Work in groups of three.

I. Change the process of Glass Forming into passive voice if necessary.

GLASS FORMING
1. Obtain silica sand. Also called quartz sand, silica sand is the primary ingredient in making glass.
Glass without iron impurities is sought for clear glass pieces, as the iron will cause the glass to
appear greenish when present.
2. Add sodium carbonate and calcium oxide to the sand. Sodium carbonate (commonly called
washing soda) lowers the temperature necessary to make glass commercially.
3. Add other chemicals, depending on the glass's intended purpose. The most common addition
for decorative glass is lead oxide, which provides the sparkle in crystal glassware, as well as the
softness to make it easier to cut and also lowers the melting point.
4. Add chemicals to produce a desired color in the glass, if any. As noted above, iron impurities
in quartz sand make glass made with it appear greenish, so iron oxide is added to increase the
greenish tint, as is copper oxide. Sulfur compounds produce a yellowish, amber, brownish or
even blackish tint, depending on how much carbon or iron is also added to the mixture.
5. Place the mixture in a good heat-resistant crucible or holder. The container should be able to
withstand the extremely high temperatures within the kiln - depending on your additives, your
glass mixture may melt at a range of temperatures between 1,500 and 2,500 degrees Celsius.
Your container should also be easily grasped with metal hooks and poles.
6. Melt the mixture into a liquid. For commercial silica glass, this is done in a gas-fired furnace,
while specialty glasses may be created using an electric melter, pot furnace or kiln.
7. Homogenize and remove bubbles from the molten glass. This means stirring the mixture to a
consistent thickness and adding chemicals such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride or antimony
oxide.
8. Shape the molten glass. Shaping the glass can be done in one of several ways:
 The molten glass can be poured into a mold and let cool. This method was used by the
Egyptians, and it is also how many lenses are created today.
 A large amount of molten glass can be gathered at the end of a hollow tube, which is
then blown into while the tube is turned. The glass is shaped by the air entering the tube,
gravity pulling on the molten glass and whatever tools the glassblower uses to work the
molten glass.
 The molten glass can be poured into a bath of molten tin for support and blasted with
pressurized nitrogen to shape and polish it. Glass made by this method is called float
glass, and it is how glass panes have been made since the 1950s.
9. Slowly cool the glass in a kiln. This process is called annealing, and it removes any stress points
that may have formed in the glass during cooling. Glass that has not been annealed is
significantly weaker. Once this process is completed, the glass can then be coated, laminated or
otherwise treated to improve its strength and durability.
II. Change the process of Aluminium Making into active voice if necessary.
ALUMUNIUM MAKING
Aluminum manufacture is accomplished in two phases: the Bayer process of refining the bauxite
ore to obtain aluminum oxide, and the Hall-Heroult process of smelting the aluminum oxide to
release pure aluminum.

The Bayer process

1. First, the bauxite ore is mechanically. Then, the crushed ore is mixed with caustic soda
and processed in a grinding mill to produce a slurry (a watery suspension) containing
very fine particles of ore.
2. The slurry is pumped into a digester, a tank that functions like a pressure cooker and
heated to 110-270° under a pressure of 340 kPa. These conditions are maintained for a
time ranging from half an hour to several hours. Additional caustic soda may be added
to ensure that all aluminum-containing compounds are dissolved.
3. The hot slurry, which is now a sodium aluminate solution, passes through a series of
flash tanks that reduce the pressure and recover heat that can be reused in the refining
process.
4. The slurry is pumped into a settling tank. As the slurry rests in this tank, impurities that
will not dissolve in the caustic soda settle to the bottom of the vessel. One manufacturer
compares this process to fine sand settling to the bottom of a glass of sugar water; the
sugar does not settle out because it is dissolved in the water, just as the aluminum in
the settling tank remains dissolved in the caustic soda. The residue (called "red mud")
that accumulates in the bottom of the tank consists of fine sand, iron oxide, and oxides
of trace elements like titanium.
5. After the impurities have settled out, the remaining liquid, which looks somewhat like
coffee, is pumped through a series of cloth filters. Any fine particles of impurities that
remain in the solution are trapped by the filters. This material is washed to recover
alumina and caustic soda that can be reused.
6. The filtered liquid is pumped through a series of six-story-tall precipitation tanks. Seed
crystals of alumina hydrate (alumina bonded to water molecules) are added through the
top of each tank. The seed crystals grow as they settle through the liquid and dissolved
alumina attaches to them.
7. The crystals precipitate (settle to the bottom of the tank) and are removed. After
washing, they are transferred to a kiln for calcining (heating to release the water
molecules that are chemically bonded to the alumina molecules). A screw conveyor
moves a continuous stream of crystals into a rotating, cylindrical kiln that is tilted to
allow gravity to move the material through it. A temperature of 2,000° F (1,100° C)
drives off the water molecules, leaving anhydrous (waterless) alumina crystals. After
leaving the kiln, the crystals pass through a cooler.
The Hall-Heroult process
Smelting of alumina into metallic aluminum takes place in a steel vat called a reduction pot. The
bottom of the pot is lined with carbon, which acts as one electrode (conductor of electric current)
of the system. The opposite electrodes consist of a set of carbon rods suspended above the pot;
they are lowered into an electrolyte solution and held about 1.5 in (3.8 cm) above the surface of
the molten aluminum that accumulates on the floor of the pot. Reduction pots are arranged in rows
(potlines) consisting of 50-200 pots that are connected in series to form an electric circuit. Each
potline can produce 66,000-110,000 tons (60,000-100,000 metric tons) of aluminum per year. A
typical smelting plant consists of two or three potlines.

