subjective and requires the
use of a vibrating table having suffi- cient frequency and amplitude to fully consolidate
the sample. Some commercially available tables have been found unsuitable without
the use of a sample surcharge weight. A suggested minimum amplitude and frequency

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necessary to consolidate an RCC sample without using a surcharge weight is 0.0625
inch and 60 Hz, respectively.

C-5.4 Sample Fabrication. The strength of an RCC mixture is controlled primarily

by the water-cement ratio and the degree of compaction attained. All RCCP mixtures
placed by the Corps of Engineers to date have had water-cement ratios ranging from
0.30 to 0.40. Laboratory strength determinations are made using fabricated flexural,
compressive, and splitting tensile strength specimens. Conventional ASTM testing
methods cannot be followed when fabricating these specimens due to the dry
consistency of the concrete. The procedure being used is to fill cylinder molds in two
layers and beam molds in a single layer, and consolidate each layer of concrete on a
vibrating table. Vibration of each layer is continued until paste is discernible over the
entire surface area. Use of a surcharge weight may be necessary to achieve this degree
of consolidation. All specimens fabricated in the laboratory are to be cured according to
ASTM C 192.

C-5.5 Strength Results. Test specimens fabricated and cured in the laboratory
generally exhibit higher strengths than those cored or sawn from an RCCP. This is
probably due to the higher unit weights normally obtained with the fabricated specimens
and the more efficient laboratory moist curing. Laboratory test specimens generally
have unit weights which are 98 to 99 percent of the theoretical (air-free) weight of the
mixture, while core samples taken from RCCP normally have unit weights ranging from
95 to 98 percent of the theoretical weight. Therefore, fabrication of a companion set of
test specimens having the lowest relative density allowed by the contract specifications
should be considered during the laboratory mixture proportioning studies.

C-5.6 ASTM D 558 Method. Studies are currently being conducted to determine
whether a proportioning method similar to ASTM D 558 is viable for RCC. Such a
method would produce the optimum moisture content necessary to obtain maximum
density for a particular set of materials and compaction procedures. Previous tests
indicate that the optimum moisture content obtained by Method 100 (CE 55) of MIL -
STD- 621 may produce a mixture too wet to allow efficient operation of a vibratory roller.

C-6 THICKNESS DESIGN.

C-6.1 General. The thickness design procedure for RCCP is the same as that used
for conventional non-reinforced concrete pavements with no load transfer considered as
outlined in Army TM 5-822-6/AFM 88-7, chapter 1, and Army TM 5-824-3/AFM 88-6,
chapter 3. Beams sawn from RCCP at Fort Stewart, Fort Hood, and Fort Lewis and
tested for flexural strength indicate that the actual flexural strength of the pavement is
20 to 50 percent higher than the typical strength assumed in design for those
pavements. This suggests that the thickness design for compacted RCCP should be
modified based upon the 28-day strength of beams sawn from a test section
constructed, using the same aggregate, cement, and construction procedure as planned
for the entire work. However, until additional performance records and testing
procedures are developed for RCCP, conventional pavement thickness design will be
used.

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C-6.2 Lift Thickness. The maximum thickness of a lift of RCCP is governed by the
ability of the pavers to place the RCCP in a smooth and continuous fashion. This
maximum uncompacted thickness is usually 10 to 12 inches. The maximum
uncompacted thickness can be approximated by multiplying the design thickness by
1.25, thus accounting for the reduction in thickness due to compaction. The minimum
thickness of any lift should be 4 inches.

C-6.3 Two-Lift Construction. If the total uncompacted thickness exceeds the

capacity of the paver, the RCCP should be placed in two or more lifts, thus creating a
horizontal joint (or horizontal plane between the layers) in the RCCP. Sufficient bond
develops at a fresh horizontal joint in RCCP (top lift placed within 1 hour of bottom lift) to
allow the use of a monolithic thickness design. If the top lift is not placed within 1 hour of
the bottom lift, the thickness should be designed as a rigid overlay of a rigid base
pavement. The surface of the lower lift should be kept moist and clean until the upper lift
is placed, and the upper lift should be placed and compacted within 1 hour of
compacting the lower lift to insure that a bond between lifts is formed. In two-lift
construction, the uncompacted thickness of the first lift should be two-thirds the total
uncompacted height of the RCCP (or the maximum lift thickness the paver can handle,
whichever is smaller). The thinner section in the upper lift aids in creating a smoother
final surface, and because of the smaller volume of material, allows the paver placing
the second lift to move quicker than and follow closer behind the paver placing the first
lift. Multiple lifts will be necessary if the total uncompacted thickness of the RCCP is
greater than twice the maximum lift capacity of the paver.

