ARTICLE IN PRESS

Renewable Energy 31 (2006) 2460–2474

www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Performance evaluation of hybrid PV/thermal

water/air heating system: A parametric study
Arvind Tiwari, M.S. Sodha
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016, India
Received 18 May 2005; accepted 6 December 2005
Available online 7 February 2006

Abstract

In this paper, a thermal model of an integrated photovoltaic and thermal solar (IPVTS) water/air
heating system has been developed. An analytical expression for the temperature of solar cell and
water and an overall thermal efficiency of IPVTS system have been derived as a function of climatic
and design parameters. Numerical computations have been carried out for composite climate of New
Delhi for parametric studies. Four configurations, namely (a) unglazed with tedlar (UGT), (b) glazed
with tedlar (GT), (c) unglazed without tedlar (UGWT) and (d) glazed without tedlar (GWT) have
been considered. Comparison of the IPVTS system with water and air heater has also been carried
out. It is found that the characteristic daily efficiency of IPVTS system with water is higher than with
air for all configurations except GWT. It is also observed that an overall thermal efficiency of IPVTS
system for summer and winter conditions is about 65% and 77%, respectively.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Hybrid PV/thermal; Solar energy; Water/air heater

1. Introduction

The main reasons for reduction of electrical efficiency of the photovoltaic (PV) module
are packing factor (PF), ohmic losses between two consecutive solar cells and the increase
in the temperature of the PV module due to solar radiation. The overall electrical efficiency
of the PV module can be increased either by increasing the PF or reducing the temperature
of the PV module by using the thermal energy associated with PV module [1,2] or by both.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 11 26591255.
E-mail address: arvindtiwari02@yahoo.com (A. Tiwari).

0960-1481/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2005.12.002
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A. Tiwari, M.S. Sodha / Renewable Energy 31 (2006) 2460–2474 2461

Nomenclature

A area, m2
b breadth, m
C specific heat, J/kg K
FR flow rate factor, no unit
h heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K
hp1 penalty factor, no unit
hp2 penalty factor, no unit
I(t) incident solar intensity, W/m2
K thermal conductivity, W/m K
L length, m
M mass, kg
Q_ u rate of useful energy transfer, W
t time, s
T temperature, 1C
Ub an overall heat transfer coefficient from bottom to ambient, W/m2 K
UL an overall heat transfer coefficient from solar cell to ambient through top and
back surface of insulation, W/m2 K
Ut an overall heat transfer coefficient from solar cell to ambient through glass
cover, W/m2 K
UT conductive heat transfer coefficient from solar cell to water through tedlar,
W/m2 K
UtT an overall heat transfer coefficient from glass to tedlar through solar cell,
W/m2 K
Utw an overall heat transfer coefficient from glass to water through solar cell and
tedlar, W/m2 K

Subscripts

o glass to ambient
a ambient
bs back surface of tedlar
c solar cell
eff effective
f fluid
fi inlet fluid
G glass
i insulation
r reference
w water
T tedlar
th thermal
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2462 A. Tiwari, M.S. Sodha / Renewable Energy 31 (2006) 2460–2474

Greek letters

a absorptivity
b packing factor
Z efficiency
t transmittivity

The utilization of thermal energy can be achieved by flowing either the water or air below
PV module [1–4]. The rate of thermal energy available with PV module was estimated by
Jones and Underwood [5] by developing a non-steady-state thermal model for PV system
(BP 585) by considering the effect of heat capacity of the PV module. Infield et al. [6] have
analyzed a system that consists of the PV module and double glass wall. They have
concluded that the temperature of the PV module can be reduced by flowing air between
the PV module and double glass wall. The available extracted thermal energy from PV
module can be used either for space heating or crop drying.
For the water heating, two types of combi-panel (hybrid PV/T) have been considered,
namely

(i) The tube-in-plate configuration, [1,2,7,8,13] and

(ii) The parallel plate configuration [4,7].

