Name___________________________________ Period_____ Notes:

Lesson Objectives
• Define the term “chemistry.”

• Describe the activities of alchemists and how they

contributed to the modern science of chemistry.

• List some of the key scientists from the early history of

chemistry along with their primary contributions to the
field.

• List various modern items that have been developed

through the study of chemistry.

Lesson Vocabulary
• chemistry: The science of the properties, reaction,
composition, and structures of matter.

• matter: Anything that has mass and takes up space.

• alchemist: A practitioner of the Medieval science of

alchemy, which aimed mainly to transform everyday
metals into gold.

• philosopher’s stone: A substance that could cause the

transmutation of lead into gold.

A Brief History of Chemistry

What is Chemistry?
If we look up the word “chemistry” in the dictionary, we’ll find
something like this: “The science of the composition,
structure, properties, and reactions of matter, especially of
atomic and molecular systems” (Free Online Dictionary). This
definition is accurate, but it does not give us a good picture of
the scope of chemistry or any practical aspects of the field.

Chemistry touches every area of our lives. The medicines we

take, the food we eat, the clothes we wear – all these materials
and more are, in some way or another, a product of chemistry.

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Later on in this chapter, we will look in detail at some of the
ways that chemistry contributes to our lives.

Where Did Chemistry Come From?

Although the systematic study of chemistry is relatively new,
chemical techniques have been used for thousands of years.
Some civilizations kept good records of these techniques,
which give us direct information about what earlier people
knew. Fields of study such as archaeology provide additional
information. Legends and folklore are also useful tools to learn
about the chemical knowledge of previous cultures.

Thousands of years ago, the ancient Egyptians used chemical

practices to develop techniques for producing perfumes and
dyes. Studies of objects found in Egyptian tombs show that
materials for coloring fabrics were known as far back as 2600
B.C.

Another area of chemistry that was highly developed by the

early Egyptians was metallurgy. Beginning in about 3400 B.C.,
records show a highly developed technology for refining
copper, gold, iron, and other metals. Although the reasons
these techniques worked were not fully understood, the
refiners were able to produce high-quality materials that were
used in jewelry, decorations, and money.

Glass production also appears to have been first developed by

the Egyptians (see Figure below). A number of tomb paintings
show glass-blowing and the manufacturing of glass products.
The glass was often colored, suggesting an understanding of
the use of dyes for decoration.

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[Figure 1]
This ancient Egyptian glass jar is over 3000 years old.

Various types of medicines were also discovered by many

ancient people. Records from civilizations around the world
show that certain plants were used for healing specific
disorders and for dealing with pain. The earliest medical
“textbook” consisted of hundreds of clay tablets found in
Mesopotamia, dating from about 2600 B.C. These tablets had
information about thousands of plants and plant materials that
had beneficial effects. An Egyptian papyrus from around 1550
B.C had over 800 prescriptions and 700 natural materials that
were used for medical treatment (see Figure below). The
famous Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.) wrote
about using lemon juice as a laxative and an extract from the
belladonna plant as an anesthetic. Indian writings from around
900 B.C. describe the preparations of over 300 different
medicines. Traditional Chinese medicine has records from 350
B.C. that describe over 240 medicinal preparations and 150
drug combinations used to treat various ailments. Oral
traditions from both North and South America also describe
preparations used for healing. Some South American tribes
used the venom from specific frogs (usually very brightly
colored ones) for poisons. The chemical properties of these
substances was not understood at the time, but chemical
techniques were often used to isolate and purify various useful
materials.

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[Figure 2]
Pictures of herbal medicines. The Arabic text is from around 1330 A.D.

The Rise and Fall of the Alchemists

One area of technology present in all of the societies we have
mentioned was metallurgy. Properly refined metals could be
made into useful tools that could last a long time. Weapons
could stay sharp longer with improved metals. Additionally,
precious metals such as gold and silver could be refined and
used in jewelry or as money. Because it was fairly rare, gold
was considered to be very valuable and became a common
means of paying for goods and services.

