Resistive Sensors and Transducers

INTRODUCTION:
The transducer whose resistance varies because of the environmental effects such type
of transducer is known as the resistive transducer. The change in resistance is measured by the
ac or dc measuring devices. The resistive transducer is used for measuring the physical
quantities like temperature, displacement, vibration etc.
The measurement of the physical quantity is quite difficult. The resistive transducer
converts the physical quantities into variable resistance which is easily measured by the meters.
The process of variation in resistance is widely used in the industrial applications.
The resistive transducer can work both as the primary as well as the secondary
transducer. The primary transducer changes the physical quantities into a mechanical signal,
and secondary transducer directly transforms it into an electrical signal.
A material’s resistance depends on the following factors:
i. Length of Material
ii. Area of its cross-section
iii. Temperature
iv. Nature of material
v. Some materials show variation in their resistance with the change in light

TYPES OF RESISTIVE SENSORS:

1. Potentiometer:
The potentiometer consists of a long resistive wire L
made up of magnum or with constantan and a battery of
known EMF V. This voltage is called as driver cell
voltage. Connect the two ends of the resistive wire L to
the battery terminals as shown below; let us assume this
is a primary circuit arrangement. One terminal of another
cell (whose EMF E is to be measured) is at one end of
the primary circuit and another end of the cell terminal
is connected to any point on the resistive wire through a
galvanometer G. Now let us assume this arrangement is a secondary circuit. The arrangement
of the potentiometer as shown in the figure.
Applications of Potentiometer:
1. Audio Control: Sliding potentiometers, one of the most common uses for modern low-
power potentiometers are as audio control devices. Both sliding pots (faders) and rotary
potentiometers (knobs) are regularly used to frequency attenuation, adjust loudness and
for different characteristics of audio signals.
2. Television: Potentiometers were used to control the picture brightness, contrast, and
color response. A potentiometer was often used to adjust “vertical hold”, which affected
the synchronization between the received picture signal and the receiver’s internal
sweep circuit (a multi-vibrator).
 3. Displacement Measurement: Sliding potentiometers can be used for the measurement
of linear displacement and rotatory potentiometers can be used for the measurement of
angular displacement.

2. Thermistor:
A thermistor is a component that has a resistance that changes with temperature. There are
two types of thermistor, those with a resistance that increase with temperature (Positive
Temperature Coefficient – PTC) and those with a resistance that falls with temperature
(Negative Temperature Coefficient – NTC).
Applications of Thermistor:
NTC thermistor temperature sensors are used in a variety of thermistor senor applications
to help regulate, monitor, control, and compensate temperature.

3. Strain Gauge:
A strain gauge (sometimes referred to as a strain gage) is a sensor whose resistance varies
with applied force; It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical
resistance which can then be measured. When external forces are applied to a stationary object,
stress and strain are the result. Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces, and
strain is defined as the displacement and deformation that occur.
Applications of Strain Gauge:
• Strain Measurement
• Vibration Measurement
• Torque Measurement
• Residual Stress
• Bending and Deflection Measurement
• Compression and Tension Measurement
 Strain Gauge

4. Photo-Conductive Cells (Light Dependent Resistors):

An LDR is a component that has a (variable) resistance
that changes with the light intensity that falls upon it. This
allows them to be used in light sensing circuits.
Applications of LDR:
Photoconductive cells are used in many different types
of circuits and applications.
• Camera Exposure Control
• Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
• Photocopy Machines - density of toner
• Colorimetric Test Equipment
• Densitometer
• Electronic Scales - dual cell
• Automatic Gain Control - modulated light source
• Automated Rear View Mirror
• Automatic Headlight Dimmer
• Night Light Control
• Oil Burner Flame Out
• Street Light Control
• Absence / Presence (beam breaker)
• Position Sensor
Two, Three and Four Pin Thermal Sensors and Transducers

Definition:
A temperature sensor is a device, typically, a thermocouple or RTD, that provides
for temperature measurement through an electrical signal. A thermocouple (T/C) is made
from two dissimilar metals that generate electrical voltage in direct proportion to changes
in temperature.

Working Principle:
Temperature sensor is that the temperature is converted into a usable output letter by using
the physical properties of the material with the change of temperature
Number. Temperature sensor is the core part of temperature measurement instrument, which
has various types. According to the characteristics of sensor materials and electronic
components, thermal resistance and thermocouple are divided into two categories: contact
type and non-contact type. The modern temperature sensor is very small in shape so that it
can be widely used in various fields of production practice, which also provides countless
convenience and functions for our life.

