BASIC ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Muhammad Arif Rattar 1

Computer System Engineering

BREAKDOWN DEVICE:
A semiconductor device includes a semiconductor region wherein the semiconductor region is a forced or
non-forced Near Natural breakdown region, which is completely depleted when a predetermined voltage
having a magnitude less than or equal to the breakdown voltage of a non-Natural breakdown
(for example, Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown) is applied across the device.

1. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

The SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER, usually referred to as an SCR, is one of the family of
semiconductors that includes transistors and diodes. A drawing of an SCR and its schematic
representation is shown in views A and B of figure. Not all SCRs use the casing shown, but this is typical
of most of the high-power units.

Silicon controlled rectifier.

Silicon controlled rectifier.

Although it is not the same as either a diode or a transistor, the SCR combines features of both. Circuits
using transistors or rectifier diodes may be greatly improved in some instances through the use of SCRs.
The basic purpose of the SCR is to function as a switch that can turn on or off small or large amounts of
power. It performs this function with no moving parts that wear out and no points that require replacing.
There can be a tremendous power gain in the SCR; in some units a very small triggering current is able to
switch several hundred amperes without exceeding its rated abilities. The SCR can often replace much
slower and larger mechanical switches. It even has many advantages over its more complex and larger
electron tube equivalent, the thyratron.

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The SCR is an extremely fast switch. It is difficult to cycle a mechanical switch several hundred times a
minute; yet, some SCRs can be switched 25,000 times a second. It takes just microseconds (millionths of
a second) to turn on or off these units. Varying the time that a switch is on as compared to the time that it
is off regulates the amount of power flowing through the switch. Since most devices can operate on pulses
of power (alternating current is a special form of alternating positive and negative pulse), the SCR can be
used readily in control applications. Motor-speed controllers, inverters, remote switching units, controlled
rectifiers, circuit overload protectors, latching relays, and computer logic circuits all use the SCR.

The SCR is made up of four layers of semiconductor material arranged PNPN. The construction is shown
in view A of figure. In function, the SCR has much in common with a diode, but the theory of operation
of the SCR is best explained in terms of transistors.

SCR structure.

Consider the SCR as a transistor pair, one PNP and the other NPN, connected as shown in views B and C.
The anode is attached to the upper P-layer; the cathode, C, is part of the lower N-layer; and the gate
terminal, G, goes to the P-layer of the NPN triode.

SCR structure.

SCR structure.

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In operation the collector of Q2 drives the base of Q1, while the collector of Q1 feeds back to the base of
Q2. (Beta) 1 is the current gain of Q1, and (Beta ) 2 is the current gain of Q2. The gain of this positive
feedback loop is their product, 1 times 2. When the product is less than one, the circuit is stable; if the
product is greater than unity, the circuit is regenerative. A small negative current applied to terminal G
will bias the NPN transistor into cutoff, and the loop gain is less than unity. Under these conditions, the
only current that can exist between output terminals A and C is the very small cutoff collector current of
the two transistors. For this reason the impedance between A and C is very high.

When a positive current is applied to terminal G, transistor Q2 is biased into conduction, causing its
collector current to rise. Since the current gain of Q2 increases with increased collector current, a point
(called the breakover point) is reached where the loop gain equals unity and the circuit becomes
regenerative. At this point, collector current of the two transistors rapidly increases to a value limited only
by the external circuit. Both transistors are driven into saturation, and the impedance between A and C is
very low. The positive current applied to terminal G, which served to trigger the self-regenerative action,
is no longer required since the collector of PNP transistor Q1 now supplies more than enough current to
drive Q2. The circuit will remain on until it is turned off by a reduction in the collector current to a value
below that necessary to maintain conduction.

The characteristic of SCR

The characteristic curve for the SCR is shown in figure. With no gate current, the leakage current remains
very small as the forward voltage from cathode to anode is increased until the breakdown point is
reached. Here the center junction breaks down, the SCR begins to conduct heavily, and the drop across
the SCR becomes very low.

Characteristic curve for an SCR.

