Journal of Business Ethics (2010) 97:535–541
DOI 10.1007/s10551-010-0530-1
Another Look at the Impact of Personal
and Organizational Values Congruency
ABSTRACT. This study re-examined the impact of
personal and organizational values congruency on positive
work outcomes and investigated the extent to which this
relationship is affected by demographic variables. Data
collection paralleled an earlier study (Posner and Schmidt,
Journal of Business Ethics 12, 1993, 341) and validated those
findings, lending additional credibility to the continuing
importance of this phenomenon. Both personal values
congruence and organizational values clarity were signifi-
cantly related to commitment, satisfaction, motivation,
anxiety, work stress, and ethics using a cross-sectional
sample of 711 managers from across the United States.
Gender, educational level, and functional area did not
impact these relationships, although years of experience
(expressed by age, managerial experience, and hierarchical
level) did make a difference.
KEY WORDS: managerial values, organizational values
clarity, person–organization fit, personal values, congruency,
shared values, values
Values are a critical element of organizational culture
and leadership, impacting both individual and organi-
zational performances (Schein, 2004). Values have
been associated with, for example, job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, turnover, trust, person–
organization fit, readiness to change, and performance
(e.g., Adkins and Russell, 1997; Adkins et al., 1994;
Alas, 2009; Cable and DeRue, 2002; Cazier et al.,
2006, 2007; Chatman, 1989; Liedrka, 1989; Meglino
et al., 1989, 1992; Posner and Schmidt, 1993; Valentine
et al., 2002; Watrous et al., 2006). Their impact has
been investigated not just within the United States but
around the world (e.g., Alas and Wei, 2008; Hofstede,
2002; House et al., 2004; Moran et al., 2007, Posner
and Westwood, 1995, 1997).
Against this, continuing interest in the role and
impact of values is the importance of periodically
Ó Springer 2010
Barry Z. Posner
reviewing and re-establishing the validity of previous
investigations. For example, in a series of studies,
researchers (Posner, 1992; Posner and Low, 1990;
Posner and Randolph, 1993; Posner and Schmidt,
1992, 1993; Posner and Westwood, 1995, 1997)
examined the impact of ‘‘shared values’’ at both
personal and organizational levels. These studies
supported the contention that alignment between
one’s personal values and those of the organization
resulted in positive work attitudes and organizational
outcomes. Various demographic characteristics (at the
individual and organizational level) were shown to
account for little of the variance in these relationships.
The purpose of this study was to take another
look at these findings and determine whether they
are still valid in a world of new economic realities
and shifting human resource assumptions. These are
times when loyalty (or a psychological contract)
between employees and their companies is under
serious question (or already a thing of the past), and
when global marketplace pressures place a premium
on being low-cost providers (hence pushing com-
panies to use the least expensive human resources)
and so it would be easy to imagine that person–
organization values congruency may no longer be all
that relevant or important.
Watson et al. (2004) point out that the values
congruency model is the predominant research
approach to the idea of person–organizational fit. This
is because values are at the core of who people are.
They influence the choices they make, the individuals
they trust, the appeals they respond to, and the way
their time and energy are invested. Some of the most
critical decisions a manager makes involve personal
values; for example, how much emphasis to place on
the immediate interests of the customer or the long-
term interests of the company, how to apportion time
between family and organizational responsibilities,
536 Barry Z. Posner
what behavior to reward or discourage. In turn, these
decisions have critical organizational impact.
Values are so deep-seated that one never actually
‘‘sees’’ values themselves. What is seen are the ways
through which values manifest themselves (e.g., in
opinions, attitudes, preferences, desires, fears, etc.).
Values can be personal, professional, organizational,
or societal. Although they are interrelated, the influ-
ence among them varies. Values provide the foun-
dation for the purpose and goals of an enterprise.
They silently give direction to the hundreds of deci-
sions made at all levels of the organization every day.
They are at the heart of the culture of an organization.
Grojean et al. (2004, p. 225), in fact, argue that it is the
personal values of organizational leaders that ‘‘play the
dominant role in creating and maintaining climates
regarding ethics.’’ Argandona (2003, pp. 15–16) goes
so far as to argue that ‘‘any manager who does not take
values into account – both his own and other people’s
– will be a bad manager’’ and presumably the same
would apply on an organizational level.
The value-congruency model focuses upon simi-
larities between the values of the organization (or the
work-group) and those of its individual members.
From an empirical perspective, value congruency
requires an estimation of the extent to which indi-
viduals are aware of both their own values and those
of their organizations. It also requires an appreciation
for the sense of agreement or consistency between
personal and organizational values and/or the extent
to which individuals believe they have had to com-
promise their personal values to meet some organi-
zational demand or expectation. Where there are
differences or gaps between these two values arenas,
attitudes will be formed which suppress motivation,
hinder performance, and result in greater levels of
dissatisfaction, turnover, and stress. Consequently, it
is in the best interests of individuals and organizations
to attract and retain employees with values that are
closely aligned, and this is even more true for those
holding managerial positions.
