Cam Notes PDF

Computer: It is an electronic device, which takes input from the user in the form of data and
instructions. Then it processes the input as per the user’s instructions and generates some output that
is displayed before the user and also we can take the printout with the help of printer.
Characteristics of Computers:
The human race developed computers so that it could perform intricate operations, such as
calculation and data processing, or simply for entertainment. Today, much of the world’s
Infrastructure runs on computers and it has profoundly changed our lives, mostly for the better.
Speed: The computers process at an extensively fast rate, at millions of instructions per second. In
few seconds, a computer can perform such a huge task that a normal human being may take days or
even years to complete. The speed of computer is calculated in MHz (Megahertz), that is, one million
instructions per second. At present, a powerful computer can perform billions of operations in just
one second.
Accuracy: Besides the efficiency, the computers are also very accurate. The level of accuracy depends
on the instructions and the type of machines being used. Since the computer is capable of doing only
what it is instructed to do, faulty instructions for data processing may lead to faulty results. This is
known as GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out).
Diligence: Computer, being a machine, does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and lack of
concentration. If four million of calculations have to be performed, then the computer will perform the
last four-millionth calculation with the same accuracy and speed as the first calculation.
Reliability: Generally, reliability is the measurement of the performance of a computer, which is

measured against some predetermined standard for operation without any failure.
Storage Capability: Computers can store large amounts of data and can recall the required
information almost instantaneously. The main memory of the computer is relatively small it can hold
only a certain amount of information, therefore, the data is stored on secondary storage device such as
magnetic tapes or disks.
Versatility: Computers are quite versatile in nature. It can perform multiple tasks simultaneously
with equal ease. For Example, at one moment it can be used to draft a letter, another moment it can be
used to draft a letter, another moment it can be used to play music and in between, one can print a
document as well.
Resource Sharing: Computers today have the capability to connect with each other. This has made
the costly resources like capability to connect with each other. This has made the sharing of costly
resources like printers possible. Apart from device sharing, data and information can also be shared
among group of computers.
Limitations of Computers:
A computer can only perform what it is programmed to do.
The computer needs well-defined instructions to perform any operation. Hence, computers are
unable to give any conclusion without going through intermediate steps.
A computer’s user is limited in areas where qualitative considerations are important. For
instance, it can make plans based on situations and information but it cannot foresee whether
they will succeed or not.
mnnappaji@gmail.com 1
History of Computers: The computer as we know it today had its beginning with a 19th century
English mathematics professor name Charles Babbage. He designed the Analytical Engine and it was
this design that the basic framework of the computers of today are based on.
Generation of Computers:
Characteristics of First Generation Computers (1940-56) Vacuum Tubes
 These Computers are based on vacuum tube technology.
 These were the fastest computing devices of their times (computation time was in
milliseconds).
 These computers were very large, and required a lot of space for installation.
 Since thousands of vacuum tubes were used, they generated a large amount of
heat. Therefore, air-conditioning was essential.
 These were non-portable and very slow equipments.
 They lacked in versatility and speed.
 They were very expensive to operate and used a large amount of electricity.
 These machines were unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failures.
Hence, constant maintenance was required.
 Since machine language was used, these computers were difficult in program and use.
 Each individual component had to be assembled manually. Hence, commercial appeal of these
computers was poor.
 Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC and UNIVAC.
Characteristics of Second Generation Computers (1956-63) Transistors
 These Machines were based on transistors technology.
 These were smaller as compared to the first generation computers.
 The computational time of these computers was reduced to microseconds from
milliseconds.
 These were more reliable and less prone to hardware failure. Hence, such
computers required less frequent maintenance.
 These were more portable and generated less amount of heat.
 Assembly Language was used to program computers. Hence, programming became more time
efficient and less cumbersome.
 Second generation computers still required air conditioning.
 Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was still required.
 Examples: PDP-8, IBM 1401 and IBM 7090.
Characteristics of Third Generation Computers (1964-1970’s) Integrated Circuits
 These computers are based on Integrated circuit (IC) technology.
 They were able to reduce computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.
 They were easily portable and more reliable than the second
generation.
 These devices consumed less power and generated less heat. In some
cases, air conditioning was still required.
 The size of these computers was smaller as compared to previous
computers.
 Since hardware rarely failed, the maintenance cost was quite low.
 Extensive use of high-level languages became possible.
 Manual assembling of individual components was not required, so it reduced the large
requirement of labour and cost. However, highly sophisticated technologies were required for
the manufacture of IC chips.