The transient behavior of a hybrid PV/T for both water and air as carriers of thermal
energy for cogeneration of the electricity and the hot air/water for parallel plate
configuration was studied in detail by Prakash [4]. He concluded that the overall efficiency
of the PV/T system is significantly increased for both water and air heater. However, he
could not compare the performance of the hybrid PV/T water and air heaters.
The increase of the overall efficiency of the hybrid PV/T system reduces energy pay back
time (EPBT), which of course affects the techno-economic analysis of the hybrid PV/T
system.
In this paper, thermal models of integrated photovoltaic and thermal system (IPVTS)
developed by Tiwari and Sodha [8] have been considered for parametric studies and for
comparison of the hybrid PV/T water and air heaters. The parallel plate configuration of
water and air collector has been considered for comparison.

2. Configuration of the PV/T water heating system

A schematic diagram of a hybrid IPVTS, unglazed with tedlar (UGT) is shown in Fig. 1.
The storage tank of capacity 45 kg is connected with the PV module with an effective area
of 0.64 m2 (0.54 m
1.2 m) through insulated pipes. A water pump with controller is
provided between the PV/T system and the storage tank to circulate the water.
The following configurations for IPVTS have been considered for the present study:

(a) the unglazed with tedlar (UGT),

(b) the glazed with tedlar (GT), Fig. 2,
(c) the unglazed without tedlar (UGWT) and
(d) the glazed without tedlar (GWT).
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PV/T Collector

PV Module
Heat Collecting
Plate

Controller

AC110V +
60Hz Hot Water
Supply
- Storage
Tank

Pump
- + Cold Water
Supply

+ -

Fig. 1. A schematic diagram of an integrated PV/T system (IPVTS).

Ta
I(t)

Glass

Solar cell and EVA

Water in Tedlar
Water out
Insulating Material
Ta

Fig. 2. Cross-sectional view of an integrated photovoltaic/thermal system.

Here the tedlar is an insulating material used below the solar cells of the PV module to
give strength to the PV module. The thermal circuit diagram of an IPVTS, case (b), is
shown in Fig. 3.
The comparative design parameters for all configurations are given in Table 1.

3. Thermal model

The following basic assumptions have been made:

(i) heat capacity of solar cell materials, tedlar and insulation (wood) has been neglected,
(ii) transmittivity of ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA ) is approximately 100%,
(iii) temperature variation along the thickness is negligible,
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(iv) water flow between the tedlar and insulation material is uniform for forced convection
and
(v) the system is in quasi-steady-state condition.

After writing the basic energy balance for different components of an IPVTS [8], one
obtains the following final equations:
The water temperature in the storage tank can be obtained as

f ðtÞ
Tw ¼ ð1  eat Þ þ T w0 eat (1)
a

Ts
Ta Conductive Resistance

Convective Resistance

Radiative Resistance
Glass Tg

Solar Cell and

EVA
Tc

Tedlar

Tbs

Water out
Water in

Insulating Structure

Ti

Ta
TSO
L

Fig. 3. Thermal resistance circuit diagram for the photovoltaic/thermal system.

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Table 1
Design parameters

Parameters Case (a) Case (b) Case (c) Case (d)

(a) Design parameters of the PV/T collector and the storage tank for all configurations
hp1 (W/m2 K) 0.88 0.94 1 1
hp2 (W/m2 K) 0.86 0.934 — —
hp (W/m2 K) — — 0.844 0.844
Kg (W/m K) — 0.04 — 0.04
Ki (W/m K) 0.35 0.35 0.039 0.035
KT (W/m K) 0.033 0.033 — —
Lg (m) — 0.003 — 0.003
LT (m) 0.0005 0.0005 — —
UL (W/m2 K) 7.59 3.88 8.418 3.88
Ut (W/m2 K) 9.24 3.69 9.24 3.69
UT (W/m2 K) 66 66 — —
UtT (W/m2 K) 8.11 3.49 8.11 3.49
Utw (W/m2 K) 6.97 3.26 6.97 3.26
aT 0.50 0.50 — —
tG 0.95 0.95
0.95 0.95 0.95
0.95

