THE NATURE AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES OF THE WATER EROSION PROCESS
Howard L. Cook, Soil Conservatlonist
Soil Conservation Service
Introduction
The principal objective of research
in soil conservation is the development of
agricultural practices that minimize ero-
sion losses. In more general terms, soil
conservation research seeks to discover how
and to what extent the physical process of
erosion may be controlled. Any program of
investigation having such an objective must,
obviously, begin with a study of the proc-
ess Itself; for the rational control of any
physical phenomenon requires a clear under-
standing of the fundamental factors in-
volved and the development of practical
methods for changing these factors.
The preliminary analysis here given
deals only with the general aspects of the
erosion process. No attempt has been made
to solve specific practical problems. On
the contrary,'only the major features of
the subject have been touched upon; the ob-
ject being to develop & generalized per-
spective of an extremely complicated phe-
nomenon.
Since restrictions upon space pre-
clude the inclusion of sufficient clarify-
ing connective tissue, the body of this
paper consists of somewhat unrelated treat-
ments of the following topics:
1. The general nature of the ero-
sion process
2. The variables of the erosion
process
The General Nature of the Erosion Process
The effect of water erosion is evi-
dent from even the most casual examination
of eroded hillsides. Near the top of the
slope will be found the heads of innumera-
ble small channels which have cut but a
fraction of an inch into the topsoil. If
one follows these "micro-channels" down the
slope they are found to coalesce to form
larger water courses. These entrench them-
48r/
selves more deeply into the soil before
they are united with neighboring channels.
This process is repeated time after time;
rivulets join to form rills; rill unites
with rill and gullies develop; these, in
turn, coalesce to form larger and larger
channels until at a point below that at
which the flow is finally discharged into
a so-called "stable" channel, there exists
a miniature drainage system of extreme
complexity.
Along the courses of the channels
that bear the -runoff waters downward,
"feeders" are thrown out laterally to
bring into the stream more water, thus in-
creasing its velocity and endowing it with
greater power to erode. The rapid increase
in the erosiveness. of the runoff as it
gathers volume and speed in ius descent is
made strikingly evident by the increasing
dimensions of the erosion channels. Be-
cause of the- tremendous scouring power
generated, the flow capacities of the
principal erosion channels often become
far greater than necessary to pass the run-
off delivered to them. In extreme in-
stances, gullies many feet deep are formed
by the runoff from but a few acres.
During the progress of a storm,
some of the raindrops fall upon the bare
soil, wetting it, and by their impact
loosening the soil particles so that they
may be more easily transported by flowing
water. Other portions plunge into the
flowing water and by giving up their ki-
netic energy in the production of turbulence
in the liquid, increase the power of the
runoff to scour and transport.
On land covered by vegetation, a
large proportion of the raindrops are in-
tercepted by the plants and yield up most
of their kinetic energy before reaching
the soil surface or the surface of flowing
water. It is probable that this diversion
of rainfall energy may be responsible in a
very large measure for the remarkable re-
duction of erosion by close-growing vegeta-
tion.
488 SOIL SCIENCE SOCIETY PROCEEDINGS 1936
It may be further stated that the
energy expended by rainfall has a pro-
found influence upon the nature of over-
land flow. It is sometimes assumed that
much of the runoff from land slopes occurs
as "laminar," or "stream-line," flow. It
would seem logical to suppose, however,
that during periods of intense rainfall,
flow that would be laminar in the absence
of rainfall is made excessively turbulent
by the impact of the high-velocity rain-
drops. This is exceedingly important be-
cause laminar flow is practically non-ero-
sive, and. it is only when the flowing water
becomes turbulent that it is able to trans-
port substantial quantities of soil.
A systematic study of the drainage
systems or "erosion patterns" described in
the foregoing will demonstrate that prac-
tically all of the soil eroded from the
hillside is removed by the entrenchment of
innumerable minute erosion channels. The
term "sheet erosion" is sometimes defined
as the removal of a uniform layer of soil
by a continuous sheet of flowing water.
Turbulent runoff, however, does not flow
in thin sheets over an erodible material,
but always tends to entrench itself in
channels. In fact, it is this concentra-
tion of the runoff into channels that en-
ables it to attain high velocities and
thus remove large quantities of soil.