The effect of a gate signal on the firing of an SCR is shown in figure. Breakdown of the center junction
can be achieved at speeds approaching a microsecond by applying an appropriate signal to the gate lead,
while holding the anode voltage constant. After breakdown, the voltage across the device is so low that
the current through it from cathode to anode is essentially determined by the load it is feeding.

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SCR characteristic curve with various gate signals.

The important thing to remember is that a small current from gate to cathode can fire or trigger the SCR,
changing it from practically an open circuit to a short circuit. The only way to change it back again (to
commutate it) is to reduce the load current to a value less than the minimum forward-bias current. Gate
current is required only until the anode current has completely built up to a point sufficient to sustain
conduction (about 5 microseconds in resistive-load circuits). After conduction from cathode to anode
begins, removing the gate current has no effect.

The basic operation of the SCR can be compared to that of the thyratron. The thyratron is an electron
tube, normally gas filled, that uses a filament or a heater. The SCR and the thyratron function in a very
similar manner. Figure shows the schematic of each with the corresponding elements labeled. In both
types of devices, control by the input signal is lost after they are triggered. The control grid (thyratron)
and the gate (SCR) have no further effect on the magnitude of the load current after conduction begins.
The load current can be interrupted by one or more of three methods: (1) the load circuit must be opened
by a switch, (2) the plate (anode) voltage must be reduced below the ionizing potential of the gas
(thyratron), (3) the forward-bias current must be reduced below a minimum value required to sustain
conduction (SCR). The input resistance of the SCR is relatively low (approximately 100 ohms) and
requires a current for triggering; the input resistance of the thyratron is exceptionally high, and requires a
voltage input to the grid for triggering action.

Comparison of an SCR and a thyratron.

The applications of the SCR as a rectifier are many. In fact, its many applications as a rectifier give this
semiconductor device its name. When alternating current is applied to a rectifier, only the positive or

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negative halves of the sine wave flow through. All of each positive or negative half cycle appears in the
output. When an SCR is used, however, the controlled rectifier may be turned on at any time during the
half cycle, thus controlling the amount of dc power available from zero to maximum, as shown in figure .
Since the output is actually dc pulses, suitable filtering can be added if continuous direct current is
needed. Thus any dc operated device can have controlled amounts of power applied to it. Notice that the
SCR must be turned on at the desired time for each cycle.

SCR gate control signals.

When an ac power source is used, the SCR is turned off automatically, since current and voltage drop to
zero every half cycle. By using one SCR on positive alternations and one on negative, full-wave
rectification can be accomplished, and control is obtained over the entire sine wave. The SCR serves in
this application just as its name implies - as a controlled rectifier of ac voltage.

2. Unijunction transistor

A unijunction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one junction. The UJT
has three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type
bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is
heavily doped. The resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called interbase
resistance.

Unijunction transistors

There are two types of unijunction transistor:

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The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of N type
semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere along its length, defining
the device parameter η. The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT.

The programmable unijunction transistor, or PUT, is a close cousin to the thyristor. Like the thyristor it
consists of four P-N layers and has an anode and a cathode connected to the first and the last layer, and a
gate connected to one of the inner layers. They are not directly interchangeable with conventional UJTs
but perform a similar function. In a proper circuit configuration with two "programming" resistors for
setting the parameter η, they behave like a conventional UJT. The 2N6027 is an example of such a device.

The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the
length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode voltage above the
voltage at the point where the P diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the
base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in the
base region) causes conductivity modulation which reduces the resistance of the portion of the base
between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter
junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is a negative
resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator
circuits.

Unijunction transistor circuits were popular in hobbyist electronics circuits in the 1970s and early 1980s
because they allowed simple oscillators to be built using just one active device. Later, as Integrated
Circuits became more popular, oscillators such as the 555 timer IC became more commonly used.

In addition to its use as the active device in relaxation oscillators, one of the most important applications
of UJTs or PUTs is to trigger thyristors (SCR, TRIAC, etc.). In fact, a DC voltage can be used to control a
UJT or PUT circuit such that the "on-period" increases with an increase in the DC control voltage. This
application is important for large AC current control.