 Commercial production became easier and cheaper.
 Examples: NCR 395 and B6500.
Characteristics of Fourth Generation Computers (1970-Till Date) Microprocessors
 Fourth-generation computers are microprocessor-based systems.
 These computers are very small.
 These are the cheapest among all the other generations.
 They are portable and quite reliable.
 These machines generate negligible amount of heat, hence they do not
require air conditioning.
 Hardware failure is negligible so minimum maintenance is required.
 The production cost is very low.
 GUI and pointing devices enable users to learn to use the computer quickly.
 Interconnection of computers leads to better communication and resource sharing.
 Examples: APPLE II, Altair 8800, and CRAY-1.
Characteristics of Fifth Generation Computers (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence
 Fifth generation computers will use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips, which will result
in the production of microprocessor having millions of electronic components on a single chip.
 To store instructions and information require a great amount of storage capacity.
 Mega chips may enable the computer to approximate the memory capacity of the human mind.
 A computer using parallel processing accesses several instructions at once and works on them
at the same time through use of multiple central processing units.
 Artificial Intelligence a series of related technologies the tries to simulate and reproduce
human behaviour, including thinking, speaking and reasoning.
 Artificial Intelligence comprises a group of related technologies of Expert Systems (ES), natural
language processing (NLP), Speech recognition, Vision recognition and robotics.
Classification of Computers:
Computers for Individual Usages:
1. Desktop Computers
 The most common type of computer.
 Sits on the desk or floor.
 Performs a variety of tasks.
 A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.
 It is also known as Personal Computer (PC).
2. Workstations
 Specialized computer
 A Workstation is a high-end microcomputer designed for
technical or scientific applications. Intended primarily to be
used by one person at a time.
 They are commonly connected to a Local area network and
run multi-user operating systems.
 The term workstation has also been used to refer to a
mainframe computer or a PC connected to a network.
 Popular among scientists, engineers, and animators.
3. Notebook computers
 Small portable computers
 They are also called laptop computers
 Typically as powerful as a desktop
 You can carry in your hand as you move from one place to
another.
 These computers do not need any external power supply, as a
rechargeable battery is completely self-contained in them.
 These computers are expensive as compared to desktop computers.
 Modern laptops weigh 3 to 12 pounds (1.4 to 5.4 kg); older laptops were usually
heavier.
4. Tablet computers
 Newest development in portable computers.
 Input is through a pen.
 Offer all the functionality of a notebook PCs.
 Run specialized versions of standard programs.
 The ability to use in environments not conducive to a keyboard
and mouse such as lying in bed, low lighting when a lighted
screen is the input source, standing or with one hand.
 Higher cost — convertible tablet PCs can cost significantly more than their non-tablet
counterparts although this premium has been predicted to fall
 Input speed — handwriting can be significantly slower than peak typing speeds which
can be as high as 50-150 WPM.
 Screen damage risk - Tablet PCs are handled more than conventional laptops yet built
on the same frames and since their screens also serve as input devices (like PDAs).
 Lighter weight, lower power models can be functioned.
5. Handheld computers
 Very small computers
 Popular type is : Personal Digital Assistants (PDA)
 Taking note or contact management.
 Connects with a computer to exchange data.
 Input is through a pen.
 PDAs and handheld devices are commonly allowed in the classroom for digital note
taking. Students can spell-check, modify, and amend their class notes or e-notes. Some
educators distribute course material through the use of the internet connectivity or
infrared file sharing functions of the PDA.
6. Smart phones
 A Smartphone is a mobile phone offering advanced
capabilities, often with PC-like functionality (PC-mobile
handset convergence)
 Include many features: Web, e-mail access or special
hardware (digital camera, music players, …)
 Hybrid of cell phone and PDA
 Examples: Apple iphone, Nokia N95, Nokia N97, Nokia E72,
BlackBerry etc.,
7. Network servers
 Centralized computer
 Usually a powerful PC with special software and equipment.
 All other computers connect
 Provides access to network resources
8. Mainframes
 Used in large organizations
 Handle thousands of users
 Users access through a terminal : dump and intelligent
 Insurance companies, bank, and airline’s Web site.
9. Minicomputers
 Power between mainframe and desktop.
 Called midrange computers.
 Handle hundreds of users.
 Used in smaller organizations.
 Users access through a terminal.
10. Supercomputers
 The most powerful computers made
 Handle large and complex calculations
 Process trillions of operations per second
 Can house thousands of processors.