Strictly speaking, then, nearly all water
erosion is "channel-erosion" and the proc-
ess of sheet erosion, as defined above, is
practically non-existent.
The undeveloped state of the
science is forcibly brought out by the
fact that, to date, no systematic investi-
gation has been undertaken of such a uni-
versal and fundamental phenomenon as the
formation of erosion patterns. This prob-
lem should be given immediate study.
The Variables of the Erosion Process
The variables entering into any
physical process may be classed as either
independent or dependent. The independent
variables are those which, if fixed, com-
pletely control the process. These varia-
bles, in -turn, may be controlled by any
number of dependent variables.
Variables may also be classed as
those directly measurable and as those not
directly measurable. Directly measurable
variables, hereinafter called simple vari-
ables, are illustrated by the quantities,
depth of rainfall, and volume of runoff.
Variables not directly measurable will here
be called complex variables. An example
of a complex variable is "soil credibility"
or the measure of the susceptibility of
soil to erosion. Complex variables may be
represented by "measures" or "indices"
that are simply descriptive of the net ef-
fect of any number of simple quantities.
It often occurs, in the analysis of
physical problems, that different sets of
independent variables may be chosen; that •
is, a process may be as well fixed by as-
signing values to one set of variables as
to another set. When a choice is possible,
the variables taken as independent are
such as will most simplify the treatment
of the particular problem in hand. Moreover,
in dealing with complicated processes, it
is advantageous to reduce the number of
independent factors to a minimum by using
complex variables which stand for the net
effects of whole groups of other variables.
In the process of water erosion,
three physical entities are involved:
1. The soil, which is the factor
acted upon in the process.
2. Water, which in the form of
rainfall and runoff is the active agent
of the process.
3. The plant, which acts as nature's
intervener in the process.
In general discussions of the ero-
sion problem, it is possible to speak of .
the above factors as the principal varia-
bles. In analysis, however, it is necessa-
ry to think in terms of those "properties,"
or "actions," of the various physical en-
tities involved, that actually enter into
the physical equations (usually unknown)
that describe the process. Therefore, for
present purposes, the following have been
chosen as the three independent variables
controlling the erosion process:
1. A measure of the susceptibility
of soil to erosion, or "soil erodibility."
2. A measure of the water factor,
which may be called the variable of "po-
tential erosivity."
3. A measure of the protection
 THE NATURE AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES OF THE WATER"EROSION PROCESS
afforded by vegetal cover, which may be
termed "cover protectivity."
It is obvious, of course, that
these variables are not simple quantities;
that is, they cannot be directly measured.
On the contrary, they are measures of the
net effect of large numbers of simple vari-
ables. Unfortunately, procedures by which
such measures may be obtained have not yet
been invented. In fact, the determination
of suitable measures of these factors con-
stitutes one of the major problems of soil
conservation research.
It is now necessary to define more
fully the factors set forth since they are
exceedingly complex. A better understand-
ing of their meaning may be obtained by
resolving them into their component parts;
that is, determining the dependent varia-
bles by which they are controlled. There
will be, of course, a whole system of de-
pendent simple variables affecting each
one. For convenience, these simple vari-
ables may be subdivided into groups and
one single complex quantity established to
measure the net effect of the whole group.
It is clear, then, that the resolution of
any one of the independent variables may
be accomplished progressively. Of course,
the ultimate objective of thus resolving
each independent variable, is to arrive at
those directly measurable factors upon
which the independent variables depend.
Intermediate steps are used to provide an
easily followed line of reasoning from the
effects to the underlying causes.
In the following, a- very brief an-
alysis of each of the three independent
complex variables will be made. Space is
not available to allow all of the inter-
mediate steps to be shown.
Soil Erodibility
The erodibility of a soil may be
measured by either its resistance or its
susceptibility to erosion. If the parti-
cles of a certain soil are easily dis-
lodged and carried away by runoff, then
that soil may be termed highly erodible.
If a second soil is subjected to the same
runoff, and a smaller amount IS removed,
then this soil is less erodible than the
first. Clearly, erodibility is a relative
term.