Real Life Applications:

Oil Exploration
Radiator Overheating
Weather forecasting
Humidity and Moisture sensing
Electric heaters
Hair dryers

Explanation:

Thermocouple

It is a type of temperature sensor, which is made by joining two dissimilar metals at one end.
The joined end is referred to as the HOT JUNCTION. The other end of these dissimilar metals
is referred to as the COLD END or COLD JUNCTION. The cold junction is actually formed
at the last point of thermocouple material. If there is a difference in temperature between the
hot junction and cold junction, a small voltage is created. This voltage is referred to as an EMF
(electro-motive force) and can be measured and in turn used to indicate temperature.
Thermistors

The thermistor is a temperature sensing device whose resistance changes with temperature.
Thermistors, however, are made from semiconductor materials. Resistance is determined in
the same manner as the RTD, but thermistors exhibit a highly nonlinear resistance vs.
temperature curve. Thus, in the thermistors operating range we can see a large resistance
change for a very small temperature change. This makes for a highly sensitive device, ideal
for set-point applications.

RTD

RTD is a temperature sensing device whose resistance changes with temperature. Typically
built from platinum, though devices made from nickel or copper are not uncommon, RTDs can
take many different shapes like wire wound, thin film. To measure the resistance across an
RTD, apply a constant current, measure the resulting voltage, and determine the RTD
resistance. RTDs exhibit fairly linear resistance to temperature curves over their operating
regions, and any nonlinearity are highly predictable and repeatable. The PT100 RTD evaluation
board uses surface mount RTD to measure temperature. An external 2, 3 or 4-wire PT100 can
also be associated with measure temperature in remote areas. The RTDs are biased using a
constant current source. So as to reduce self-heat due to power dissipation, the current
magnitude is moderately low. The circuit shown in figure is the constant current source uses a
reference voltage, one amplifier, and a PNP transistor.

Semiconductor sensors

They are classified into different types like Voltage output, Current output, Digital output,
Resistance output silicon and Diode temperature sensors. Modern semiconductor temperature
sensors offer high accuracy and high linearity over an operating range of about 55°C to
+150°C. Internal amplifiers can scale the output to convenient values, such as 10mV/°C.
They are also useful in cold-junction compensation circuits for wide temperature range
thermocouples. A brief detail about this type of temperature sensor are given below.
Sensor ICs
There are a wide variety of temperature sensor ICs that are available to simplify the broadest
possible range of temperature monitoring challenges. These silicon temperature sensors differ
significantly from the above mentioned types in a couple of important ways. The first is
operating temperature range. A temperature sensor IC can operate over the nominal IC
temperature range of -55°C to +150°C. The second major difference is functionality. A silicon
temperature sensor is an integrated circuit, and can therefore include extensive signal
processing circuitry within the same package as the sensor. There is no need to add
compensation circuits for temperature sensor IC’s. Some of these are analogue circuits with
either voltage or current output. Others combine analogue-sensing circuits with voltage
comparators to provide alert functions. Some other sensor ICs combine analogue-sensing
circuitry with digital input/output and control registers, making them an ideal solution for
microprocessor-based systems. Digital output sensor usually contains a temperature sensor,
analog-to-digital converter (ADC), a two-wire digital interface and registers for controlling the
IC’s operation. Temperature is continuously measured and can be read at any time. If desired,
the host processor can instruct the sensor to monitor temperature and take an output pin high
(or low) if temperature exceeds a programmed limit. Lower threshold temperature can also be
programmed and the host can be notified when temperature has dropped below this threshold.
Thus, digital output sensor can be used for reliable temperature monitoring in microprocessor-
based systems.

Digital Temperature Sensors

Digital temperature sensors eliminate the necessity for extra components, such as an A/D
converter, within the application and there is no need to calibrate components or the system at
specific reference temperatures as needed when utilizing thermistors. Digital temperature
sensors deal with everything, empowering the basic system temperature monitoring function
to be simplified. The advantages of a digital temperature sensor are principally with its
precision output in degrees Celsius. The sensor output is a balanced digital reading. This
intends no other components, such as an analogue to digital converter and much simpler to use
than, a simple thermistor which provides a non-linear resistance with temperature variation.
 Piezoelectric Sensors and Transducers
Definition:
Piezo is a Greek word which means 'press' or 'squeeze'. A sensor that utilizes
the piezoelectric effect, to measure changes in acceleration, strain, pressure, and
force by converting them into electrical charge is called as a piezoelectric sensor. The
Piezoelectric transducer is an electroacoustic transducer use for conversion of
pressure or mechanical stress into an alternating electrical force.

