ITEM NO.

28: PLANNING THE ROAD

At the last report, we have talked about on planning a transportation system. We’ve
learned that there are eight elements of planning, as seen from the previous report.
Some of the following items are repeated from the previous report, with a twist. This
time, we will relate each item on its impact on the field of design and construction.

[22]
ITEM NO: 29: DESIGN

Roads aren’t always straight. Roads are designed accordingly to the terrain of the area.
It could have a lot of curves to ensure the minimum speed required, or it could have
sharp edges. Either way, it all depends on the terrain and the land where the road will
be made.

[23]
ITEM NO.30: MOBILIZATION PHASE

This is what we call the preparation part of the materials and the equipments needed on
site. This is done to ensure the project to be finish sooner or at the said deadline. If the
materials needed are already on site, then the project could be use by the public at due
time.

[24]
Item no. 31: PROJECT CONSTRUCTION

At the previous report, I’ve stated that there is planning also involve in construction.
Now, we will go and look at its sole purpose: Constructing. Construction may take
months or years depending on how large the project is or how complex. It has a series
of process to be done to complete the construction.

[25]
ITEM NO.32: EMBANKMENTS

Embankments are use to prevent flooding in an area. This is useful and one of the first
steps in construction. Using cuts and fills the contractor creates embankments.

[26]
ITEM NO.33: EARTHWORK

The first part of construction is one of the most important: earthwork. Huge earth-
moving machines must be used to create a solid foundation for the road to be built.
Without a solid foundation, any road that is built will fail long before its expected
lifespan.

[27]
ITEM NO.34: GROUND LEVELING

Next, a grader or bulldozer levels the screened dirt. Leveling bumps and filling in dips
creates a surface that will support a road for decades. The screened dirt is now sprayed
with water and compacted to its maximum density.

[28]
Item no.35: DRAINAGE

During this stage, the contactor installs drains and sewers. The center of the road must
be higher than the edges so water will run off into the storm sewers. Drainage is a
critical element because improper drainage will greatly reduce the new pavement's life
expectancy. This is need for the rain to drain away from the road surface and make it
easier for vehicles to travel in storms.

[29]
Item no.36: PRELIMINARY INSPECTION

Before we can continue with the rest of the construction, the following progress of the
earthwork shall undergo inspection. This is thoroughly done for the sake of safety, and
maintaining the expected life expectancy of the said road project.

[30]
Item no.37: GRAVEL

To complete the earthwork, the contractor places gravel in 12-inch layers on the road
bed. Workers moisten and compact each layer. Layers are added and compacted until
the road bed reaches the height called for in the design. Gravel is added in layers and
machines roll over the surface to compact and flatten it further.

[31]
Item no.38: ROAD PAVING

Once the foundation is finished and has been inspected, it's time to pave the way. The
most common materials used for paving roads are asphalt and concrete. Factors such
as cost and type and amount of traffic will determine which material will be used.

[32]
Item no.39: ASPHALT

Asphalt uses an oil-based substance called bitumen to make sand and crushed rock
stick together like glue. After the asphalt is heated to about 300° F, it is transported to
the construction site, where construction crews spread and compact it onto
the foundation already in place.

[33]
Item no.40: CONCRETE

Concrete also uses sand and crushed rock, but it's held together with cement. Workers
must pour liquid concrete into special steel molds called forms. As it dries, a special
finishing machine vibrates it to make it settle evenly and then trims it to the correct
height.

[34]
Item no.41: ROAD JOINTS

To prevent cracks, workers make cuts — called joints — between concrete slabs.
These joints allow the concrete slabs to expand and contract with changes in
temperature without breaking.

[35]
Item no.42: SUB-GRADE

The sub-grade material should be clean and free from organic matter and should be
able to be compacted by roller, to form stable sub-base. The material should have the
following characteristics:

 Well graded, uniformity coefficient (D60/D10) should not be less than 3.

 Fraction passing sieve #200 shall not be greater than 2/3rd of the fraction
passing sieve #40.
 Should have a L.L not greater than 25%.
 P.I not greater than 6
 CBR should not be less than 25.
 In coarse grain, aggregate retained by #10 sieves, %age of wear shall not be
greater than 5%.
 The maximum dia of any particle shall not be greater than 2/3rd of the layer
thickness of sub-base

[36]
Item no.43: SUB-BASE COURSE

The materials used may be either unbound granular, or cement-bound. The quality of
sub-base is very important for the useful life of the road and can outlive the life of the
surface, which can be scrapped off and after checking that the sub-base is still in good
condition, a new layer can be applied. (Unbound granular materials are usually
crushed stone, crushed slag or concrete, or slate.)