We don’t know exactly when humans began mining for gold.

Items made from gold have been found in Bulgarian graves
that are over 7000 years old. Archaeological studies show
clear evidence of gold mining in many parts of the world from
over 4000 years ago. During the time of the Roman Empire,
the Romans had developed very sophisticated methods for
extracting gold from the earth.

However, mining for gold is a slow, dirty, and dangerous

process. Additionally, not everyone owns a gold mine – in both

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the ancient Egyptian society and during the Roman Empire,
the gold mines were the property of the state and did not
belong to any one individual or group. As a result, there were
few ways for most people to legally get any gold for
themselves.

The alchemists were a varied group of scholars and

charlatans (Figure below). Two of the ultimate goals of
alchemy were to create the Philosopher’s Stone (which is a
substance that could cause the transmutation of lead into
gold) and the Elixir of Life (which would bestow immortality on
the person who possessed it). The origin of the term
“alchemy” is uncertain, and the roots of this word are related
to a number of Greek, Arabic, and ancient Egyptian words.
Three major branches of alchemy are known (Chinese, Indian,
and European), and all three have certain factors in common.
We will not focus on the philosophical or religious aspects of
alchemy, but we will look briefly at the techniques developed
by European alchemists that ultimately influenced the
development of the science of chemistry.

[Figure 3]
An alchemist at work on his laboratory.

Many of the specific approaches that alchemists used when

they tried changing lead into gold are vague and unclear. Each
alchemist had his own methods of recording data, and the
processes were kept secret so that others could not profit
from them. Different scholars developed their own set of
symbols as they recorded the information they came up with
(see an example in Figure below). Also, many alchemists were

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not very honest; it was not uncommon for an alchemist to take
money from a nobleman by claiming to be able to make gold
from lead and then to leave town in the middle of the night.
Sometimes the nobleman would detect the fraud and have the
alchemist hung. By the 1300s, several European rulers had
declared alchemy to be illegal and set out strict punishments
for those practicing the alchemical arts.

[Figure 4]
An alchemical procedure and symbols.

However, despite this secrecy several contributions were

made to modern-day chemistry. Early acids and bases were
discovered, and glassware for running chemical reactions was
developed. Alchemy helped improve the study of metallurgy
and the extraction of metals from ores. More systematic
approaches to research were being developed, although the
idea of orderly scientific experimentation was not yet well-
established. The groundwork was being laid for the
development of chemistry as a foundational science.

The alchemists were never successful in changing lead into

gold. Remarkably, modern nuclear physics can accomplish
this task. If lead is subjected to nuclear bombardment in a
particle accelerator, a small amount of gold can eventually be
obtained. However, the cost of this procedure is far more than
the value of the gold that can be obtained, so the dream of the
alchemists has never (and will never) come true.

Events in the History of Chemistry

The history of chemistry is an interesting and challenging one.
As we have already seen, very early chemists often were
motivated mainly by the achievement of a specific goal or

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product. The manufacturing of perfume or soaps did not
require a high level of theory, just a good recipe and careful
attention to detail. Since there was no standard way of naming
materials (and no periodic table that everyone could agree on),
it was often difficult to figure out exactly what a particular
individual was using. Nevertheless, the science of chemistry
gradually developed over the centuries.

Major progress was made in putting chemistry on a solid

foundation when Robert Boyle (1637-1691) began his research
in chemistry. He developed basic ideas that allowed the
behavior of gases to be described mathematically. Boyle also
helped formulate the idea that small particles could combine
to form molecules, which was expanded by John Dalton into
an atomic theory a number of years later.

The field of chemistry began to develop rapidly in the 1700s,

mainly through the discovery and isolation of specific
materials. Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) isolated and
characterized several gases, including oxygen, carbon
monoxide, and nitrous oxide. It was later discovered that
nitrous oxide (“laughing gas”) worked as a general anesthetic,
and it was first used for that purpose in 1844 during a tooth
extraction. Other gases discovered during that time included
chlorine, by C.W. Scheele (1742-1786), and nitrogen, by
Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794). Lavoisier is considered by
many scholars to be the “father of chemistry.”