C-7 TEST SECTION.

C-7.1 General. A test section should be constructed to determine the ability of the
contractor to mix, haul, place, compact, and cure RCCP. The test section should be
constructed at least one month prior to the construction of the RCCP at a location near
the job- site. The test section should be large enough to establish the rolling pattern for
the vibratory and finish rollers, the correlation between laboratory and nuclear gage
densities, and the correlation between the number of passes and relative density. The
test section should contain both longitudinal and transverse cold joints and a fresh joint.
A suggested minimum size is three 12- to 14-foot-wide lanes, each 150 feet long, with
one and one-half lanes placed the first day and the rest placed the next day (see Figure
C-l).

C-7.2 Optimum Number of Rolling Passes. During the test strip construction, a
nuclear gage operated in the direct transmission mode and standardized with a
calibration block should be used to determine the optimum number of passes with the
vibratory roller to reach maximum density. The density should be measured by inserting
the nuclear gage probe into the same hole after each pass of the vibratory roller. The
hole should be made with an instrument specifically designed for the purpose, and
should be formed using the same method throughout the test section and main
construction. This rolling and measuring procedure should be continued until there is
less than a 1 percent change in successive readings. These data may be used in
conjunction with correlation between the nuclear gage and the laboratory density to
determine the minimum number of passes needed to achieve or slightly exceed the

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specified density in the RCCP construction. However, a minimum of four vibratory
passes should be used, and this minimum will probably prevail in most cases.

C-7.3 Nuclear Gage/Laboratory Density Correlation. After a reasonable

estimate is made of the optimum number of passes needed for compaction, a
correlation between the value of in situ RCCP density as measured with the nuclear
gage and the value obtained by weighing a sample of the RCCP in air and water should
also be determined. This should be accomplished by measuring the final compacted
density (after four or more passes with the vibratory roller) in 10 locations with the
nuclear gage, which has been standardized with a calibration block. The measurement
should be made by inserting the probe the full depth of the lane. Then, at 7 days, a pair
of cores should be taken o n either side of the remaining nuclear gage holes (within a 1 -
to 3-foot radius from the hole) and the density of the cores measured in the laboratory
by weighing them in air and water. For each of the 10 holes, the average of the pair of
the laboratory densities should be compared with their corresponding nuclear gage
density, and a constant relationship between the nuclear gage and laboratory densities
developed by averaging the algebraic differences in these readings. This difference
should be combined with future field readings to obtain an adjusted reading, which can
be compared to the specified density. In the past a specified density of 96 percent of
theoretical weight as defined in ASTM C 138 has been achieved. If the adjusted nuclear
gage density is less than the specified density, additional passes should be made on
the fresh RCCP until the specified density is reached. Two nuclear density gages
should be calibrated (using the same holes) during the test section construction so that
an extra one is a vailable during final construction.

C-7.4 Strength Tests. Ten cores and beams should be taken from the test section
after 28 days to deter-mine a correlation between flexural strength and splitting tensile
strength and/or compressive strength of the RCCP. This reduces the amount of sawing
necessary to obtain samples during further construction. Although both the splitting
tensile and compressive strength data would be useful for historical reference, only one
of these tests is needed for quality control testing of the RCCP construction. After the
correlation is determined, the appropriate splitting tensile and/or compressive strength
that correlates to the specified design flexural strength should be used in any further
quality control testing.

C-8 BATCHING, MIXING, AND TRANSPORTING. RCCP needs a vigorous mixing

action to disperse the relatively small amount of water evenly throughout the matrix.
This action has been best achieved by using a twin-shaft pugmill mixer commonly used
in asphaltic concrete mixing. Batching of the concrete may be accomplished
successfully in either a continuous-mixing or a weigh-batch asphalt plant. The
continuous -mixing plant is recommended for batching RCC because it is easier to
transport to the site, takes less time to set up, and has a greater output capacity than
the weigh-batch plant. The weigh-batch plant allows more accurate control over the
proportions of material in each batch, but generally does not have enough output
capacity for larger paving jobs. The output of the plant should be such that the smooth,
continuous operation of the paver(s) is not interrupted, and for all but the smallest jobs
(1,000 square yards or smaller), the capacity of the plant should be no less than 250
tons per hour. The output (or production) of the plant should not be greater than the

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laydown capacity of the paver(s) nor greater than the rolling capacity of the rollers. The
plant should be located as close as possible to the paving site, but in no case should
the haul time between the batch plant and the paver(s) exceed 15 minutes. The RCC
should be hauled from the mixer to the paver(s) in dump trucks. These trucks should be
equipped with protective covers to guard against adverse environmental effects on the
RCC, such as rain, or extreme cold or heat. The truck should dump the concrete directly
into the paver hopper.