Working Principle:
The transducer is a very important part of the ultrasonic instrumentation system.The
transducer incorporates a piezoelectric element, which converts electrical signals into
mechanical vibrations (transmit mode) and mechanical vibrations into electrical
signals (receive mode). Many factors, including material, mechanical and electrical
construction, and the external mechanical and electrical load conditions, influence the
behavior of a transducer. Mechanical construction includes parameters such as the
radiation surface area, mechanical damping, housing, connector type and other
variables of physical construction. As of this writing, transducer manufacturers are
hard pressed when constructing two transducers that have identical performance
characteristics.

Energy Conversion and Mechanism:

A cut away of a typical contact transducer is shown above. It was previously learned
that the piezoelectric element is cut to 1/2 the desired wavelength. To get as much
energy out of the transducer as possible, an impedance matching is placed between
the active element and the face of the transducer. Optimal impedance matching is
achieved by sizing the matching layer so that its thickness is 1/4 of the desired
wavelength. This keeps waves that were reflected within the matching layer in phase
when they exit the layer (as illustrated in the image to the right). For contact
transducers, the matching layer is made from a material that has an acoustical
impedance between the active element and steel. Immersion transducers have a
matching layer with an acoustical impedance between the active element and water.
Contact transducers also incorporate a wear plate to protect the matching layer and
active element from scratching.

The backing material supporting the crystal has a great influence on the damping
characteristics of a transducer. Using a backing material with an impedance similar to
that of the active element will produce the most effective damping. Such a transducer
will have a wider bandwidth resulting in higher sensitivity. As the mismatch in
impedance between the active element and the backing material increases, material
penetration increases but transducer sensitivity is reduced.

Real Life Applications:

Piezoelectric Motors Diesel Fuel Injectors

Piezoelectric Printers Fast Response Solenoids

Piezoelectric Relays Optical Adjustment

Piezoelectric Speakers Stack Actuators

Piezoelectric Buzzers Stripe Actuators

Piezoelectric Humidifiers Ultrasonic Cleaning

Piezoelectric Ignitors Ultrasonic Welding

Explanation:

Piezoelectric Motors

One advantage of using piezoelectric materials is that their characteristics are

precise and predictable. Thus, expansion and contraction of a piezoelectric actuator
can be precisely controlled as long as the supply voltage is controlled. Some motor
designs take advantage of this fact by using piezoelectric elements to move a rotor
or linear element in precise increments. Precision on the order of nanometers can
be achieved with some piezo motor designs. Piezo motors work at a wide range of
frequencies but typically work best in a low frequency range.

Piezoelectric Relays

Piezoelectric elements may be implemented to actuate electromechanical relays or

switches. For these applications, either stripe actuators or stack actuators may be
used to open and close electrical contacts. Such devices are maintenance-free and
last through many cycles without noticeable wear. As an additional benefit, using
piezoelectric actuators to operate electrical contacts enables fast and precise
control in small packages that are either difficult or impossible to achieve with
electromagnetic relays.

Piezoelectric Printers

A dot-matrix printer
In a piezoelectric dot matrix printer, piezoelectric actuators in the printer head
move needle-like pins that “poke” through a strip of ink tape (similar to a
typewriter) against a piece of paper in various patterns to form characters. For most
applications, the use of dot-matrix printers has been superseded by other
technologies. However, a dot-matrix printer is the only printer technology capable
of generating duplicate and triplicate carbon-copy printouts.

Inkjet printer
In a piezoelectric inkjet printer, piezoelectric actuators in the printer head act on
small diaphragms or otherwise change the geometry of an inkwell so that ink
droplets are forced out of an orifice onto paper. This is one of the dominant
technologies in the printer market to date.

Piezoelectric Speakers

Piezoelectric speakers are featured in virtually every application that needs to

efficiently produce sound from a small electronic gadget. These types of speakers
are usually inexpensive and require little power to produce relatively large sound
volumes. Thus, piezoelectric speakers are often found in devices like Cell phones,
Ear buds, Sound producing toys, Musical greeting cards, Musical balloons etc.