Methodology
Sample
The purpose of this study was to examine the
continuing relevancy of personal and organizational
values congruency. Specifically, this project repli-
cated an earlier study of this relationship (Posner and
Schmidt, 1993). As with that study, the sample
population consisted of a random sample of man-
agers who were members of the American Man-
agement Association (AMA), with this organization
being considered a representative sample of the
population of managers across the United States.
In the current study, there were 711 respondents,
and in the previous study there were 1,060 partici-
pants. The survey questionnaire was approximately
the same across both administrations, although in the
first instance it was administered through a mailed
paper questionnaire and in the second instance it was
administered and completed electronically. In all
cases, participation was voluntary and anonymous.
Holding constant the sample population over the
two administrations provides some claim for both
the comparability of the findings over time and to
the generalizability of the findings being represen-
tative of ‘‘managers in the United States.’’
While the sample population was held constant, it
comes as no surprise that the demographic charac-
teristics of the two samples (that is, people in man-
agement positions and members of a professional
management association like the AMA) have chan-
ged over the past several decades – most likely,
however, in ways that mirror the general nature of
the managerial population over these particular time
periods. For example, the number of women in the
current sample is considerably higher than in the
previous sample, as is educational level. Almost four
times the number of females is included in the most
current sample versus the original sample. One-half
of the middle managers in the current sample are
women (previously 28%), and the remainder are split
about equally between supervisory and executive
managers (which represented 13 and 6% previously).
Most respondents are still college graduates: 84%
in the first survey and 85% in the current survey.
While about 33% in the previous administration had
obtained a graduate degree, this percentage went up
to 38% in the current survey.
Managers were much younger in the first survey
than they were in the current survey. First time
around, 40% were 40 years old or younger, 33%
were between the ages of 41 and 50, and the
remaining 27% were 51 years of age and above.
Thirteen percent of the current sample managers are
 Another Look at the Impact of Personal and Organizational Values Congruency
40 years of age or younger, 53% are between 41 and
50, and 34% are 51 years and older.
Fifty-five percent of the respondent’s in the first
survey were employed in industrial manufacturing,
consumer manufacturing, and financial services.
These same industries comprised only 43% of the
employers of current respondents. Services and
marketing/retailing accounted for nearly another
third in the first iteration but only 9% in the current
iteration. Non-profits and health care employ about
one-fourth of the current respondents and were a
very small portion of the original sample.
Measures
Personal values congruency was assessed using a
previously developed two-item scale of ‘‘shared
values’’ (Posner et al., 1985), which was also used in
the Posner and Schmidt (1993) study. The two
statements were: ‘‘My personal values are generally
compatible with the values of the organization’’ and
‘‘I find that sometimes I have to compromise per-
sonal principles to conform to my organization’s
expectations.’’ This latter item was reverse-scored.
Summed together, these two items tapped into both
respondents’ attitudinal and behavioral perception of
alignment of their values with those of their orga-
nization. Seven-point Likert scale statements were
used, with the following anchors: (1) Strongly Dis-
agree, (2) Disagree, (3) Slightly Disagree, (4) Neither
Disagree or Agree, (5) Slightly Agree, (6) Agree, and
(7) Strongly Agree. Internal reliability (Cronbach’s
alpha) for the scale was 0.68.
Organizational values clarity was assessed using a
four-item scale adapted from the previously devel-
oped measure used in the Posner and Schmidt
(1993) study. Respondents were asked to indicate
the extent to which they clear about their organi-
zation’s values, as well as the values of their (a)
manager, (b) colleagues, and (c) subordinates. Seven-
point Likert scale statements were used, with the
following anchors: (1) Strongly Disagree, (2) Dis-
agree, (3) Slightly Disagree, (4) Neither Disagree or
Agree, (5) Slightly Agree, (6) Agree, and (7) Strongly
Agree. Internal reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) for the
scale was 0.83.
Six demographic variables were used in this
study as possible moderators of the personal values
537
congruency and organizational values clarity rela-
tionship. The first was gender, with 390 male and
321 female respondents. The second was hierar-
chical management level with 150 supervisors, 334
middle managers, and 227 executives. Age was the
third dimension with respondents grouped into
three age classifications: Under 40 years (N = 92),
40–50 years (N = 370), and over 50 years of age
(N = 240). Educational level was the fourth dimen-
sion, with 105 respondents indicating that they had
not completed a college degree, 235 with a college
degree, and 371 indicating that they had received a
graduate degree or taken some graduate courses.