C-9 PLACING. For most pavement applications, RCCP should be placed with an
asphalt paver or similar equipment. The paver should be equipped with automatic
grade-control devices such as a traveling ski or electronic stringline grade-control
device. A paver having a vibratory screed or one equipped with a tamping bar is
recommended to provide a satisfactory surface texture and some initial compaction
when the RCCP is placed. Necessary adjustments on the paver to handle the RCC
include enlarging the feeding gates between the feed hopper and screed to
accommodate the large volume of stiff material moving through the paver, and adjusting
the spreading screws in front of the screed to insure that the RCC is spread uniformly
across the width of the paving lane. Care should be taken to keep the paver hopper
from becoming empty to prevent any gaps or other discontinuities from forming in the
pavement. The concrete should be placed and compacted within 45 minutes after water
has been added to the batch. When paving adjacent lanes, the new concrete should be
placed within 90 minutes of placing the first lane (forming a “fresh” joint), unless
procedures for cold joint construction are followed (see para D-11). The height of the
screed should be set even with the uncompacted height of the adjacent lane, thus
allowing simultaneous compaction of the edges of the adjacent lanes into a fresh joint.
When paving rectangular section, paving should be in the short direction in order to
minimize the length and number of cold longitudinal and transverse joints. Two or more
pavers operating in echelon may reduce the number of cold joints by one half or
greater, and are especially recommended in road construction where the entire width of
the road can be placed at the same time.

C-10 COMPACTION.

C-10.1 General. RCCP is best compacted with a dual-drum (10-ton static weight)
vibratory roller making four or more passes over the surface to achieve the design
density (one back-and-forth motion is two passes). Table C-1 describes vibratory rollers
that have been used on five recent RCCP projects. To achieve a higher quality
pavement, the primary compaction should be followed with two or more passes of a 20-
ton pneumatic-tired roller (90 psi minimum tire pressure) to close up any surface voids
or cracks. The use of a dual-drum static (non-vibratory) roller may be required to
remove any roller marks left by the vibratory or pneumatic-tired roller. A single-drum
(10-ton) vibratory roller has been used successfully to compact RCCP, but may require
the use of a pneumatic-tired or dual-drum static roller to remove tire marks.

C-10.2 Proper time for rolling. Ideally, the consistency of the RCCP when placed
should be such that it may be compacted immediately after placement without undue
displacement of the RCCP. However, no more than 10 minutes should pass between
placing and the beginning of the rolling procedure. The rolling should be completed

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within 45 minutes of the time that water was added at the mixing plant. A good
indication that the RCCP is ready for compaction is found by making one or two static
passes on the RCCP within 1 foot of the edge of the lane before vibrating begins and
observing the material during these two passes to insure that undue displacement does
not occur. If the RCCP is too wet or too dry for compaction upon placing, the water
content should be adjusted at the plant. Only minor changes in water content from the
design mix should be made; otherwise, a new mix design may be needed. With
practice, the roller operator should be able to tell whether the consistency of the RCCP
is satisfactory for compaction.

C-10.3 Rolling pattern. After making the static passes, the vibratory roller should
make four vibratory passes on the RCCP using the following pattern: two passes on the
exterior edge of the first paving lane (the perimeter of the parking area or the edge of a
road) so that the rolling wheel extends over the edge of the pavement 1 to 2 inches
(done to “confine” the RCCP to help prevent excessive lateral displacement of the lane
upon further rolling), followed by two passes within 12 to 18 inches of the interior edge.
This will leave an uncompacted edge to set the height of the screed for an adjacent
lane, and allows both lanes of the fresh joint to be compacted simultaneously. Any
remaining uncompacted material in the center of the lane should be compacted with two
passes of the roller. This pattern should be repeated once to make a total of four passes
on the lane (or more if the specified density is not achieved) (see fig D-2). If the interior
edge will be used to forma cold joint, it should be rolled exactly as the exterior edge was
rolled, taking care to maintain a level surface at the joint and not round the edge. When
the adjacent lane is placed, two passes should be made about 12 to 18 inches from the
outer edge of the lane (again, to confine the concrete) followed by two passes on the
fresh joint. The first two passes should extend 1 to 2 inches over the outer edge of this
adjacent lane if the lane will form an outer edge of the completed pavement. Any
remaining uncompacted material in the lane should be rolled with two passes of the
roller. This pattern should be repeated to make a total of four passes over the RCCP.
Additional passes may be necessary along the fresh joint to insure smoothness and
density across the joint (see fig D-3).

