Analysis of Reservoir

Engineering
Question 1, Fluid properties:
A) Extra heavy oil (<10 °API)

The Samaria field is located in the integral production asset Samaria-Luna

in the southern region from Petroleos Mexicanos (PEMEX). It is located 20
km northwest of the city of Villahermosa, Tabasco, it is composed of the
fields Samaria, Íride, Carrizo, Platanal (Sanchez 2013).

Figure 1. Location of Samaria field (Sanchez 2013).

It was discovered in the year 1960 with the drilling and completion of the
well Samaria-02, which showed presence of water and heavy oil (Galindo
and Tec 2013).

The field has deposits producing extra-heavy oil with densities from 5 to
10 °API, located at depths of 1,970 to 2,950 ft, whose porosities are in the
range of 25 to 30% and permeabilities greater than 1 Darcie. The
temperature of the formation has values of 113 to 149 °F. Under this
condition of temperature, the oil behaves like a Newtonian fluid, however,
when the oil is on the surface and its temperature decreases, it reaches
viscosities of the order of 20,000 to 40,000 cp (Prieto 2016).

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In the Samaria field, sandy bodies with impregnation of extra heavy
hydrocarbons were identified. Table 1 shows the general data of the oil
field, and the table 2 its petrophysical properties.

Area (km²) 7.9

Initial Pressure (psia) 1,380
Actual Pressure (psia) 1,380
Reservoir Temperature (°F) 113–116
Drive mechanism Compaction drive
Table 1. General data of Samaria field (Perez 2012).

Unconsolidated
Lithology
sands
Formation gross thickness (ft) 980-1640
Formation net thickness (ft) 390–490
Porosity (%) 20-40
Water saturation (%) 10-20
Permeability (mD) 3,000-3,500
Table 2. Petrophysical properties of Samaria field (Perez 2012).

Extra-heavy oil from the Samaria field has densities values of 5 to 10 °API
and viscosities higher than 2000 cp at reservoir conditions. Table 3 shows
fluid properties.

Oil density °API 5-10

Viscosity (cp) 6,000-45,000
Gas oil ratio (scf/stb) 6-57
Oil volume factor (rb/stb) 1.1262
Bubble point pressure (psia) 1,195
Table 3 Fluid properties of Samaria field (Perez 2012).

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 B) Medium (black) oil (22 to 31 °API)

The Balam field is located in the territorial waters of the Gulf of Mexico, 95
km northwest of Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche. The area of the Balam
field is 39.5 km² with a water depth between 160,761 and 17,064 ft (CNH
2016).

Figure 2. Location of Balam field (CNH 2016).

The field was discovered in 1992, beginning its operation a year later, the
reservoir rock are sandstones. Table 4 shows the general data of the oil
field, and the table 5 its petrophysical properties.

Area (km²) 39.5

Initial Pressure (psia) 8,262
Actual Pressure (psia) 3,513
Reservoir Temperature (°F) 227
Drive mechanism Compaction drive
Table 4. General data of Balam field (CNH 2016).

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 Lithology Sandstones
Formation net thickness (ft) 321
Porosity (%) 23
Water saturation (%) 16
Absolut permeability (mD) 800
Table 5. Petrophysical properties of Balam field (CNH 2016).

The medium black oil produced in the Balam field has density values of 27
°API and a viscosity of 2.54 cp. Table 6 shows fluid properties.

Oil density °API 27

2.54 @ R.C
Viscosity (cp)
36.46 @ S.C
Gas oil ratio (scf/stb) 296
Oil volume factor (rb/stb) 1.29
Bubble point pressure (psia) 1,635
Table 6 Fluid properties of Balam field (CNH 2016).

C) Volatile oil (>45 °API)

The Giraldas field is located 50 km southwest of Villahermosa, Tabasco, it

was discovered in 1972 and is a producer of volatile oil (CNH 2013).

Figure 3. Location of Giraldas field (CNH 2013).