The fifth dimension was years of managerial expe-
rience; with 245 having less than 10 years, 250 with
10–20 years, and 216 indicating over 20 years of
managerial experience. Finally, respondents were
classified by their functional field or discipline with
61 indicating accounting or finance, 72 in engi-
neering or research and development, 53 in infor-
mation technology, 108 in human resources, training
and development, 96 in marketing and sales, and
100 in professional services.
A seven-point Likert-response scale was provided
for each question dealing with respondents’ attitudes
about their work, with the following anchors: (1)
Strongly Disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) Slightly Dis-
agree, (4) Neither Disagree or Agree, (5) Slightly
Agree, (6) Agree, and (7) Strongly Agree. There
were seven questions which asked about (1) levels of
organizational commitment, (2) feelings of personal
success compared with one’s peer group, (3) work
stress, (4) job anxiety, (5) motivation, (6) their
company’s ethical standards, and (7) whether the
company paid enough attention to values. These
questions were selected because they generally par-
alleled those from previous studies and tapped into a
range of affective feelings about the workplace.
Results
Respondents were split into two groups (low and
high) based upon the mean scores for the personal
values congruency scale. Low and high groups were
similarly created based upon the mean scores for the
organizational values clarity scale. Comparisons
between these two groups were used to investigate
the research hypotheses. There were 314 respondents
538 Barry Z. Posner
TABLE I
T tests between low and high groups on personal values congruency and organizational values clarity with selected
work outcomes
Personal values congruency
Low
Commitment 4.24
Personally successful 5.24
Motivation 4.18
Work stress+ 1.64
Job anxiety 4.33
Org ethical 4.28
Direct more attention to values 5.46
+ reverse scored.
* p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.
in the ‘‘low’’ personal values congruency category
and 463 in the ‘‘high’’ personal values congruency
category. In the ‘‘low’’ organizational values clarity
group, there were 306 respondents and 405 in the
‘‘high’’ organizational values clarity group. Table I
shows the results from this categorization for both the
personal values congruency and organizational values
clarity indices with each work attitude statement.
As the data indicates, those managers whose per-
sonal values are most highly congruent with those of
their organization have the most affirmative feelings
about their workplace in comparison with those
whose personal values congruency is less congruent.
The high personal values congruency group expressed
significantly more commitment to their organization,
felt more personally successful and motivated than the
low personal values congruency group. Likewise, they
expressed significantly lower degrees of work stress
and job anxiety. The high personal values congruency
group also felt significantly more strongly about the
ethical nature of their organization, and, accordingly,
did not believe that their organization needed to be
paying more attention to values.
The data from the comparison of low and high
organizational values clarity groups were generally
equivalent with those found on the personal values
congruency dimension. Managers who reported
high degrees of clarity about organizational values
were more committed to the organization, felt more
successful and motivated, and experienced less work
stress and job anxiety than their counterparts who
Organizational values clarity
High Low High
5.60*** 4.53 5.42***
5.54*** 5.12 5.60***
4.85*** 4.37 4.61***
1.42*** 1.60 1.47*
3.48*** 4.18 3.67***
5.96*** 4.63 5.68***
4.82*** 5.20 5.07
reported low degrees of clarity about organizational
values. Managers in the high organizational values
clarity group felt more strongly than the low clarity
groups that their organizations were ethical but no
significant differences were found on the question of
whether their organizations should be directing
more attention to values.
These results (Table I) support the hypothesis that
respondents with the greatest levels of personal val-
ues congruency and organizational values clarity
have the most favorable work attitudes. The second
hypothesis asked about whether various demo-
graphic characteristics might affect the degree to
which people experienced personal values congru-
ency and organizational values clarity. The results of
this analysis are reported in Table II.
Neither personal values congruency nor organi-
zational values clarity was affected by the gender of
the respondent. Likewise, no significant differences
were found on either of these two dimensions on the
basis of the managers’ years of education or func-
tional discipline. As respondent’s age increased so did
the extent of their personal values congruency and
clarity around organizational values. Those 50 years
of age and older were significantly higher in terms
of personal values congruency than their two
younger age cohorts. On the dimension of organi-
zational values clarity, the oldest age category was
significantly higher than the middle age category
(40–50 years) but not the youngest age category
(under 40 years).
 Another Look at the Impact of Personal and Organizational Values Congruency 539

TABLE II
Personal values congruency and organizational values clarity comparisons for demographic variables

Personal values congruency Organizational values clarity

Mean SD Mean SD

Gender
Male (N = 390) 10.23 2.71 20.54 4.27
Female (N = 321) 10.51 2.56 21.11 4.17
t = 1.41, p = n.s. t = 1.80, p = n.s.