C-10.4 Compacting the end of a lane. When the end of a lane is reached, the roller
should roll off the end of the lane, rounding off the end in the process. This rounded end
should be trimmed with a motor grader or with shovels to form a vertical face through
the entire depth of the pavement. An alternative method involves confining the
uncompacted end of the lane with a crosstie or beam anchored to the base course,
thereby forming a vertical face at the e nd of the lane after compaction.

C-10.5 Proper roller operation. During the course of the vibratory compaction, the
roller should never stop on the pavement in the vibratory mode. Instead, the vibrator
should be turned on only after the roller is in motion and should be turned off several
feet before the roller stops moving. The stopping points of successive rolling passes
should be staggered to avoid forming a depression in the RCCP surface. The roller
should be operated at the proper speed, amplitude, and frequency to achieve optimum
compaction. The best compaction will probably occur at a high amplitude and low
frequency (because of the thick lifts) and at a speed not exceeding 2 miles per hour.

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C-10.6 Finish rolling. The vibratory compaction should be followed immediately with
two or more passes of the pneumatic-tired roller so that the surface voids and fissures
close to form a tight surface texture. This rolling may be followed by a light dual-drum
roller to remove any roller marks on the surface, but this will probably not be necessary.
It is very important that all exposed surfaces of the RCCP be kept moist with a light
water spray after the rolling process until the curing procedure is implemented.

C-11 COLD JOINTS.

C-11.1 General. A cold joint in RCCP is analogous to a construction joint in

conventional concrete pavement. It is formed between two adjacent lanes of RCCP
when the first lane has hardened to such an extent that the uncompacted edge cannot
be consolidated with the fresher second lane. This happens when there is some time
delay between placement of adjacent lanes such as at the end of the day’s construction.
This hardening may take from one to several hours depending on properties of the
concrete and environmental conditions. Nevertheless, the adjacent lane should be
placed against the first lane within90 minutes or be considered a cold joint.

C-11.2 Cold joint construction. Before placing fresh concrete against hardened in-
place pavement to form a longitudinal cold joint, the edge of the in-place pavement
should be trimmed back to sound concrete to form a vertical face along the edge. This
vertical face should be dampened before the placement of the fresh lane begins. The
height of the screed should be set to an elevation approximately 25 percent higher than
the desired thickness of the compacted concrete. The screed should overlap the edge
of the hardened concrete lane 2 or 3 inches. The excess fresh concrete should be
pushed back to the edge of the fresh concrete lane with rakes or lutes and rounded off
so that a minimal amount of fresh material is left on the surface of the hardened
concrete after compaction. The loose material should not be broadcast over the area to
be compacted; this may leave a rough surface texture after rolling. The edge of the
fresh lane adjacent to the hardened concrete should be rolled first, with about 1 foot of
the roller on the fresh concrete, to form a smooth longitudinal joint (see fig D-4).
Transverse cold joints are constructed in a similar manner. After cutting back the
rounded-off edge and wetting the vertical face, the paver is backed into place and the
screed set to the proper elevation using shims sitting on top of the hardened concrete.
The excess material should be pushed back as mentioned before, and a static pass
made in the transverse direction across the first 1 foot of the freshly placed lane. The
joint should be carefully rolled to insure a smooth transition across the joint.

C-11.3 Sawing. The sawing of contraction joints in RCCP has proven to be

unnecessary in past projects. Cracks were allowed to form naturally in all of the
Canadian-built RCCP, and virtually no distress has been observed at the cracks. These
pavements have endured over 7 years of very heavy loads and numerous freeze -thaw
cycles. Attempts to saw joints at Fort Hood and Fort Lewis produced a ragged edge
along the saw cut where pieces of cement paste and aggregate were kicked out by the
saw blade. Until a suitable method is developed for sawing joints in RCCP, this method
should not be used.

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C-11.4 Load-transfer devices. The stiff consistency of RCCP does not lend itself to
application of load-transfer devices such as dowels or keyed joints, although dowels
were used in cold joint construction at Fort Stewart. There, the dowels were driven into
the RCCP before final set, and the adjacent fresh lane was carefully worked around the
dowels by hand. Until an efficient method is developed to insert and align dowels
properly in RCCP, the use of dowels should be limited.