3. Silicon controlled switch (SCS)

Silicon controlled switch (SCS), like the SCR, is a unilateral, four layer three junction P-N-P-N
silicon device with four electrodes namely cathode C, cathode gate Gx, anode gate G2 and the
anode A, as shown in figure. Infact, the SCS is a low power device compared with the SCR. It
handles currents in milli amperes rather than amperes. SCS differs from an SCR in the following
aspects. It has an additional gate—the anode gate.It is physically smaller than SCR.It has smaller
leakage and holding currents than SCR.It needs small triggering signals. It gives more uniform
triggering characteristics from sample to sample.

The basic structure and schematic symbol of SCS are shown in the figures. It may be fabricated
by using either the grown junction technique or the planar technique.

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Operation of a Silicon Controlled Switch

The easiest way to understand how it operates is to realize it to be formed of two transistors Q1
and Q2 placed back-to-back, as shown in figure.b

In a two-transistor equivalent circuit shown in figure.c, it is seen that a negative pulse at the
anode gate G2 causes transistor Q1 to switch on. Transistor Q1 supplies base current to transistor
Q2, and both transistors switch-on. Similarly, a positive pulse at the cathode gate G1 can switch
the device on. Since only small currents are involved, the SCS may be switched off by an
appropriate polarity pulse at one of the gates. At the cathode gate a negative pulse is required for
switching-off while at the anode gate a positive pulse is needed.

Silicon Controlled Switch Characteristics

Volt-Ampere Characteristic of SCS

The volt-ampere characteristic of an SCS is similar to that of an SCR and is shown in figure.
With the increase in applied voltage, the current first increases slowly upto point A and then
rapidly in the region AB, as shown in the figure. At point B, the product β1β2 exceeds unity and
the device is suddenly switched on. In the on-state, the current increases enormously and is
limited by the external series resistor. SCS also exhibits negative differential resistance in the on
region similar to SCR. SCS gets switched on accidentally if the anode voltage gets applied
suddenly. This is known as rate effect, which is caused by inter-electrode capacitance between
electrodes G1 and G2, known as transition capacitance.

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Advantages and Applications of SCS

An advantage of SCS over an SCR is the reduced turn-off time, typically within the range of 1 to
10 micro seconds for the SCS and 5 to 30 micro seconds for the SCR. Other advantages of the
SCS over SCR are increased control and triggering sensitivity and a more predictable firing
situation. However, the SCS is limited to low power, current, and voltage ratings

(typical maximum anode currents range from 100 mA to 300 mA with dissipation rating of 100
to 500 mW).

A few of the more common areas of application of SCS include a variety of computer circuits
(such as counters, registers, and timing circuits) voltage sensors, pulse generators, oscillators etc.

4. TRIAC
The TRIAC is a three-terminal device similar in construction and operation to the SCR. The TRIAC
controls and conducts current flow during both alternations of an ac cycle, instead of only one. The
schematic symbols for the SCR and the TRIAC are compared in figure. Both the SCR and the TRIAC
have a gate lead. However, in the TRIAC the lead on the same side as the gate is "main terminal 1," and
the lead opposite the gate is "main terminal 2." This method of lead labeling is necessary because the
TRIAC is essentially two SCRs back to back, with a common gate and common terminals. Each terminal
is, in effect, the anode of one SCR and the cathode of another, and either terminal can receive an input. In
fact, the functions of a TRIAC can be duplicated by connecting two actual SCRs as shown in figure. The
result is a three-terminal device identical to the TRIAC. The common anode-cathode connections form
main terminals 1 and 2, and the common gate forms terminal 3.

Comparison of SCR and TRIAC symbols.

Back to back SCR equivalent circuit.

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The difference in current control between the SCR and the TRIAC can be seen by comparing their
operation in the basic circuit shown in figure.

In the circuit shown in view A, the SCR is connected in the familiar half-wave arrangement. Current will
flow through the load resistor (RL) for one alternation of each input cycle. Diode CR1 is necessary to
ensure a positive trigger voltage.

Comparison of SCR and TRIAC circuits.

In the circuit shown in view B, with the TRIAC inserted in the place of the SCR, current flows through
the load resistor during both alternations of the input cycle. Because either alternation will trigger the gate
of the TRIAC, CR1 is not required in the circuit. Current flowing through the load will reverse direction
for half of each input cycle. To clarify this difference, a comparison of the waveforms seen at the input,
gate, and output points of the two devices is shown in figure

Comparison of SCR and TRIAC circuits.