489
It is important that erodibility
and amount of erosion not be confused. The
total erosion from any land slope depends
upon all three of the independent varia-
bles, erodibility upon only the physical
characteristics of the soil. For example,
a very dense clay soil on a clean culti-
vated slope may be badly eroded, while a
similar slope occupied by a light sandy
soil may exhibit very little erosion. Nev-
ertheless, the sandy soil may be far more
erodible than the clay soil. The greater
amount of erosion from the clay is brought
about by the much greater runoff which
passes over it. The sandy soil, possess-
ing a high infiltration capacity, is sub-
jected to smaller amounts and rates of run-
off. In other words, the higher erodi-
bility of the sandy slope is more than
out-weighed by the greater potential ero-
sivity factor for the clay slope.
The problem of measuring soil
erodibility is a very difficult and impor-
tant one. Some measure or index of this
important variable must be obtained before
the design of erosion control measures may
proceed upon a scientific basis. For
practical and immediate use there is re-
quired an index which may be determined
by simple, rapid, and fully controlled
field tests. Such a test might be made by
passing a standardized flow of water of
fixed amount and rate over a standard plot
of small dimensions, or subjecting a given
plot to a standardized application of
artificial rainfall. The amount of ero-
sion occurring under such a test might be
used as a measure of erodibility or what
might be called an "erodibility index."
While it is of primary importance
that an erodibility index be devised for
practical use, the invention of such a
measure is not sufficient from the research
.point of view. In addition to knowing
that one soil is more erodible than another,
the scientific investigator demands to
know why this is so. In other words, a
complete solution of the problem requires
that there be derived the relation between
the erodibility index and those simple
measurable physical characteristics of the
soil that control the index.
As a beginning, the obvious line
of -attack v/ould be to correlate the erodi-
bility index as determined by field tests
with the basic soil characteristics. In
the determination of such a relation, the
490 SOIL SCIENCE SOCIETY PROCEEDINGS 1936
first problem is to find out which meas-
urable characteristics of a soil sub-
stantially control its erodibility. At
the present time, it is impossible to
enumerate all of the variables that may
have an effect. It is quite clear, however,
that at least the following properties will
need to be taken into account:
1. Distribution of particle sizes.
S. The state of aggregation, or
structure, of the soil.
3. The moisture content.
4. The density or compactness of
the soil in place.
5. Certain chemical constituents.
6. The biological condition of the
soil.
Most of the above factors depend
upon still other variables. This is
equivalent to saying that while these fac-
tors are measurable, they are not the ul-
timate simple variables that control the
property of soil erodibility. It follows,
therefore, that investigators have for
solution a problem of three phases: first,
they must find out what the simple varia-
bles are; second, they must develop com-
plex variables which describe groups of
simple variables; and third, they must re-
late these complex variables to those
still more inclusive and complex until
they have finally built up a whole struc-
ture of relationships, the net effect of
which is the expression of erodibility in
terms of the most simple measurable varia-
bles that may be found.
H. E. Middleton has taken the
first steps in the scientific study of
soil erodibility in his valuable paper on
"Properties of Soils which Influence Soil
Erosion."l
When a large number of soils have
been tested for erodibility, an attempt
should be made to correlate the erodibili-
ty indices so obtained with Middleton's
erosion ratio, and with certain other com-
plex quantities mentioned in his paper. Up
to the present time, there have been no
direct measurements of soil erodibility
with which to correlate these quantities.
All measurements of actual erosion are
rendered invalid as measures of erodi-
bility because of variations in the poten-
tial erosivity.
^-Technical Bulletin No. 178, U.S. Department of Agriculture, March, 1930.
In this paper, it is impossible to
dwell further upon the factor of soil
erodibility. Further analysis should be
made the subject of special inves'tigations.
Attention is now directed to the
most complex variable of all—the factor
of potential erosivity.
Potential Erosivity
Over a period of time, the rainfall
and runoff at any place is characterized
by certain features unique to the locality.
If an area subjected to a particular com-
bination of rainfall and runoff has a man-
tle of easily eroded soil, erosion takes
place at a high rate. An area of less
erodible soil subjected to the same rain-
fall and runoff erodes less rapidly. How-
ever, the given rainfall and runoff may be
said to have a certain "potential" erosive-
ness regardless of the erosion produced;
for applied to some "standard" area' pos-
sessing assigned soil erodibility and cover
protectivity factors, it would produce
erosion of a character and amount unique
to the combination. This erosion would
constitute a measure of potential erosivi-
ty. In short, potential erosivity is a
measure of the capacity of any natural
rainfall-runoff combination to produce
erosion from some "standard" area.