C-11.5 Vertical joints in two-lift construction. In two-lift construction, care should

be taken to align the cold transverse and longitudinal joints in the upper and lower lifts
to form a uniform, vertical face through the depth of the pavement along the joint. If the
edge of the upper lift is not even with the edge of the lower lift, the lower lift should be
cut back even with the edge of the upper lift (see fig D-5).

C-12 CURING.

C-12.1 General. Because of the low water conte nt used in an RCCP mixture, a
combination of moist curing and membrane curing is recommended to prevent drying
and scaling of the RCCP surface. The pavement surface should be kept continuously
moist after final rolling for at least 24 hours by means of a water spray truck, sprinkler
(fog spray) system, or wet burlap or cotton mat covering. If burlap mats are used, they
should be thoroughly wetted, placed on the RCCP so that the entire surface and
exposed edges are covered, and kept continuously wet. After the initial moist curing
period, the RCCP should be cured until it is at least 7 days old by one of the following
methods: water-spray curing, burlap or cotton mat covering, or membrane -forming
curing material. The curing material may be a white-pigmented membrane curing
compound or an asphalt emulsion. The curing compound or emulsion must form a
continuous void-free membrane and should be maintained in that condition throughout
the curing period. An irrigation sprinkler system has been used to cure RCCP in Canada
and at Fort Lewis, but caution should be exercised so that the fines in the surface of the
RCCP are not washed away by excessive spraying.

C-12.2 Moist curing. Continuous moist curing of the RCCP for at least 7 days
should be considered if frost resistance is a concern. Preliminary results of laboratory
freezing and thawing tests indicate that RCCP which has a sufficiently low water-
cement ratio and has been moist cured for an extended period tends to be more frost-
resistant. The improved frost resistance may be due to more complete hydration
resulting in a reduction in fractional volume of freezable water at saturation.

C-12.3 Early loading. All vehicular traffic should be kept off the RCCP for at least 14
days. If it is absolutely necessary, a water-spraying truck and membrane-spraying truck
may be driven onto the RCCP before that age, but this practice should be kept to a
minimum.

C-13 QUALITY CONTROL/ASSURANCE.

C-13.1 General. Quality control and quality assurance consist of testing of materials
going into the concrete; checking the plant calibration regularly; measuring the in-place
density of the RCCP using a nuclear density gage; checking the smoothness of the

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finished RCCP with a straightedge; taking core samples from the RCCP for
measurement of density, strength, and thickness; and, if desired, fabricating RCC
cylinders and beams.

C-13.2 Tests at plant. Moisture contents of the fine and coarse aggregates should
be determined daily as necessary and appropriate changes made in the amount of
mixing water. Washed gradation tests should normally be performed on the combined
aggregates three times per day: in the morning, at midday, and in the afternoon. The
samples should be taken from the conveyor before the cement or fly ash is added to the
combined aggregates. The amount of materials passing the No. 100 sieve should be
deter-mined during this analysis. After each gradation test, a washout test according to
procedures in ASTM C 685 (para 6.5) may be performed on the combined dry
ingredients on samples taken from the conveyor belt between the cement and fly ash
hoppers and the pugmill. By washing the dry ingredients over the No. 4 and No. 100
sieves and weighing the material in each size category, the approximate proportions of
coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and cement and fly ash combined may be
determined and checked against predetermined limits.

C-13.3 Field density tests. Field density tests should be performed on the RCCP
using a nuclear density gage operated in the direct transmission mode according to
ASTM D 2922. At least one field reading should be taken every 100 feet of each paving
lane. The readings should be taken as closely behind the rolling operation as possible.
The reading should be adjusted using the correlation determined in the test section
construction and checked against a specified density. Areas that indicate a deficient
density should be rolled again with the vibratory roller until the specified density is
achieved.

C-13.4 Obtaining core samples. The acceptance criteria for the strength, density,
and thickness of RCCP shall be based on appropriate tests conducted on cores taken
from the RCCP. Cores should be taken from the RCCP when the pavement is 7 days
old. One core should be taken at every fifth nuclear gage density test site, within a 1- to
3-foot radius of the test hole. The density and thickness of the core should be
measured, and the core should be field cured under conditions similar to the RCCP
curing conditions. The cores should be tested for splitting tensile strength (ASTM C 496)
when they are 28 days old.