[37]
Item no.44: BASE COURSE

 It is the layer immediately under the wearing surface (Applied whether the
wearing surfaces is bituminous or cement concrete and whether it’s a thick or
thin bituminous layer).
 As base course lies close under the pavement surface it is subjected to severe
loading. The material in a base course must be of extremely high quality and its
construction must be done carefully. The LA Abrasion test can determine the
quality of the aggregate for this purpose.


[38]
Item no.45: GRANULAR BASE COURSE

It is a mixture of soil particles ranging in size from coarse to fine. Processing involves
crushing oversized particles and screening where it is necessary to secure the desired
grading. The requirements of a satisfactory soil aggregate surface are;

 Stability
 Resistance to abrasion
 Resistance to penetration of water
 Capillary properties to replace moisture lost by surface evaporation upon the
addition of wearing course requirement change.

[39]
Item no.46: MACADAM BASE

Successive layers of crushed rock mechanically locked by rolling and bonded by stone
screening (rock duct, stone chips etc).

[40]
Item no.47: IN-WATER BOUND MACADAM

The crushed stones are laid, shaped and compacted and then finer materials are added
and washed into surface to provide a dense material.

[41]
Item no.48: TREATED BASES

Compose of mineral aggregate and additive to make them strong or more resistant to
moisture. Among the treating agents is bitumen.

[42]
Item no.49: SURFACE COURSE

The top layers of pavement which is in direct contact with the wheel of the vehicle.
Usually constructed of material in which bitumen is used as binder materials.

[43]
Item no.50: BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT

Bituminous pavements consists of combination of mineral aggregate with bituminous

binder ranging from inexpensive surface treatment ¼ in or less thick to asphaltic
concrete. For good service throughout the full life, bituminous pavement must retain the
following qualities:

 Freedom from cracking or raveling.

 Resistance to weather including the effect of surface water heat and cold.
 Resistance to internal moisture, particularly to water vapors.
 Tight impermeable surface or porous surface (if either is needed for contained
stability of underlying base or subgrade).
 Smooth riding and non skidding surface.

[44]
Item no.51: CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

Rigid pavement is the technical term for any road surface made of concrete. Concrete
roads are called rigid while asphalt-covered roads are flexible. These terms refer to the
amount of deformation created in the road surface itself when in use and over time.) .

[45]
Item no.52: TYPES OF CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

There are four types of concrete pavement:

 Plain pavements with dowels that use dowels to provide load transfer and
prevent faulting,
 Plain pavements without dowels, in which aggregate interlock transfers loads
across joints and prevents faulting,
 Conventionally reinforced pavements that contain steel reinforcement and use
dowels in contraction joints, and
 Continuously reinforced pavements that have no contraction joints and are
reinforced with continuous longitudinal steel.

[46]
Item no.53: CONCRETE

Concrete also uses sand and crushed rock, but it's held together with cement. Workers
must pour liquid concrete into special steel molds called forms. As it dries, a special
finishing machine vibrates it to make it settle evenly and then trims it to the correct
height.

[47]
Item no. 54: PROJECT CONSTRUCTION

At the previous report, I’ve stated that there is planning also involve in construction.
Now, we will go and look at its sole purpose: Constructing. Construction may take
months or years depending on how large the project is or how complex. It has a series
of process to be done to complete the construction.

[48]
Item no.55: MACADAM BASE

Successive layers of crushed rock mechanically locked by rolling and bonded by stone
screening (rock duct, stone chips etc).

[49]
Item no.56: ROAD PAVING

Once the foundation is finished and has been inspected, it's time to pave the way. The
most common materials used for paving roads are asphalt and concrete. Factors such
as cost and type and amount of traffic will determine which material will be used.

[50]
ITEM NO.57: EMBANKMENTS

Embankments are use to prevent flooding in an area. This is useful and one of the first
steps in construction. Using cuts and fills the contractor creates embankments.

[51]