Comparison of SCR and

TRIAC waveforms.

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5. DIAC
A diac is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned on in both forward and
reverse polarities. The name diac comes from the words Diode AC switch. The diac is an electronics
component that is widely used to assist even triggering of a triac when used in AC switches and as a
result they are often found in light dimmers such as those used in domestic lighting. These electronic
components are also widely used in starter circuits for fluorescent lamps.

Although the term is not often seen, they may also be called symmetrical trigger diodes - a term resulting
from the symmetry of their characteristic curve.

Diac symbol

The diac symbol used to depict this electronic component in circuit diagrams can be remembered as a
combination of what may appear to be two diodes in parallel with each other but connected in opposite
directions.

Circuit symbol for the diac

Owing to the fact that diacs are bi-direction devices the terminals cannot be labelled as anode and cathode
as they are for a diode. Instead they may be labelled as A1 and A2 or MT1 ("Main Terminal") and MT2.

Diac operation

Diac circuits use the fact that a diac only conducts current only after a certain breakdown voltage has been
exceeded. The actual breakdown voltage will depend upon the specification for the particular component
type.

When the diac breakdown voltage occurs, the resistance of the component decreases abruptly and this
leads to a sharp decrease in the voltage drop across the diac, and a corresponding increase in current. The
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diac will remain in its conducing state until the current flow through it drops below a particular value
known as the holding current. When the current falls below the holding current, the diac switches back to
its high resistance, or non-conducting state.

Diacs are widely used in AC applications and it is found that the device is "reset" to its non-conducting
state, each time the voltage on the cycle falls so that the current falls below the holding current. As the
behaviour of the device is approximately equal in both directions, it can provide a method of providing
equal switching for both halves of an AC cycle, e.g for triacs.

Most diacs have a breakdown voltage of around 30 volts, although the exact specifications will depend
upon the particular type of device.. Interestingly their behaviour is somewhat similar to that of a neon
lamp, although they offer a far more precise switch on voltage and thereby provide a far better degree of
switching equalization.

DIAC APPLICATIONS

One of the major uses of diacs within triac circuits. The diac is placed in series with the gate of a triac to
provide a more symmetrical switching characteristic. It is found that triacs do not fire symmetrically as a
result of slight differences between the two halves of the device. This results in harmonics being
generated, and the less symmetrical the device fires, the greater the level of harmonics produced. It is
generally undesirable to have high levels of harmonics in a power system.

To help in overcoming this problem, a diac is often placed in series with the gate. This device helps make
the switching more even for both halves of the cycle. This results from the fact that the diac switching
characteristic is far more even than that of the triac. Since the diac prevents any gate current flowing until
the trigger voltage has reached a certain voltage in either direction, this makes the firing point of the triac
more even in both directions. In view of their usefulness, diacs may often be built into the gate terminal of
a triac.

MODULATION AND DEMODULATION:

MODULATION:

In electronics, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a high frequency periodic
waveform, called the carrier signal, with respect to a modulating signal. This is done in a similar fashion
as a musician may modulate a tone (a periodic waveform) from a musical instrument by varying its
volume, timing and pitch. The three key parameters of a periodic waveform are its amplitude ("volume"),
its phase ("timing") and its frequency ("pitch"), all of which can be modified in accordance with a low
frequency signal to obtain the modulated signal. Typically a high-frequency sinusoid waveform is used as
carrier signal, but a square wave pulse train may also occur.

In telecommunications, modulation is the process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit
stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation of a
sine waveform is used to transform a baseband message signal to a pass band signal, for example a radio-
frequency signal (RF signal). In radio communications, cable TV systems or the public switched
telephone network for instance, electrical signals can only be transferred over a limited pass band
frequency spectrum, with specific (non-zero) lower and upper cutoff frequencies. Modulating a sine wave
carrier makes it possible to keep the frequency content of the transferred signal as close as possible to the
centre frequency (typically the carrier frequency) of the pass band. When coupled with demodulation, this
technique can be used to, among other things, transmit a signal through a channel which may be opaque
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to the baseband frequency range (for instance, when sending a telephone signal through a fiber-optic
strand).