Chemistry in the 1800s continued the discovery of new

compounds, but a more theoretical foundation also began to
develop. John Dalton (1766-1844) put forth his atomic theory
in 1807. These ideas allowed scientists to think about
chemistry in a much more systematic way. It was also during
this time that Avogadro (1776-1856) laid the groundwork for a
more quantitative approach to chemistry by calculating the
number of particles present in a given amount of a gas.
Greater effort was put forth in studying chemical reactions and
seeing what new materials could be produced. Following the
invention of the battery by Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), the
field of electrochemistry was developed through major
contributions by Humphry Davy (1778-1829) and Michael
Faraday (1791-1867). Other areas of the discipline, including
both theoretical ideas and their practical applications, also
progressed rapidly.

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It would take a very large book to cover every development in
the history of chemistry, even if we started only at the
beginning of the twentieth century. The history of specific
areas will be explored as certain topics are introduced in later
chapters. One major area of expansion was in the study of the
chemistry of living processes. Research on photosynthesis in
plants, the discovery and characterization of enzymes as
biochemical catalysts, the elucidation of the structures of
biomolecules such as insulin and DNA, and numerous other
scientific efforts gave rise to an explosion of information in the
field of biochemistry.

The practical aspects of chemistry are numerous as well. The

work of Volta, Davy, and Faraday eventually led to the
development of batteries that provided a source of electricity
to power a number of devices. Charles Goodyear (1800-1860)
discovered the process of vulcanization, which produced a
stable rubber product that is used in the tires of all modern
vehicles. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) pioneered the use of heat
sterilization to eliminate unwanted microorganisms in wine and
milk. Alfred Nobel (1833-1896) invented dynamite. After his
death, the fortune he made from this product was used to fund
the Nobel Prizes in science and the humanities. J.W Hyatt
(1837-1920) developed the first plastic and Leo Baekeland
(1863-1944) developed the first synthetic resin, which are
widely used for inexpensive and sturdy dinnerware.

Examples of Modern Chemistry

From the time we get up in the morning until the time we go to
bed at night, chemistry touches our lives in many ways. What
we eat, what we wear, how we get around, those cool
electronic gadgets we can’t live without – chemistry has
contributed in some way to the making of each of these
things. Let’s take a look at several areas where chemistry has
an impact on how we live.

Clothing
Many of the fibers that compose the materials for our clothes
are naturally occurring. Silk and cotton are examples of natural
fibers. Silk is produced by the silkworm, and cotton is grown
as a plant. However, several chemical processes are used to
treat silk thread so that it is shrink-resistant and will repel

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water. Chemical dyes are frequently used to color various
fabrics. Cleaning requires special soaps or chemicals used to
dry-clean materials. Cotton will grow better if the boll weevil
(an insect that kills the plant) is eliminated with the use of
specific insecticides. Ironing of cotton is made easier by the
use of chemicals that produce a permanent press in the
material.

Other fabrics are human-made, such as nylon, orlon,

polyester, and a number of other polymers. Many of these
materials are made from hydrocarbons found in petroleum
products. Synthetic polymers are also used in shoes, raingear,
and camping items. The synthetic fabrics tend to be lighter
than the natural ones and can be treated to make them water-
resistant and more durable.

Much protective apparel has its roots in chemical processes.

Kevlar is a tough polymer that is used for helmets and body
TM

armor in combat situations. First used to replace steel in

racing tires, Kevlar is now found in bicycle tires, sails, and
TM

even rope.

[Figure 5]
U.S. Marine Corps body armor.