 Found in university, research organizations, forecasting weather...
The latest machine in the series is the PARAM Padma. Others include PARAM
10000 and PARAM 9000/SS. The PARAM 10000 was India's first TFLOPS computer. The major
applications of PARAM 10000 are in long-range weather forecasting, remote sensing, drug
design and molecular modelling. PARAMs in the future may well be used for India's space programme.
Plans to use it for oil and gas exploration are also on the line. The PARAM is used in almost all major
scientific research institutes in India. It has also been exported to countries like Russia, Ukraine,
Belarus and South Korea.
Applications of Computers:
Science: Scientists have been using computer to develop theories, to analyse, ad test the data. They
can be used to generate detailed studies of how earthquakes affect buildings or pollution affects
weather pattern. Satellite-based applications have not been possible without the use of computers. It
would also not be possible to get the information of our solar system and the cosmos without
computers.
Education: Computers have also revolutionised the whole process of education. Currently, the
classrooms, libraries, and museums are utilising computers to make the education much more
interesting. Unlike recorded television shows, Computer Aided Education (CAE) and Computer Based
Training (CBT) packages are making learning much more interactive.
Medicine and Health Care: Now, doctors are using computers right from diagnosing the illness to
monitoring a patient’s status during complex surgery. By using automated imaging techniques,
doctors are able to look inside a person’s body and can study each organ in detail (such as CT scans or
MRI scans), which was not possible few years ago. Cochler implant, a special kind of hearing aid that
makes it possible for deaf people to hear.
Engineering/Architecture/Manufacturing: The architects and engineers are extensively using

computers in designing and drawings. Computers can create objects that can be viewed from all the
three dimensions. By using techniques like virtual reality, architects can explore houses that have
been designed but not built. The manufacturing factories are using computerised robotic arms in
order to perform hazardous jobs. Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) can be used in designing the
product, ordering the parts, and planning production. Thus, computers help in co-ordinating the
entire manufacturing processes.
Entertainment: Computers are used to control the images and sounds. The Special effects, which
mesmerise the audience, would not have been possible without the computers. In addition,
computerised animation and colourful graphics have modernised the film industry.
Communication: E-mail or Electronic Mail is one of the communication media in which computer is
used. Through e-mail, messages and reports are passed from one person to one or more persons with
the aid of computer and telephone line. The advantage of this service is that while transferring the
messages it saves time, avoids wastage of paper, and so on. Moreover, the person who is receiving the
messages can read the messages whenever he is free and can save it, reply it, forward it or delete it
from the computers.
Business Application: There are various concerns for which computers are used such as in business
forecasting, to prepare pay bills and personal records, in banking operations and data storage, in the
various types of Life Insurance Business, and as an aid to management. Businesses are also using the
networking of computers, where a number of computers are connected together to share the data and
the information. Use of e-mail and Internet has changed the ways of business.
Publishing: In DTP with the help of computer and a laser printer one can perform the publishing job
all by oneself. Many of the tasks requiring long manual hours such as making table of contents and
index can be automatically done by the application of computers and DTP software.
Banking: People can use the ATM (Automated Teller Machine) services 24 hours of the day in order
to deposit and withdraw cash. When the different branches of the bank are connected through the
computer networks, then the inter branch transaction such as cheque and draft can be done by the
computers without any delay.
Block Diagram of Digital Computer
CPU
ALU
Input Unit CU Output Unit
Primary Memory
Secondary Memory
A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly complicated
problems quickly and accurately.
Input Unit: Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem. Therefore
we need to input the data and instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of one or more
input devices. Keyboard and mouse are the most commonly used input devices. All the input devices
perform the following functions.
Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.
Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.
Storage Unit: The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through
the input unit, before they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these
are sent to the output devices. It also saves the data for the later use. The various storage devices of a
computer system are divided into two categories.
a) Primary Storage: Stores and provides very fast. This memory is generally used to hold the
program being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from the input unit,
the intermediate and final results of the program. The primary memory is temporary in nature.
The data is lost, when the computer is switched off. In order to store the data permanently, the
data has to be transferred to the secondary memory. Therefore most computers have limited
primary storage capacity. Ex: RAM
b) Secondary Storage: Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several programs,
documents, data bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer are first transferred to
the primary memory before it is actually run. Whenever the results are saved, again they get
stored in the secondary memory. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the
primary memory. Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD,
DVD etc.,
Control Unit: It controls all other units in the computer. The control unit instructs the input unit,
where to store the data after receiving it from the user. It controls the flow of data and instructions
from the storage unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of results from the ALU to the storage unit. The
control unit is generally referred as the central nervous system of the computer that control and
synchronizes it’s working.