Parameters Same for all cases

(b) Design parameters of the PV/T collector and the storage tank which is same for all configurations
Ac (m2) 0.648
b (m) 0.54
Cw (J/kg K) 4190
hi (W/m2 K) 5.8
ho (W/m2 K) 5.7+3.8V
hT (W/m2 K) 1000
Kc (W/m K) 0.039
KG (W/m K) 1
L (m) 1.2
Lc (m) 0.0003
LG (m) 0.003
Li (m) 0.05
Mw (kg) 45
Ub (W/m2 K) 0.62
(UA)T (W/m2 K) 0.44
V (m/s) 1
ac 0.90
bc 0.90
Zc 0.12

with initial condition, i.e. T w jt¼0 ¼ T w0 and

ðUAÞT þ Ac F R U L
a¼ and
M wCw
1
f ðtÞ ¼ ½Ac F R hp1 hp2 ðatÞeff IðtÞ þ fðUAÞT þ Ac F R U L gT a .
M wCw
After knowing Tw from Eq. (1), the temperatures of base of the PV module (Tbs) and the
solar cell (Tc) of the PV module can be obtained for a given climatic data and design
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2466 A. Tiwari, M.S. Sodha / Renewable Energy 31 (2006) 2460–2474

parameters of the unglazed IPVTS. Expressions for Tbs and Tc are given below:
hp1 ðatÞeff IðtÞ þ U tT T a þ hT T w
T bs ¼ (2)
U tT þ hT
and
tG ½ac bc þ aT ð1  bc ÞIðtÞ  Zc IðtÞbc þ U t T a þ U T T bs
Tc ¼ . (3)
Ut þ UT
Eqs. (2) and (3) can be obtained by writing the energy balance equation for the solar cell
and the tedlar, respectively, Figs. 2 and 3 [8].
The rate of useful thermal energy is determined from
_ w
mC
Q_ u ¼ _ w
fhp1 hp2 ðatÞeff IðtÞ  U L ðT w0  T a Þgð1  ebLU L =mC Þ. (4)
UL
The appendix gives an expression for constants appearing in Eqs. (1)–(4).
The thermal efficiency of the PV/T system can be evaluated as follows:
M w C w ðT f  T fi Þ
Zth ¼ P . (5)
Ac IðtÞ
3600
The overall efficiency of IPVTS (electrical+thermal) system is given by
Z ¼ Zc þ Zth . (6a)
If the 0.40 is conversion efficiency of the thermal energy into the electrical energy in the
thermal power plant then, the overall thermal efficiency of IPVTS becomes
h Z i
c
Z¼ þ Zth
100. (6b)
0:40
An expression for temperature-dependent electrical efficiency of the PV module, Ze [9,10]
is given by
Ze ¼ Zr ½1  bðT c  T r Þ, (7)
1
where b ¼ 0:0045 1C is temperature coefficient (Eq. (3) [1]), Tc is the temperature of the
solar cells, Tr is the reference temperature, Zr is the reference efficiency of the PV module.
Eq. (7) can be used to evaluate the solar cell efficiency at known temperature for a given
reference efficiency of the PV module (Zr ¼ 0:12) and the solar cell temperature
(T c ¼ 25 1C) under standard test condition.
An expression for an instantaneous thermal efficiency of the PV/T system with the help
of Eq. (4) is given by


Q_ u T fi  T a
Zi ¼ ¼ F R hp1 hp2 ðatÞeff  U L , (8)
Ac IðtÞ IðtÞ
which is same as the well-known Hottel–Whiller–Bliss (HWB) characteristic equation for
flat plate collector (Eqs. (3.57) and (3.58) of [11]).

4. Results and discussion

The hourly variations of solar intensity and ambient air temperature used for the present
study for summer and winter conditions are given in the Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The
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Table 2
Hourly variations of solar intensity and ambient temperature for a typical day of July 2004 at New Delhi
(summer)

Time (h) Solar intensity (W/m2) Ambient temperature (1C)

09 366 31
10 528 33
11 704 34
12 660 36
13 639 36
14 323 36
15 167 35
16 298 36

Table 3
Hourly variations of solar intensity and ambient temperature for a typical day of January 2004 (winter) at New
Delhi

Time (h) Intensity (W/m2) Ambient temperature (1C)

09 222 12
10 433 15
11 558 18
12 677 20
13 602 22
14 283 22
15 261 22
16 104 21

50.00 Tw(UGT)
48.00 Tw(UGWT)
Water temperature,°C

46.00 Tw(GT)
44.00 Tw(GWT)
42.00
40.00
38.00
36.00
34.00
32.00
30.00
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time,hr