Age
Under 40 years (N = 92) 10.03 2.60 21.08 4.45
40–50 years (N = 370) 10.16 2.66 20.45 4.19
Over 50 years (N = 240) 10.74 2.62 21.25 4.15
F = 4.19, p < 0.016 F = 2.86, p < 0.058
Educational level
Some college (N = 105) 10.63 2.94 21.17 4.08
College degree (N = 235) 10.42 2.63 20.83 4.25
Post-graduate (N = 371) 10.25 2.57 20.67 4.27
F = 0.93, p = n.s. F = 0.60, p = n.s.
Hierarchical level
Supervisory (N = 150) 10.03 2.73 19.89 4.69
Middle mgt. (N = 334) 10.08 2.67 20.61 4.13
Executive (N = 227) 10.99 2.44 21.67 3.91
F = 9.62, p < 0.001 F = 8.76, p < 0.001
Managerial experience levels
Under 10 years (N = 245) 9.94 2.71 20.33 4.36
10–20 years (N = 250) 10.30 2.67 20.83 4.20
Over 20 years (N = 216) 10.90 2.46 21.28 4.07
F = 7.81, p < 0.001 F = 5.88, p < 0.057
Functional disciplines
Acctg/finance (N = 61) 10.26 2.30 20.31 3.27
Eng/R&D (N = 72) 10.26 2.57 20.94 3.95
IT/MIS (N = 53) 10.21 2.89 20.26 4.76
HR/personnel (N = 108) 10.44 2.46 21.63 4.25
Mkt/sales (N = 96) 10.15 2.66 20.45 3.99
Services (N = 100) 10.41 2.75 20.67 4.60
F = 0.13, p = n.s. F = 1.21, p = n.s.

Both years of managerial experience and hierar-
chical level impacted personal values congruency and
organizational values clarity. Executives had signifi-
cantly higher levels than middle and supervisory
managers on the personal values congruency and
organizational values clarity scales. Middle level
managers and their supervisory manager counterparts
did not significantly differ on these two dimensions.
Those with 20 or more years of managerial experience
had significantly higher scores on personal values
congruency than those with under 10 years, or
between 10 and 20 years, of managerial experience.
They were also higher in terms of organizational value
clarity than the under 10 years of managerial experi-
ence group. The middle group (10–20 years of
managerial experience) was not significantly different
from their less experienced counterparts on personal
values congruency or organizational values clarity.
These results do not support rejection of the null
hypotheses that demographic characteristics make no
difference in levels of personal values congruency or
clarity around organizational values.
540 Barry Z. Posner
Discussion
Strong support is found for the continuing claim that
personal values congruence and clarity around orga-
nizational values pay dividends for both individuals
and their organizations. Consistent with previous
findings (Posner and Schmidt, 1992, 1993), and using
a sample population closely related to the one in that
same study (albeit from nearly a generation apart),
such alignment and clarity result in stronger bonds for
managers with their organizations and more positive
affective feelings about their work and impact. Some
of the same demographic factors which impacted
these relationships in the past appear to continue to do
so, although there are some differences.
No differences were found between male and
female managers in this study, while previously sig-
nificantly lower levels of values congruency had
been reported by females. With the increased per-
centage of female managers in the workplace these
days compared to the past (as true in this sample, as
well as in the membership ranks of the American
Management Association), the dimension of gender
may no longer be that salient as a factor in moder-
ating these relationships. Educational level this time
around, as also evident in the past, did not account
for any significant variance among managers’ expe-
rience of personal values congruency or organiza-
tional values clarity. It was also interesting that
functional disciplines failed to explain why the per-
sonal values of managers might be congruent with
those of their organization or the extent to which
managers were clear about the values of their orga-
nization. In these regards, it would appear that the
personal–organization values alignment is outside
the scope of such demographic considerations.
However, it does seem that as managers advance in
the organization, on the basis of hierarchical level and
years of managerial experience, that there is a con-
comitant strengthening of their relationship with the
organization as expressed in greater degrees of values
congruency and clarity. This would seem to explain
why the more years respondents have been around
the workplace (expressed directly in terms of age and
years of managerial experience or somewhat indi-
rectly by hierarchical level) they report that their
values are more aligned with their organization and
feel more strongly that they are clear about the values
of those around them in the organization. Posner and
Schmidt (1992, p. 84) argued that ‘‘for any factor
which has to do with time or experience with the
particular firm, we would suppose that there would
be a direct correlation with person-organization
values alignment.’’
These demographic differences not withstanding,
it is important to note they do not discount in any
significant way the impact that personal values
congruency and organizational values clarity have in
the workplace. This research squarely supports the
claim that values make a difference in creating and
sustaining effective workplaces. Indeed, commit-
ment, motivation, ethics, and efficacy, among other
important work attitudes, require that attention be
paid by individuals and their organizations alike in
making efforts to align personal–organization values.
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E-mail: bposner@scu.edu
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