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The quality and composition of hydrocarbon is manifested by its high
density in API° and low sulphur content, the reservoir temperature is 274
°F. The general data of Giraldas field is given in Table 7.

Area (km²) 1,727

Initial Pressure (psia) 11,418
Depth (ft) 13,123
Reservoir Temperature (°F) 274
Drive mechanism Compaction drive
Table 7. General data of Giraldas field (Leon, Alamilla, and Garcia 2013).

The volatile oil produced in the field has density values between 44 and 53
°API. Table 8 shows fluid properties.

Oil density °API 44-53

Viscosity (cp) 0.270
Gas oil ratio (scf/stb) 4,210
Oil volume factor (rb/stb) 3.068
Bubble point pressure (psia) 6,455
Table 8 Fluid properties of Giraldas field (Leon, Alamilla, and Garcia
2013).

D) Explain how the fluid property type influences field development

plans and use each of the above fields as examples.

The quantification of the original volume and the reserves of hydrocarbons

are important for the development of the field, since by means of its
determination the exploitation strategies can be established.
Understanding the composition of crude oil in the development process of
a field helps to optimize the exploitation of resources. Hydrocarbons
comprise a variety of components ranging from methane that has only one
carbon atom to very long chain carbon compounds, in addition to cyclic,
aromatic molecules and other complex molecules such as asphaltenes and

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paraffins. These components determine the phase behavior of a given
reservoir fluid that is usually indicated using a phase diagram.

Fluid properties influences the number of wells, heavy oil projects depend
more on the horizontal wells and on the maintenance of the pressure; The
commercial success of these projects will be determined to a large extent
by the efficiency with which these wells are drilled, complete and maintain
production (Wehunt et al. 2003).

To develop the field of Samaria, a project was developed in 2006 to extract

heavy oil, it was contemplated to design and implement a pilot test of cyclic
steam injection, 4 vertical wells, 1 directional well, and 3 horizontal wells
were developed. By 2015, the field has more than 100 wells. On the other
hand, Balam field currently has 18 wells, of which 7 are producers, one
well is an injector, 5 wells are closed and the last 5 are plugged (Sanchez
2013).

Volatile oils are composed of light hydrocarbon molecules and a few

intermediate molecules compared to black oil, showing higher mobility
throughout the reservoir due to their lower viscosities.

In contrast, heavy oil fields normally have low energy, low gas oil ratio,
low reservoir temperatures and poor oil properties. In addition, the
productivity is small due to the high viscosity, resulting in an unfavorable
mobility ratio, which affects sweep efficiency; these fields regularly have a
low recovery efficiency compared to lighter oil reservoirs (Wehunt et al.
2003).

With reference to artificial lift systems (ALS), the fluid properties are
fundamental. Gas and sand production is a complicated issue for some
ALS. For the ALS designer, the producing gas-liquid ratio (GLR) is
significant. Free gas at pump intake is beneficial for gas lift system, but it
is a major problem for the others pumping lift methods. (Lea and Nickens
1999).

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According to Wehunt (2003) the 4 primary ALS commonly considered in
evaluations for viscous crude environments are gas lift, electric
submersible pumps (ESP), progressing cavity pumps (PCP) and hydraulic
submersible pumps (HSP).

According to the plan developed for the exploitation of the Samaria field,
the vertical wells were initially exploited with cold production and using the
ALS of progressing cavity pumps (PCP) and later with hot production with
cyclic steam injection and mechanical pumping (MP), the directional well
and the horizontal ones were exploited with cold production with
equipment (PCP) (Sanchez 2013).

Electric submersible pumps (ESP) are currently being used in the wells
producers of medium oil in Balam field (CNH 2016). In volatile oils the use
of ESP and PCP systems are limited due to the large amounts of gas that
the oil generates.

Question 2:
A)
The material balance equation is an important tool in the hydrocarbon
industry used by reservoir engineers to provide an estimate of the initial
hydrocarbon in place and can also serve to verify volumetric estimates; In
addition, it determines the degree of influence of the aquifer,
understanding the applicable "driving mechanism" and, in the end,
estimating the recovery factor and the recoverable reserves (Ojo and
Osisanya 2006).