8 Within the reduction pot, alumina crystals are dissolved in molten cryolite at a temperature of
1,760-1,780° F (960-970° C) to form an electrolyte solution that will conduct electricity from the
carbon rods to the carbon-lined bed of the pot. A direct current (4-6 volts and 100,000-230,000
amperes) is passed through the solution. The resulting reaction breaks the bonds between the
aluminum and oxygen atoms in the alumina molecules. The oxygen that is released is attracted to
the carbon rods, where it forms carbon dioxide. The freed aluminum atoms settle to the bottom of
the pot as molten metal.

The smelting process is a continuous one, with more alumina being added to the cryolite solution
to replace the decomposed compound. A constant electric current is maintained. Heat generated
by the flow of electricity at the bottom electrode keeps the contents of the pot in a liquid state, but
a crust tends to form atop the molten electrolyte. Periodically, the crust is broken to allow more
alumina to be added for processing. The pure molten aluminum accumulates at the bottom of the
pot and is siphoned off. The pots are operated 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

9 A crucible is moved down the potline, collecting 9,000 lb (4,000 kg) of molten aluminum, which
is 99.8% pure. The metal is transferred to a holding furnace and then cast (poured into molds) as
ingots. One common technique is to pour the molten aluminum into a long, horizontal mold. As
the metal moves through the mold, the exterior is cooled with water, causing the aluminum to
solidify. The solid shaft emerges from the far end of the mold, where it is sawed at appropriate
intervals to form ingots of the desired length. Like the smelting process itself, this casting process
is also continuous.
 PLASTIC MAKING
To make plastics, chemists and chemical engineers must do the following on an industrial
scale:

1. Prepare raw materials and monomers

2. Carry out polymerization reactions
3. Process the polymers into final polymer resins
4. Produce finished products

First, they must start with various raw materials that make up the monomers. Ethylene and
propylene, for example, come from crude oil, which contains the hydrocarbons that make up the
monomers. The hydrocarbon raw materials are obtained from the "cracking process" used in
refining oil and natural gas (see How Oil Refining Works). Once various hydrocarbons are
obtained from cracking, they are chemically processed to make hydrocarbon monomers and other
carbon monomers (like styrene, vinyl chloride, acrylonitrile) used in plastics.

Next, the monomers carry out polymerization reactions in large polymerization plants. The
reactions produce polymer resins, which are collected and further processed. Processing can
include the addition of plasticizers, dyes and flame-retardant chemicals. The final polymer resins
are usually in the forms of pellets or beads.

Finally, the polymer resins are processed into final plastic products. Generally, they are heated,
molded and allowed to cool. There are several processes involved in this stage, depending upon
the type of product.

Extrusion: Pellets are heated and mechanically mixed in a long chamber, forced through a small
opening and cooled with air or water. This method is used to make plastic films.

Injection molding: The resin pellets are heated and mechanically mixed in a chamber and then
forced under high pressure into a cooled mold. This process is used for containers like butter and
yogurt tubs. (Custompart.net has a great lesson on injection molding.)

Blow molding: This technique is used in conjunction with extrusion or injection molding. The
resin pellets are heated and compressed into a liquid tube, like toothpaste. The resin goes into the
chilled mold, and compressed air gets blown into the resin tube. The air expands the resin against
the walls of the mold. This process is used to make plastic bottles.

Rotational molding: The resin pellets are heated and cooled in a mold that can be rotated in three
dimensions. The rotation evenly distributes the plastic along the walls of the mold. This technique
is used to make large, hollow plastic items (toys, furniture, sporting equipment, septic tanks,
garbage cans and kayaks).
 PAPER MAKING