Arithmetic Logical Unit: All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the
computer. It also does comparison and takes decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc., and does logic operations viz., >, <, =, ‘etc.
Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit to ALU once
the computations are done, the results are transferred to the storage unit by the control unit and then
it is send to the output unit for displaying results.
Central Processing Unit: The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the
Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is like brain performs the following functions:
 It performs all calculations.
 It takes all decisions.
 It controls all units of the computer.
Output Unit: The output unit of a computer provides the information and results of a computation to
outside world. Printers, Visual Display Unit (VDU) or Monitors are the commonly used output devices.
Personal Computer: A personal computer is made up of multiple physical components of computer

hardware, upon which can be installed an operating system and a multitude of software to perform
the operator's desired functions.
Hardware: Hardware consists of interconnected devices that you can use to control the computer’s
operation. The hardware in a desktop computer is modular, making it easy for someone with
intermediate knowledge of a computer to modify one. Desktop computers are more affordable than
notebook computers. Main Components of a PC are Motherboard, Processor, RAM, Hard Disk Drive,
FDD, HDD, CD Drive, DVD Drive, SMPS and Cabinet etc.,
Software: Set of instructions given to the computer, software tells the computer what to do.
Differences between the primary and secondary memory:
Primary memory Secondary memory

The memory devices used for primary memory The secondary memory devices are magnetic and
are semiconductor memories optical memories.
The primary memory is categorized as volatile The secondary memory is always non volatile
and non-volatile memories, RAM is the volatile
memory and ROM is the non-volatile memory
The primary memory is composed of programs The secondary memory is enough capable to store
and data that are presently being used by huge amount of information
the microprocessor
The primary memories are more effective andThe secondary memories are somewhat slow in
fast to interact with the microprocessor interacting with the microprocessor, when
compared with the primary memory.
Primary memory is known as main memory Secondary memory is known as additional memory
or back memory
These memories are also called as internal These memories are also called as external memory
memory
Primary memory is temporary Secondary memory is permanent
The currently available capacity of primary Current the secondary memories are available from
memory is 512 MB to 8 GB RAMs are available. 80 GB to 10 TB Hard Disc Drive.
The primary memory devices are connected to The secondary memory devices are connected to
the computer through “slots” the computer through Cables or USB sockets.
RAM (Random Access Memory) short-term data storage, volatile (data is erased when the computer
is powered off). RAM is a type of computer data storage. RAM is a volatile memory as the information
or instructions stored in it will be lost if the power is switched off.
RAM is the primary memory it very fast accessing memory. Data is stored in memory in the
form of BITS and the data is retrieved through group of bits called WORD
SRAM Used primarily to create CPU's speed-sensitive cache, Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) uses
multiple transistors for each memory cell. It does not have a capacitor in each cell. Each bit of memory is
held by a flip-flop memory which takes four to six transistors besides some wiring. SRAM is not required
to be refreshed which makes it significantly fast. As compared to DRAM, SRAM has more parts and
therefore it consumes a lot more space on a chip. With less memory available per chip, the SRAM becomes
costlier.
DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory needs to be refreshed consistently and contains memory cells
with a paired transistor. In order to activate the transistor at each bit in the column, DRAM sends a charge
through the appropriate column. The level of charge is determined by the sense-amplifier while reading. If
the level of charge exceeds fifty percent, it is read as a 1 whereas if the charge is below fifty percent it is
read as a 0.
SDRAM Synchronous dynamic random access memory enhances the system's performance by utilizing the
burst mode concept. With maximum transfer rate to L2 cache of 528 mbps, SDRAM stays on the row that
contains the requested bit and moves quickly through the columns to read each bit as it moves on.
DDR SDRAM Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory is somewhat similar to
SDRAM but has higher bandwidth It has a maximum transfer rate to L2cache of about 1064 mbps.
ROM (Read only Memory) Read Only Memory (ROM) is an integrated circuit programmed with data that
holds instructions for starting up the computer. Data stored in ROM is non-volatile and data is not lost
when powered off. These data cannot be changed or a special operation is needed to be performed to
change it. A ROM chip cannot be reprogrammed or rewritten therefore when the chip is created it requires
the programming of perfect and complete information. ROM chips are cost effective and use very little
power. Some common types of ROM are as follows
PROM Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) is a type of ROM. These chips are non-volatile and
cannot be purged to store something else once it has been used. Blank PROM chips can be coded with the
help of a tool known as a programmer.
EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory can be erased with the help of ultraviolet light arid
rewritten many times. These chips are configured by the EPROM programmer, providing the voltage at the
specified levels.
EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory chips are riot required to remove, to be
erased or rewritten. These chips do not require to be erased altogether and specific portion of it can be
easily altered. Additional dedicated equipment is also not required to change the content the EEPROM
chips. These chips are erased and rewritten with the help of electric charge.
Secondary Memory: Secondary memory is not directly accessible to the CPU. Input/output channels are
used to access this non-volatile memory. This memory does not lose the data when the system is powered
off. The most familiar form of secondary memory that is widely used is Hard Disk. Some examples of
secondary memory are USB sticks, floppy drives and Zip drives. Secondary memory
devices include magnetic disks like hard drives and floppy disks; optical disks such
as CDs and CD ROMs; and magnetic tapes, which were the first forms of secondary
memory.
Floppy Disc: Reads and Writes floppy disks. Although largely supplanted by CDs
and Flash Drives, is still common on many systems, and may be required during
set-up on certain operating systems. Floppy Disk Drive it is used for secondary
storage.
Magnetic tapes: A magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data can be

encoded. Tapes for computers are similar to tapes used to store music. Storing
data on tapes is considerably cheaper than storing data on disks, tapes also
have large storage capacities, ranging from a few hundred kilobytes to several
gigabytes. Accessing data on tapes, however, is much slower than accessing
data on disks.
Tapes are sequential access media, which means that to get to a

particular point on the tape, the tape must go through all the preceding points.
In contrast, disks are random-access media because a disk drive can access
any point at random without passing through intervening points. Because
tapes are so slow, they are generally used only for long-term storage and
backup. Data to be used regularly is almost always kept on a disk. Tapes are
also used for transporting large amounts of data. Tapes come in a variety of
sizes and formats. Tapes are sometimes called streamers or streaming tapes.
Hard disk: A magnetic disk on which you can store computer data. The term hard is used to distinguish it
from a soft, or floppy, disk. Hard disks hold more data and are faster than
floppy disks. A hard disk, for example, can store anywhere from 10 to
more than 100 gigabytes, whereas most floppies have a maximum
storage capacity of 1.4 megabytes. In general, hard disks are less
portable than floppies, although it is possible to have removable hard
disks.
Hard disk provides convenient storage for large amounts accessible of
data. Location where all information can be stored even when power
is off. There are two types of HDD’s. They are External and Internal
Hard disks. The max. Capacity now Available is 4 TB and 10 TB.
Optical disks: A storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written by lasers. Optical disks
can store much more data—up to 6 gigabytes (6 billion bytes)—than most portable magnetic media, such
as floppies. The types of optical storage media are Compact Disc (CD) CD Released in 1982, the CD
(compact disc) revolutionized the music industry by offering digital sound to home consumers in
replacement of analog formats. The CD was eventually transitioned from a music source to a form of
storage for data. In 1990, the CD-R was introduced and allowed for the creation of optical disc's at home
with a personal computer. The average CD allows for up to 700 MB of data storage. Digital bits are stored
as pits on the reflective material in the disc. A red wavelength laser detects these pits and converts them to
a digital signal.
CD-ROM Disc: Compact Disk is used for secondary storage. It can read and write the data. The
capacity of CD-ROM is 194 Mb – 900 Mb.
DVD-ROM Disc: (Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc) DVD Disk is used for secondary storage.
It can read and write the data. The capacity of DVD-ROM is 4.7 GB – 17.08 GB.
4.7 GB (single-sided, single-layer)
8.5 GB (single-sided, double-layer)
9.4 GB (double-sided, single-layer)
17.08 GB (double-sided, double-layer – rare)
Digital Versatile/Video Disc (DVD): DVD Released in the late 1990's, DVD's offered a widely accepted
digital movie format. Allowing 4.7 GB for a single-layer disc and up to 8.5 GB for a dual-layer disc, DVD was
an excellent choice for personal backups of data on a DVD-R or movie media. DVD is not only used for data
and video. DVD Audio discs are uncompressed studio master recordings that offer much higher bit-rate
than a standard CD. DVD's used a red wavelength laser, much like CD's.