The equation of matter balance is a mathematical expression in which we

have, on one side of the equation, the sum of the expansions of all the
elements that form the reservoir (water, rock, oil, gas) plus the influence
of the aquifer, while on the other side of the equation, the volumes
produced are obtained due to the pressure drop generated in the reservoir.
The equation can be solve to find N, We, P, So, Sg and Sw; after obtaining
the value of water saturation we can go to the graph of relative
permeability curves and with the value of Sw find the values of Kro and krw,

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finally, using the Darcy equation we can predict the flow of oil, water and
gas.

The equation can be re-arranged to find the reservoir pressure by

understanding the reservoir characteristics, the quantity of oil initially in
place (STOIIP), the volume of liberated gas, the formation compressibility
and water saturation; besides, we can estimate the recovery factor,
obtaining it from the ratio between the cumulative oil production and the
STOIIP, this factor is related to the percentage of pressure that is had in
the reservoir with respect to the initial pressure.

To conclude, it will be of great helpful to determine the influence of the

drive mechanisms on the production obtained, not only to plan a possible
method to maintain the reservoir pressure, but also for the application of
a tertiary recovery process to increase the ultimate oil recovery from a
reservoir.

B) North Sea oil fields

The Skjold field is a naturally fractured chalk reservoir situated in the

southern part of the North Sea Central Trough. The field was discovered in
1977 and was placed on production in Nov. 1982. The oil originally in place
(OOlP) is calculated around 600 MMSTB. At the end of 1985 cumulative oil
production was 12 MMSTB or 2% of the OOlP (Oen, Engell-Jensen and
Barendregt 1988).

Figure 4. Skjold field location map (Larsen 1994).

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The key factors that have resulted in this performance are: first, very low
matrix permeabilities, second, water imbibition was the drive mechanism,
and third, the oil was undersaturated.

Imbibition, gravity drainage and viscous displacement are the drive

mechanisms in the Skjold field. Originally, it was thought that the main
drive mechanism was imbibition. However, poorly fractured areas have
been discovered, which generate in a lower imbibition efficiency in these
areas, resulting in an unequal field wide recovery (Larsen 1994).

At the end of 1985, reservoir pressure approached saturation pressure,

indicating that the aquifer strength was not enough to provide adequate
pressure support, so a well was adapted to inject water in order to maintain
reservoir pressure above the saturation pressure. It is estimated that the
water cut will increase, which will cause a continuous decrease in the oil
rate, developing a final recovery factor of around 20%.

The Statfjord field is situated in the Tampen Area of the North Sea, 200
km northwest of Bergen, Norway (Agaev et al. 2017).

Figure 5. Statfjorf field location map (Agaev et al. 2017).

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The field size is 27 km long and 4 km wide with a 1 billion Sm3 of STOIIP,
its estimated ultimate recovery factor for oil of 68%. This field has
produced around 635 million Sm3 of oil, which represents an oil recovery
factor of 65% of STOIIP (Boge et al. 2005).

This recovery performance has been achieved because Statfjord field has
outstanding reservoir characteristics, such as high permeability sandstone
reservoirs containing highly light oil with low sulfur content; the low oil
viscosity and high permeabilities result in high productivities and great
cumulative productions. Furthermore, the oil production has been
optimized by pressure maintenance with the injection of water and gas,
drilling of deviated and horizontal wells, and diverse facility alterations.

Altogether, a strategy was developed for the Statfjord field in order to

release the gas from the remaining oil, the estimates display that
implementation of this strategy will generate an increased ultimate oil
recovery factor of 68% (Boge et al. 2005).

Word count: 1,682

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References

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to Current Depressurization Experience (Russian). Baku, Azerbaijan:
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BOGE, R. et al., 2005. Turning a North Sea oil giant into a gas field -
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