C-13.5 Smoothness. The finished surface of the RCCP should not vary more than
3/8 inch from the testing edge of a 10-foot straightedge. Smoothness should be
checked as closely behind the finish roller as possible, and any excessive variations in
the surface shall be corrected with the finish roller. Particular attention should be paid to
the smoothness across fresh and cold joints because this is usually a critical area for
surface variations. A skilled vibratory roller operator is essential in minimizing
smoothness problems. The final surface texture of the RCCP should resemble that of
an asphalt concrete pavement surface.

C-13.6 Cylinder and beam fabrication. The fabrication of cylinders and beams
during RCCP construction would be highly desirable as (1) an aid to the coring
operation in checking the RCCP strength and density, and (2) a means of establishing a

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data base for developing future quality control criteria. If fabricated cylinders and beams
are to be used as a quality control aid during construction, a correlation between their
strength and density and that obtained from cores and sawed beams should be made
during test section construction. Results of this correlation and the ensuring quality
control use of fabricated cylinders and beams should be sent to WESGP–EC, PO Box
631, Vicksburg, MS 39180, for addition to the above mentioned data base.

C-13.7 Method of cylinder and beam fabrication. Cylinders and beams should be
fabricated in the field by filling cylinder molds in two layers and beam molds in a single
layer and consolidating each layer of concrete on a vibrating table. Four beams (one
group) should be fabricated during each shift of construction, two to be tested at 14
days and two at 28 days. The beams should be tested for flexural strength according to
ASTM C 78. Eight cylinders (one group) should be fabricated for every 300 cubic yards
(225 cubic meters) of RCC placed, with one group coming from the same batch of RCC
used in the beams. Two cylinders should be tested each at 7, 14, 28, and 90 days. The
cylinders should be tested for splitting tensile strength according to ASTM C 496.

C-13.8 Inspectors. Inspections are vital in the quality control operations. At least one
inspector should be stationed at the mixing plant and at the jobsite to insure that a
quality pavement is being built. At the mixing plant, the inspector should check mixing
times occasionally and spot-check the consistency and appearance of the mix coming
out of the plant. He should also coordinate the aggregate moisture content tests, the
gradation tests, calibration of the plant, and washout tests to see that they are
performed properly and at the right frequency. At the jobsite, the inspector should make
sure that the base course and cold joints are moistened before the RCC is placed
against them and that the RCC is placed and compacted within the proper time
limitations. He should check the paver operation to insure that proper grade control is
continuously maintained, and to make sure no gaps or discontinuities are left in the
pavement before rolling. The inspector should make sure the roller begins compaction
at the proper time and that the proper rolling pattern and number of passes is used. He
should make sure adequate smoothness across joints is achieved and that the surface
texture is tight after final rolling. The final compacted thickness of the RCCP should be
spot-checked by the inspector and corrected accordingly, if appropriate. He should
make sure that the curing procedures are implemented as specified. The inspector
should also insure that all exposed surfaces of the RCCP are kept moist at all times and
that the curing compound, if used, is applied properly and in a continuous fashion. He
should also coordinate the nuclear gage density test, the coring procedures, cylinder
and beam fabrication, and the surface smoothness test to see that they are performed
properly and at the required frequency.

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Figure C-1. Typical layout for RCCP test section

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Figure C-2. Compaction of first paving lane

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Figure C-3. Compaction of interior paving lanes

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Table C-1. Vibratory rollers used in RCCP construction

Static Weight,
Shipping Drum Drum in. Frequency Maximum
Construction Type Weight Weight, Width, Width, Range Amplitude Compacted Lift
Job Date Roller lb lb in. lb/in. vibrations/min Range, in. Thickness, in.
Ft. Stewart, July 1983 Tampo 18,750 10,750 84.0 128.0 1,100 0.063 10.0
GA RS-28 1,500
(Single
drum)
Ft. Hood, July 1984 Tampo 30,750 16,000 84.0 190.5 2,200 0.029 10.5
TX RS-188A 0.016
(Double
drum)
Ft. Lewis, Nov 1984 Tampo 19,250 11,300 84.0 134.5 1,500 0.020 8.5
WA RS-28A 1,700 0.061
(Single
drum)
Port of April 1985 Dynapac 31,385 15,692 84.0 186.8 2,400 0.016 9.0
Tacoma, CC50A 0.032
WA (Double
drum)
Portland Aug 1985 ABG 16,755 7,275 65 111.9 2,000 0.075 7.0
International Puma 3,000 0.029
Airport 168A
(Single
drum)

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