To further illustrate the nature
of the potential erosivity factor, con-
sider two bare hillsides of the same length
and degree of slope but located in differ-
ent climatic regions. Suppose that over
a period of time, one of these slopes is
subjected to storms of extreme intensities,
yielding floods of high rates. Assume that
during the same period, the other hillside
is exposed to storms of low intensities
and that little runoff occurs. By defini-
tion, the potential erosivity factor ap-
plying to the first slope greatly exceeds
that for the second. But if the first
hillside is paved with concrete, no ero-
sion takes place. On the other hand, the
slope subjected to the mild storms may, if
covered by an erodible soil, be badly
eroded. .The actual erosion then does not
depend upon,the potential erosivity but,
as previously stated, upon all three of
the independent variables.
 THE NATURE AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES OF THE WATER EROSION PROCESS
It is possible to determine some
sort of potential erosivity factor for:
1. Elementary unit areas—say each
square foot of surface
2. Entire land slopes or sectors
thereof
3. Larger areas up to the size of
climatic, subregions
For present purposes, however, it will
probably be most convenient to refer po-
tential erosivity to "unit-strips." A
unit-strip is a continuous strip of land,
one unit in width, lying perpendicular to
the contours. The potential erosivity for'
the strip may be taken as the average po-
tential erosivity of all of the constitu-
ent unit areas.
The use of the potential erosivity
factor for unit-strips will allow of more
straightforward application in the design
of erosion control measures. It seems en-
tirely possible that soil conservation re-
search may eventually establish the "lim-
iting" (maximum) potential erosivity fac-
tors allowable on soils having given
erodibility indices. Such a limiting
factor could be used, for example, to es-
tablish the proper distance between ter-
race ridges.
It is to be understood that here-
inafter, further development of the poten-
tial erosivity concept will be directed
toward the derivation of a potential
erosivity factor for a unit strip. Deriva-
tion of a factor applying to more com-
plicated areas will not be attempted in
this paper.
Resolution of the Potential
Erosivity Factor
It will now be well to resolve the
variable of potential erosivity into its
component parts. The dependent variables
controlling this particular factor are
numerous, and of some of them, little is
known. It cannot be definitely stated,
therefore, that the variables given below,
entirely control the potential erosivity.
. It would seem logical to suppose
that the potential erosivity of the rain-
fall on and the- consequent runoff from a
unit-area during a period of normal climate
491
would be largely governed by:
1. The amount of rainfall
2. The rates of rainfall
5. The velocities of the raindrops
4. The amount of surface runoff
5. The rates of surface runoff
6. The slope of the surface
There enter into these factors, of
course, elements of frequency and distribu-
tion in time not specifically named. By
definition, however, the potential erosivi-
ty is to be based upon the "normal" climate
of the locality. The frequency and dis-
tribution elements may, therefore, be cared
for by simply using the plural in referring
to those factors that fluctuate with time
or otherwise change. This is the reason
for employing the term "rates" in connec-
tion with rainfall and runoff. In short,
the tabulated variables have been "gener-
alized" by the use of the plural.
The process of resolution may be
carried through a further stage as follows:
1, 2 and 3. The amount and rates of
rainfall, and the velocities of raindrops—
uncontrollable variables introduced by na-
ture aiid not subject to further resolution.
4.- The amount of surface runoff
(for a period of time sufficiently long'to
eliminate storage effects) depends upon:
(a) Total rainfall
(b) Total interception
(c) Total infiltration
5. The rates of surface runoff de-
pend upon:
(a) Rates of rainfall
(b) Surface storage capacities
(including interception)
(cj Rates of infiltration
(d) Evapo-transpiration rates
6. Slope—a simple variable requir-
ing no further resolution.