A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a device that performs the inverse
operation of modulation is known as a demodulator (sometimes detector or demod). A device that can do
both operations is a modem

Demodulation

Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal from a modulated carrier
wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit (or computer program in a software defined radio) that is
used to recover the information content from the modulated carrier wave.[1]

These terms are traditionally used in connection with radio receivers, but many other systems use many
kinds of demodulators. Another common one is in a modem, which is a contraction of the terms
modulator/demodulator.

History

Since the early days of radio when all transmissions were in Morse Code, a demodulator has also been
called a detector. Early demodulators had only to detect the presence (or absence) of a radio wave using a
device such as a coherer, without necessarily making it audible. This alternate term has survived despite
the greater sophistication of modern circuits.

Techniques

There are several ways of demodulation depending on how parameters of the base-band signal are
transmitted in the carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency or phase. For example, for a signal
modulated with a linear modulation, like AM (Amplitude Modulated), we can use a synchronous detector.
On the other hand, for a signal modulated with an angular modulation, we must use an FM (Frequency
Modulation) demodulator or a PM (Phase Modulation) demodulator. Different kinds of circuits perform
these functions.

Many techniques—such as carrier recovery, clock recovery, bit slip, frame synchronization, rake receiver,
pulse compression, Received Signal Strength Indication, error detection and correction, etc. -- are only
performed by demodulators, although any specific demodulator may perform only some or none of these
techniques.

AM RADIO

An AM signal encodes the information onto the carrier wave by varying its amplitude in direct sympathy
with the analogue signal to be sent. There are two methods used to demodulate AM signals.

The envelope detector is a very simple method of demodulation. It consists of anything that will pass
current in one direction only, that is, a rectifier. This may be in the form of a single diode, or may be more
complex. Many natural substances exhibit this rectification behaviour, which is why it was the earliest
modulation and demodulation technique used in radio. The crystal set exploits the simplicity of the
modulation to produce an AM receiver with very few parts.

The product detector multiplies the incoming signal by the signal of a local oscillator with the same
frequency and phase as the carrier of the incoming signal. After filtering the original audio signal will

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result. This method will decode both AM and SSB, although if the phase cannot be determined a more
complex setup is required.

An AM signal can be rectified without requiring a coherent demodulator. For example, the signal can be
passed through an envelope detector (a diode rectifier). The output will follow the same curve as the input
baseband signal. There are forms of AM in which the carrier is reduced or suppressed entirely, which
require coherent demodulation. For further reading, see sideband.

FM RADIO

Frequency modulation or FM is more complex. It has numerous advantages over AM, such as better
fidelity and noise immunity. However, it is much more complex to both modulate and demodulate a
carrier wave with FM, and AM predates it by several decades.

There are several common types of FM demodulator:

The quadrature detector, which phase shifts the signal by 90 degrees and multiplies it with the unshifted
version. One of the terms that drops out from this operation is the original information signal, which is
selected and amplified.

The signal is fed into a PLL and the error signal is used as the demodulated signal.

The most common is a Foster-Seeley discriminator. This is composed of an electronic filter which
decreases the amplitude of some frequencies relative to others, followed by an AM demodulator. If the
filter response changes linearly with frequency, the final analog output will be proportional to the input
frequency, as desired.

Another method uses two AM demodulators, one tuned to the high end of the band and the other to the
low end, and feed the outputs into a difference amp.

Heterodyne Receiver Block Diagram

The heterodyne receiver includes an antenna, a local oscillator, a mixer mixing a signal
received by the antenna with a local oscillation signal generated by the local oscillator to
produce an IF signal, and a demodulator demodulating the IF signal. The local oscillator
is configured to set a frequency of the local oscillation signal at such a frequency that a
frequency of the IF signal becomes a predetermined intermediate frequency when any
one of intended signals having frequencies within a predetermined frequency range is
being received by the antenna, and to fix the frequency of the local oscillation signal at a
predetermined oscillation frequency when any one of the intended signals is not being
received by the antenna.

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