Wood
Timber used for papermaking comes from well managed forests where more trees are planted
than harvested to ensure sustainable growth.
Papermakers usually use only the parts of the tree that other commercial industries don't want -
such as saw mill waste and forest thinnings.
De-barking and Chipping
Bark is stripped from the logs by knife, drum, abrasion, or hydraulic barker. The stripped bark is
then used for fuel or as soil enrichment.
Stripped logs are chipped into small pieces by knives mounted in massive steel wheels (used in
chemical pulping process).
The chips pass through vibrating screens, whereby both undersized chips, dust etc and oversized
chips are rejected.
Accepted chips are then stored in huge bins ready for the next process.
Chemical Pulping
Chips from the storage bins are fed into a digester to which chemicals have been added. The
woodchips are then 'cooked' to remove lignin. Lignin is the binding material which holds the
cellulose fibres together.
The chips are 'cooked' by heat and pressure in caustic soda and sulphur.
The chemical process is energy self-sufficient as nearly all by-products can be used to fire the
pulp mill power plant. The chemical pulping process produces lower fibre yield than mechanical
pulping, typically 50-60%.
Mechanical Pulping
Mechanical pulp yields over 90% of the wood as fibre is produced by forcing debarked logs,
about two metres long, and hot water between enormous rotating steel discs with teeth that
literally tear the wood apart. Alternatively, logs can be pressed against grindstones which is why
this process is also known as groundwood pulp.
Trees contain up to 30% lignin, a material which is sensitive to light and degrades, and turns
brown in sunlight, which explains why papers made from mechanical pulp will discolour. An
example of this is newsprint. Newsprint is designed to have a short life span, and if left for a long
period of time will lose its whiteness and strength. The special advantages of mechanical pulp
are that it makes the paper opaque and bulky.
Paper for Recycling
Paper for recycling is collected from Waste Paper Banks and Commercial collections. When you
deposit your used papers into a waste paper bank, you are sorting the paper into grades before the
merchant collects it. This is why you can only put certain papers into a particular bank.
Many offices have in place an office recycling scheme. Again the recovered paper is usually
segregated ready to be collected.
Paper for Recycling is an important material for the Pulp and Paper Industry, representing over
70% of the raw material used in the UK to make paper and board.
The recovered paper merchant collects the used paper which is then sorted by hand into different
grades. Paper not suitable for recycling is removed.
The recovered paper merchant will then bale the paper ready to be taken to the paper mill.
Pulping
Paper for recycling is dissolved into pulp to separate the component fibres.
De-Inking
Before printed paper, such as office waste and newspapers, can be recycled the ink needs to be
removed, otherwise it will be dispersed into the pulp and a dull grey paper would result.
There are two main processes for de-inking waste paper - these are known as washing and
flotation.
Washing
The waste paper is placed into a pulper with large quantities of water and broken down into a
slurry. Contraries -such as staples - are removed using centrifugal screens. Most of the water
containing the dispersed ink is drained through slots or screens that allow the dispersed ink
particles through, without taking the pulp. Adhesive particles, known as 'stickies' are removed by
fine screening.
Flotation
Again the waste is made into a slurry and contaminants removed. Special surfactant chemicals
are added which makes a sticky froth on the top of the pulp.
Air bubbles are blown through the pulp and these carry the inks to the surface. As the bubbles
reach the top a foam layer is formed that traps the ink. The foam must be removed before the
bubbles break or the ink will go back into the pulp. Because the ink is removed from the flotation
machine in a concentrated form, the flotation system does not require a large water treatment
plant.
Wire Section
The wire is a woven plastic mesh conveyor belt which can be up to 35 metres long and as wide
as the paper machine. The stock by now is milky in appearance where it has been diluted with
water. The stock flows from a flow box onto the wire which distributes the fibres evenly over the
whole width of the paper machine.
As the paper stock flows from the flow box onto the wire, the water drains away through the
mesh leaving tiny fibres as a mat on top of the mesh.
By the time the stock has travelled half way down the wire, a high percentage of water has
drained away. From this point the removal of water has to be assisted by suction from
underneath the wire.
When the thin mat of fibres reaches the end of the wire, although it is still very moist and weak,
it has become a sheet of paper.
Press Section
The paper passes from the wire section to the press section which consists of a number of heavy
rollers. The paper is conveyed through these rollers on thick felts of synthetic fibre.
More moisture is squeezed out of the paper like a mangle, and drawn away by suction. At this
stage of the process the paper is still very moist.
Drying
The paper passes through a large number of steam-heated drying cylinders. There can be up to
50 or 60 cylinders on a fast running paper machine.
Synthetic dryer fabrics carry the web of paper round the cylinders until the paper is completely
dry.
Calendering
For even smoother paper surface, super-calendering is required. This is done primarily for
magazines and coated papers. The paper passes through rollers, which are alternately hard and
soft. Through a combination of heat, pressure and friction, the paper acquires a high lustre
surface. The paper becomes somewhat compressed during the process and is therefore thinner
than its matt finished equivalent.
Coating
Coating improves the opacity, lightness, surface smoothness, lustre and colour-absorption ability
of paper. It meets exacting quality demands regarding surface smoothness. Coating means that a
layer is applied to the paper, either directly in the papermaking machine or separately. Varieties
of coated paper range from pigmented to cast-coated. The coat consists of a mix of pigments,
extenders such as china clay and chalk, and binders such as starch or latex. In addition, various
chemicals are added to give the paper the desired characteristics.
Finishing reels and sheets/converting
Once the paper is made, a great deal of it is converted into a product. Converters specialise in
transforming reels and sheets of paper and board into a vast array of finished products for
distribution such as boxes, cartons and stationery. Converters sell their products to the public or
to other manufacturers.
Not all paper and board is processed by convertors. Some papermakers do their own converting,
for example, the manufacturers of soft tissues market their own products and sell directly to the
public.
The printing industry converts large quantities of paper and board, much of which reaches the
customer as newspapers, magazines or books.