Only items 4 and 5 are left for
further resolution. This can be done as •
follows:
4. The amount of surface runoff.
4-a. Total rainfall—an uncon-
trollable variable
4-b. Total interception depends
upon:
1. Vegetal covers
49S SOIL SCIENCE SOCIETY PROCEEDINGS 1936
2. Rates of rainfall
4-c. Total Infiltration depends
upon:
1. Some standard infiltra-
tion "characteristic" of the soil
2. Moisture contents of
the soil
3. Cultural practices—
principally as they affect compactness
4.- Vegetal covers
5. Rates of rainfall
6. Temperatures
7. Evapo-transpiration rates
8. Biological conditions
of the soil
5. The rates of surface runoff
5-a. Rates of rainfall—an un-
controllable variable
5-b. Surface storage capacities
depend upon:
1. Vegetal covers—as they
affect both interception and depth of over-
land flow
2. Capacities of surface
depressions—usually governed by cultural
practices
3. Slope of surface
5-c_. Rates of infiltration de-
pend upon:
1. Some standard infiltra-
tion "characteristic" of the soil
2. Moisture contents of
the soil
3. Cultural practices—
principally as they affect compactness
4. Vegetal covers
5. Rates of rainfall
6. Temperature
7. Evapo-transpiration
rates
8. Biological conditions
of the soil
5-d. Evapo-transpiration rates
depend upon:
1. Temperatures
2. Relative humidities
3. Amounts of solar in-
solation
4. Wind velocities
5. Vegetal covers
6. Soil type
5-e. Slope—a simple variable
requiring no further resolution
While it would be possible to re-
solve further many of the above dependent
variables, present purposes require no ad-
ditional analyses.
It should now be recalled that
these resolutions were carried through for
a unit-area. Since it is desired to deal
with unit-strips it is necessary to in-
troduce additional variables. These are:
1. Slopes (to replace the"singular
"slope" used for the unit-area)
2. Length of strip—commonly re-
ferred to as the "length of slope" factor
In the foregoing there has been
developed systematically a list of the
more important dependent variables govern-
ing potential erosivity. It is now a sim-
ple matter to prepare a summary of the
most powerful of these variables. From
evidence now available, it appears that
the following seven factors largely con-
trol the potential erosivity for a unit-
strip;
1. Total rainfall
2. Rates of rainfall
3. Velocities of raindrops
4. Infiltration "characteristic"
of the soil
5. Storage capacities of the
surface (includes interception)
6. Slopes
7. Length of slope
It is apparent that some of the
otner variables enumerated in the de-
tailed resolution have a certain amount of
influence on potential erosivity. In
fact, in certain regions, some.of them may
be of major importance. While as a gen-
eral thing, they have a comparatively
minor influence, they should receive close
study to definitely establish the magni-
tude of their effect.
The last four variables listed
above may be investigated separately. The
first three, however, are all manifes-
tations of a single element of the envi-
ronmental complex—the climate. It is
more convenient, therefore, to treat these
factors collectively as -a climatic com-
ponent of potential erosivity. This com-
ponent may be logically termed "climatic
erosivity."
Studies of climatic erosivity, in-
filtration capacity, surface storage
 THE NATURE AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES OF THE WATER EROSION PROCESS
capacity and effects of the degree and
length of slope may very properly make up
a major portion of any program of research
into the fundamental nature of the erosion
process.
It is especially important that
the climatic erosivity factor be evaluated
for all of the climatic sub-regions of the
United States. There would seem to "be two
entirely different approaches to such an
evaluation. Recourse may be had to field
experiments wherein plots of standard
slope and dimensions and composed of
some standard substance, are subjected to
the natural rainfall, and the resulting
erosion taken as a measure of climatic
erosivity. An altogether different ap-
proach would be through derivation of
some climatic "index" or "characteristic"
from long-terra Weather Bureau records. The
most promising method would appear to be a
combination of the two, the calculated
characteristic being correlated with the
.field measurements.
It is also highly important that
some standard method be adopted for deter-
mining quickly and easily an infiltration
"characteristic" of the soil. G. W.
Musgrave2 h'as developed a procedure in
which the infiltration characteristic is
determined by applying water, under a con-
stant head, to a prism of soil bounded by
a .comparatively long cylinder forced into
the earth. In another method that is
being investigated, artificial rainfall
is applied to small plots. The great im-
portance of the subject justifies a
thorough-going study of methodology before
any standardized method is adopted.
The variables of surface storage
capacity, degree of slope and length of
Slope, may be very properly studied in
long-term investigations at permanent ex-
periment stations. However, the oppor-
tunities for obtaining information on
these features by the use of artificial
rainfall should not be neglected.
Space is not available for further
consideration of these important variables
and it is now necessary to take up the
third and last independent variable of the
erosion process.
"The Infiltration Capacity of Soils in Relation to the Control of Surface Runoff and Erosion," Jour.