Piezoelectric Humidifiers

Many cool mist humidifiers use a piezoelectric transducer to transmit ultrasonic

sound energy into a pool of water. The ultrasonic vibrations cause fine water
droplets to break away and atomize from the surface of the pool where they become
entrained in an air stream and enter the desired space.
 Capacitive Sensor and Transducers
Capacitive Sensor
Is a proximity sensor that detects nearby objects by their effect on the
electrical field created by the sensor.
Capacitive Transducer
The capacitive transducer is the capacitor with variable capacitance. The
capacitive transducer consists of two parallel metal plates that are separated by the dielectric
material such as air

Capacitive sensors have some similarities to radar in their ability to detect conductive
materials, while seeing through insulating materials such as wood or plastic. In practice, the
differences are considerable; When compared to radar, capacitive sensors:

Working principle of Capacitive Sensor

Noncontact capacitive sensors work by measuring changes in an electrical property called
capacitance. Capacitance describes how two conductive objects with a space between them
respond to a voltage difference applied to them. When a voltage is applied to the conductors,
an electric field is created between them causing positive and negative charges to collect on
each object (Fig. 1). If the polarity of the voltage is reversed, the charges will also reverse
Capacitive sensors use an alternating voltage which causes the charges to continually reverse
their positions. The moving of the charges creates an alternating electric current which is
detected by the sensor (Fig. 2). The amount of current flow is determined by the capacitance,
and the capacitance is determined by the area and proximity of the conductive objects. Larger
and
closer

objects cause greater current than smaller and more distant objects. The capacitance is also
affected by the type of nonconductive material in the gap between the object.

Block diagram of Capacitive Sensor

Working Principle of Capacitive transducer
There are three way to change the capacitance, changing in the area, changing the distance
between the electrode plates and changing the material between the electrodes thus

permittivity

One of the two electrodes is made fixed and the other is made movable for measure
displacement. Displacement to be measured is applied to the movable metal plate, as the plate
moves the distance between the plates increases and this changes the capacitance
measurement. Thus the change in the capacitance will be the function of the displacement of
the electrode.

The capacitor plates are formed by two concentric, hollow, metal cylinders. The displacement
to
be measured is applied to the inner cylinder, which alters the capacitance.

Example: capacitance transducer for Level measurement:

 Here both the electrodes are fixed so the distance is constant. One electrode is dipped into the
liquid and another one is fixed to the wall of the tank. As the liquid level increases the
permittivity changes and thus the capacitance changes

Advantages.

• It produces an accurate frequency response to both static and dynamic measurements

• Negligible loading

Disadvantages

• Accuracy can be affected by change in temperature

• As the lead is lengthy it can cause errors or distortion in signals

Block diagram of Capacitive transducer

The block-diagram of a transducer as an energy conversion system in the transmit
mode: V and I are the input voltage and current, U and P are the output velocity and
sound pressure in the acoustic field.

10 Real life applications

1. Grease Level Monitoring

2. Pharmaceuticals Manufacturing
3. Suitable for Use with Chemicals
4. Feed Hopper Level Monitoring
5. Small Vessel Pump Control
6. Suitable for use in Environments with Inconsistent Power Supplies
7. Hazardous Area Environments
8. High Temperature Environments
9. High Pressure Wash-down Environments
10. Level Control of Liquids

Grease Level Monitoring

The oil level sensor is located inside the oil pan. Its primary job is to measure the amount
of oil inside the pan prior to the engine being started. If the oil is low, it will trigger a
warning light indicator on the dashboard, or will illuminate the check engine light.

Level Control of Liquids

Level sensors are used to monitor and regulate levels of a particular free-flowing
substance within a contained space. ... There are a number of different types of used to
detect the point level of a liquid. Some types use a magnetic float, which rise and fall
with the liquid in the container.

High Temperature Environments

When the voltage increases then the temperature also rises. ... An example for a
temperature sensor is LM35. The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit
temperature sensors, whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius
temperature. The LM35 is operates at -55˚ to +120˚C.
Small Vessel Pump Control

Ultrasonic level sensors are used to detect the levels of sticky liquid substances and
bulkiness materials as well. They are worked by producing audio waves at the range of
frequency from 20 to 200 kHz

Accelerometer sensors

Measuring acceleration can be useful in many use cases, such as monitoring your vehicles.
Accelerometer sensors can also be useful in detecting excess vibration of a manufacturing
machine or unauthorized movement of an object that should be stationary (anti-theft
protection).