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Transportation
Car bodies were at one time made primarily of sheet metal,
which could be pounded out fairly easily in case of a collision.
Today, most bodies are plastic and need to be replaced when
damaged. Plastic parts are easier to manufacture and are
lighter in weight than metal ones. Many of the engine
components are made of special metals to increase the
lifetime of the engine and to make it more efficient.

[Figure 6]
A modern car engine.

Gasoline and oils are complex chemical mixtures designed to

burn in a way that will efficiently produce energy while emitting
a minimal amount of air pollution. The refining of gasoline has
improved engine performance but is much more complicated
than simply using the crude products extracted from oil wells,
as was common in the late 1800s. Most gasoline contained
lead at one time, because this additive helped the engine run
more smoothly. However, this caused lead contamination in
the environment, so new “unleaded” formulations were
created that could be burned smoothly without the addition of
poisonous heavy metals. Oils for lubrication have special
additives that reduce engine wear. Some special fuel blends
have also been created to generate more power in race car
engines.

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Farming and Gardening
Three of the most important requirements for crop growth are
water, nutrient-rich soil, and protection from predators such as
insects. Chemistry has made major contributions in all three of
these areas. Water purification uses chemical and physical
techniques to remove salt and harmful contaminants that
could pollute the soil. Through chemical analysis of soil,
farmers can see what nutrients the soil is lacking so these
nutrients can be added. In the spring, grocery stores,
hardware stores, and gardening centers have high stacks of
bags containing fertilizers and weed killers that farmers can
then use to enrich the soil and keep unwanted plants from
using up the limited water and nutrients in the soil. These
same stores also provide a number of chemical sprays or solid
treatments to ward off insects that might otherwise snack on
the plants.

[Figure 7]
A wheat harvest in the Palouse region of Idaho.

Health Care
Major contributions to health care have been made by
chemistry. The development of new drugs involves chemical
analysis and the synthesis of new compounds. Practically all
of the drugs that you might see advertised on television were

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designed and created by chemists. Clinical laboratory tests for
things like high cholesterol or diabetes use a wide variety of
analytical chemical techniques and instruments. Chemistry
also contributes to the preparation and use of surgical
materials such as stitches, artificial skin, and sterile materials.

[Figure 8]
A surgical relief mission.

Laboratory tests that at one time were only available in

hospitals can now be found in your local drug store because of
developments in chemistry. For example, you can test your
blood glucose using a simple portable device that runs a
chemical test on a blood sample (Figure below). This allows a
diabetic patient to monitor their blood glucose more easily
throughout the day, and regulate how much insulin to
administer. Chemistry is also used to produce the insulin drug
and disposable syringe that administers the drug.

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[Figure 9]
A device for testing blood glucose levels at home.

Lesson Summary
• Chemistry has a long and interesting history.

• All societies have used some facets of chemistry in the

past, but it was only recently developed into a
systematic field of science.

• Although the alchemists never did achieve their goal of

making gold from lead, they did give us some useful
chemical tools. *Modern chemistry contributes in many
areas of our lives, making them easier, safer, and
healthier.

Lesson Review Questions

1. How can we learn about chemistry knowledge in
ancient societies? How do we get chemistry knowledge
today? (2 sentances)

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 2. Why was the work of the alchemists important?

3. Read the label on a prepared food product (for

example: bread, cereal, dessert). List all the ingredients
in the product. Look up each ingredient on the Internet
and write down what that material is doing in the food
product.

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 4. Select your favorite hobby or activity. List all the items
you use in that activity or hobby. For each item, find out
how chemistry has contributed to the creation or better
operation of that item.

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Further Reading / Supplemental Links
• History of
perfumes: http://www.perfumes.com/eng/history.htm

• Traditional herbal
medicines: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/
vol82/mono82-6A.pdf

• The origin and chemistry of

petroleum: http://www.dpra.com/index.cfm/m/158

• National Institutes of Health web site dealing with

chemistry and
health: http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/chemhealth/

Points to Consider
How did people in ancient times know what to use for
perfumes, soaps, metal refining, medicines, and other
applications of chemistry?

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