Fig. 4. Hourly variation of water temperature in the storage tank for a typical day of July 2004 at New Delhi.

design and climatic data of the Tables 1–3 have been used to evaluate the hourly variation
of the water temperature and solar cell temperature from Eqs. (1)–(3). The overall thermal
efficiency of the PV/T system has been evaluated from Eq. (5). Eqs. (6b) and (8) have been
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32.00
Tw(UGT)
30.00
28.00 Tw(UGWT)
Water temperature,°C 26.00 Tw(GT)
24.00 Tw(GWT)
22.00
20.00
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time,hr

Fig. 5. Hourly variation of water temperature in the storage tank for a typical day of January 2004 at New Delhi.

60.00 Tc(UGT)
Tc(UGWT)
Solar cell temperature, °C

55.00 Tc(GT)
Tc(GWT)
50.00

45.00

40.00

35.00

30.00
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time,hr

Fig. 6. Hourly variation of the solar cell temperature of the PV module for a typical day of July 2004 at New
Delhi.

used to evaluate the overall thermal efficiency and characteristic curve for all
configurations under consideration.
The hourly variations of water temperatures in the storage tank for four configurations
for summer and winter months are shown in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. It is clear from
Figs. 4 and 5 that the water temperature for case (c), i.e. the UGWT is higher than the rest
of configurations for both summer and winter conditions. This is due to the fact that the
maximum thermal energy gain is responsible for higher water temperature due to absence
of the tedlar. This means the thermal energy is directly transferred to the water mass below
the PV module. The hourly variations of the solar cell temperatures for each case for both
summer and winter conditions are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. In this case too,
one can observe that the solar cell temperature becomes higher for case (b), i.e. the GT.
This is due to the fact that both the rate of heat transfer through tedlar to the water and the
top heat loss is reduced.
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40.00 Tc(UGT)
Tc(UGWT)
35.00 Tc(GT)
Solar cell temperature, °C
Tc(GWT)
30.00

25.00

20.00

15.00

10.00
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time,hr

Fig. 7. Hourly variation of solar cell temperature of the PV module for a typical day of January 2004 at New
Delhi.

60.00 Tw(L=1m)
55.00 Tw(L=4m)
50.00 Tw(L=8m)
Water temperature,°C

45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time,hr

Fig. 8. Effect of the length of the PV module on the hourly variation of the water temperature for a typical day of
January 2004 at New Delhi.

Figs. 8 and 9 show the effect of length of the PV module on the hourly variation of the
water temperature and the overall thermal efficiency of IPVTS. It is evident that the hourly
variation of the water temperature increases with the increase of the length of the PV
module as expected. The maximum water temperature is obtained at 1 p.m. is about 55 1C
for 8 m length of the PV module due to more thermal energy available at larger length for
winter condition. However, the overall thermal efficiency of IPVTS decreases with the
increase in the length of module due to more heat losses at higher length of the PV module.
The thermal efficiency is higher for the winter (January) conditions (Fig. 9) in comparison
with summer condition due to lower heat losses in the winter.
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0.6

0.5 UGWT(JULY)
UGWT(JANUARY)
Overall efficiency,%

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Length,m

Fig. 9. Effect of the length of the PV module on the overall thermal efficiency of the IPVTS system for the
summer and winter conditions at New Delhi.

Tw(Mass = 20Kg)
45.00
Tw(Mass = 45Kg)
40.00 Tw(Mass = 90Kg)
Tw(Mass = 70Kg)
Water temperature,°C

35.00

30.00

25.00

20.00

15.00

10.00
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time,hr

Fig. 10. Hourly variation of water temperature for different masses of water in the storage tank for a typical day
of January 2004 at New Delhi.