Am. Soc. Agronomy, Vol. 27, No. 5, May, 1955'.
493
Cover Protectivlty
"Cover protectivity" is a measure
of the effectiveness of a vegetal cover in
reducing soil erosion.
Cover protectivity, like soil
erodibility, is a relative factor; that is,
it can be evaluated only in terms of some
arbitrarily assigned'.standard. The pro-
tectivity of a given cover might be measured,
for instance, by comparing the erosion
losses on a standard plot in this cover,
with the losses from a like bare plot.
Such an experiment having been performed, a
convenient index of cover protectivity
might be calculated as follows: subtract
the soil lost by the covered plot from that
lost by the bare plot and divide this dif-
ference by the erosion from the bare plot.
Such an index would indicate the relative
reduction in erosion brought about by the
use of the given cover. For example, a
cover protectivity index of 0.7 would in-
dicate that the cover in question would re-
duce the erosion from the bare plot by 70
per cent.
While such an evaluation of cover
.protectivity from long-term plot records is
undoubtedly necessary in any complete study
of the factor, it is not sufficient for all
practical purposes.
There is an urgent need for some
simple procedure by which an approximate
index of cover protectivity may be quickly
determined in the field. Such an index
would be of great assistance in the practi-
cal design of erosion control measures, and
the invention of a suitable procedure should
be one of the first concerns of soil con-
servation research.
After a measure of cover protectiv-
ity has been devised, and a method of em-
ploying this index in the design of erosion
control measures determined, the next step
in research should be to determine why one
cover has a high or low protectivity index
relative to other covers. In any attempt
to arrive at an explanation of this, the
obvious procedure is to resolve the action
of the plant cover into its simple compo-
nents and study these separately. -When
this is done, a correlation of these simple
494 SOIL SCIENCE SOCIETY PROCEEDINGS 1956

dependent variables may be made with the Summary—Conclusions

adopted protectivity index.
The problem of resolving the cover It has been shown in the foregoing
effect into a number of simple components that the water erosion process is largely
is itself difficult. As a first resolu- controlled by the following principal vari-
tion of cover protectivity, the following ables:
complex variables might be used:
1. Soil erodibility
1. Protectivity of the root system g. Climatic erosivity
2. Protectivity of the tops 3. Infiltration capacity
3. Protectivity of plant residues 4. Surface storage capacity
5. Degree of slope
It will be well to carry the reso- 6. Length of slope
lution of. these variables through one more 7. Cover protectivity
stage, as follows:
Obviously research into the funda-
1. Protectivity of the root system mentals of the erosion process must consist
depends upon: principally of studies of these variables.
Space is not available to discuss the vari-
a.. Kind of plant ous ways in which these studies may be car-
b_. Density of growth ried out. It is fairly apparent, however,
_c. Development of root system that each variable should be investigated
singly and in various combinations. Further-
2. Protectivity of the tops de- more, all possible methods of approach
pends upon: should be employed. In addition to long-terra
field studies at permanent experiment sta-
a.. Kind of cover tions, full advantage should be taken of the
b. Density of growth possibilities of fully controlled labora-
c_. Development of top tory and field experiments. It is especial-
ly important that easily measured indices be
3. Protectivity of plant residue invented for each of the principal variables,
depends upon: and nation-wide surveys made to evaluate
these indices in all of the important agri-
a.. Kind of cover cultural problem areas of vthe country. These
b. Depth of litter evaluations will form a rational basis for
c.. Amount of residue in soil the design of erosion control measures.
In the foregoing, it was not in-
It is evident that some of these tended to infer that research into the fun-
dependent .variables listed are measurable damental nature of the erosion process con-
and that others are decidedly complex. stitutes a complete program of soil con-
Each of the complex quantities must be servation research. Such a program would
further resolved until ultimately they may involve the study of:
be shown to depend upon components which
may be simply measured. It is unnecessary, 1. The fundamentals of the process
however, to attempt here further resolu- g. Methods of erosion control
tion of these variables. 3. The reclamation of eroded soils

It is clear that only the first phase of a

complete program has been here treated.
Nevertheless, to repeat the statement made
in the introduction, this phase is of first
importance, for the rational control of any
physical phenomenon requires a clear under-
standing of 'the fundamental factors in-
volved.