Further, it is to be noted that the hourly variation of the water temperature increases
with decrease in the mass of the water in the storage tank as expected and its variation is
shown in Fig. 10. The overall thermal efficiency is higher for the winter condition in
comparison to the summer condition (Fig. 11) due to lower heat losses from the storage
tank in the winter.
Figs. 12 and 13 show the effect of flow rate on the hourly variation of the water
temperature and the overall thermal efficiency of the IPVTS system. This indicates that
there is an increase in the overall efficiency of the IPVTS system with increase of the flow
rate as expected. In this case, the maximum thermal energy is carried away by flowing the
fluid (water) and it has marginal effect on temperature as well as an overall thermal
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0.60 Overall Efficiency_JAN

0.55 Overall Efficiency_JULY
0.50
Overall efficiency,% 0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Mass,Kg

Fig. 11. Effect of water mass in the storage tank on the overall thermal efficiency of the IPVTS system for the
summer and winter conditions at New Delhi.

35.00 Tw(Mass flow rate = 0.01m/s)

Tw(Mass flow rate = 0.05m/s)
Tw(Mass flow rate = 0.08m/s)
30.00 Tw(Mass flow rate = 0.5m/s)
Water temperature,°C

25.00

20.00

15.00

10.00
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time,hr

Fig. 12. Hourly variation of water temperature at different mass flow rate for January 2004 at New Delhi.

efficiency. One can conclude that the optimum flow rate for given design parameters is
0.02 kg/s.
For comparison of performance of the IPVTS system with water and air as fluid, the
characteristic equation (Eq. (8)) is plotted in Figs. 14 and 15, respectively, for winter
condition. It can be observed that the IPVTS system with water gives better performance
than the IPVTS system with air due to better heat transfer from the absorbed surface to the
working fluid except case (d). It is important to mention that the inlet temperature in the
case of water, coming from the storage tank, is higher. In the case of air as a fluid, an inlet
temperature has been assumed to be as (T a þ 5 1C). For same inlet temperature, the IPVTS
system will give better performance for water as working fluid.
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Overall Efficiency_JULY
0.47
Overall Efficiency_JAN

Overall efficiency,% 0.45

0.43

0.41

0.39

0.37

0.35
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.5 1
Mass flow rate,m/s

Fig. 13. Variation of the overall thermal efficiency of the IPVTS with mass flow rate at New Delhi.

0.38
GT
0.36 UGWT
GWT
Instantenous Efficiency,%

0.34
UGT
0.32

0.3

0.28

0.26

0.24

0.22

0.2

0.18
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
(Twin - Ta)/It

Fig. 14. Characteristic curve of a PV module for all configurations with water as a working fluid.

Eq. (7) has been computed for an average solar cell temperature (27.88 1C) obtained
from Fig. 7 for winter condition which gives an electrical efficiency of 11.83%.
Equivalent thermal efficiency can be obtained as 29% from Eq. (6b). If the thermal
efficiency of the IPVTS system for winter condition obtained from Fig. 9 for 1.2 m PV
module as 48.25 is added to equivalent thermal efficiency then the overall thermal
efficiency becomes 77.25% (Eq. (6b)). Similarly, the overall thermal efficiency for summer
is about 60–65%.
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0.38
UGWTwater
0.36
UGWTair
Instantenous Efficiency,% 0.34

0.32

0.3

0.28

0.26

0.24

0.22

0.2

0.18
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
(Tin - Ta)/I(t)

Fig. 15. Comparison of characteristic curve of the PV module for Model III (UGWT) with water and air as a
working fluid.

5. Conclusions

On the basis of the present study, it is inferred that

(i) the unglazed without tedlar [case (c)] gives better performance at lower operating
temperature (Fig. 14),
(ii) the glazed with tedlar gives better performance at high operating temperature (Fig. 14) and
(iii) the IPVTS system with water as working fluid gives better performance except glazed
without tedlar, i.e. case (d).

Appendix

The unknown parameters of Eqs. (1)–(4) are as follows:

UT hT
hp1 ¼ ; hp2 ¼ ; ðatÞeff ¼ tG fac bc þ aT ð1  bc Þ  Zc bc g,
Ut þ UT U tT þ hT


LG 1 1 KT hT U tT
U L ¼ U tw þ U b ; Ut ¼ þ ; UT ¼ ; U tw ¼ ,
K G ho LT U tT þ hT

1
Li 1 _ w
mC _ wÞ
Ub ¼ þ ; FR ¼ ½1  eðU L Ac =mC  with Ac ¼ bL.
K i hi Ac U L

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Further reading

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