High Definition DVD: HD-DVD was released by Toshiba as a competing format to Sony's Blu-ray disc. HD-
DVD offered enough storage space for full-length, high-definition movies on a single disc. HD-DVD discs
were capable of holding 15 GB per layer with a maximum of two layers. Toshiba had planned on eventually
releasing three-layer discs; however, with shifts of movie production studios, supports for HD-DVD
dwindled until Toshiba announced it would no longer continue the format. HD-DVD drives use a blue
wavelength laser that is able to read smaller pits on the optical media.
BD-ROM Disc: Blu-ray Disc (also known as BD or Blu-Ray) is an optical disc storage medium designed
to supersede the standard DVD format. BD Disk is used for secondary storage. It can read and write
the data. The capacity of BD-ROM is 25 GB – 100 GB.
Its main uses are for storing high-definition video, PlayStation 3 video games, and other data, with up
to 25 GB per single layered, and 50 GB per dual layered disc prototypes. 200 GB discs are available,
and 100 GB discs also. The disc has the same physical dimensions as standard DVDs and CDs.
USB flash drive: A USB flash drive (Pen Drive) consists of flash memory data storage device
integrated with a USB (Universal Serial Bus) 1.1 or 2.0 interface. USB flash
drives are typically removable and rewritable, much smaller than a floppy
disk, and most weigh less than 30 g. Storage capacities in 2009 can be as
large as 256 GB with steady improvements in size and price per capacity.
USB flash drives are often used for the same purposes as floppy disks were.
They are smaller, faster, have thousands of times more capacity, and are
more durable and reliable because of their lack of moving parts.
Input and Output Devices:
Input Devices:
Keyboard: In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the typewriter
keyboard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or electronic
switches. A keyboard typically has
characters engraved or printed on
the keys and each press of a key
typically corresponds to a single
written symbol. However, to produce
some symbols requires pressing and
holding several keys simultaneously
or in sequence. While most keyboard
keys produce letters, numbers or
signs (characters), other keys or
simultaneous key presses can
produce actions or computer
commands.
MOUSE: It is a pointing device that functions by detecting

two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface.
Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of
the user's hands, with one or more buttons. There are
different types of mice. Three button mouse, Scroll Mouse
and Cordless Mouse. In these also there are different types
of Connectors same as keyboard.
Scanner: Scanner is a kind of input devices. They are capable of

entering data or text or pictures directly into the computer. The main
advantage of direct entry information is that users do not have to type
the information. This provides faster and more accurate data entry.
Joystick: A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and
reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. A joystick, also known as
the control column, is the principal control device in the cockpit of many civilian
and military aircraft, either as a center stick or side-stick. It often has
supplementary switches to control various aspects of the aircraft's flight.
Light pen: A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-
sensitive wand used in conjunction with a computer's CRT display. It
allows the user to point to displayed objects or draw on the screen in a
similar way to a touchscreen but with greater positional accuracy.
Web Camera: A webcam is a video capture device connected to a computer or computer network,
often using a USB port .The most popular use is for video telephony,
permitting a computer to act as a videophone or video conferencing
station. This can be used in messenger programs such as Windows Live
Messenger, Skype and Yahoo messenger services. Other popular uses,
which include the recording of video files or even still-images, are
accessible via numerous software programs, applications and devices.
Webcams are known for low manufacturing costs and flexibility, making
them the lowest cost form of video telephony. A low resolution video
camera used to provide visual input that can be easily transferred over
the internet.
Other Input Devices:

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): It is a character recognition technology used primarily
by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of cheque and makes up the routing number and
account number at the bottom of a cheque. The technology allows computers to read information off
printed documents. Unlike barcodes or similar technologies, however, MICR codes can be easily read
by humans.
The use of magnetic printing allows the characters to be read reliably even if they have been
overprinted or obscured by other marks, such as cancellation stamps and signature. The error rate for
the magnetic scanning of a typical check is smaller than with optical character recognition systems.
For well printed MICR documents, the "can't read" rate is usually less than 1% while the substitution
rate (misread rate) is in the order of 1 per 100,000 characters. MICR is standardized by ISO
1004:1995.
Optical mark recognition: Optical Mark Recognition (also called Optical Mark Reading and OMR) is
the process of capturing human-marked data from document forms such as surveys and tests.
Many traditional OMR (Optical Mark Recognition) devices work with a dedicated scanner
device that shines a beam of light onto the form paper. The contrasting reflectivity at predetermined
positions on a page is then used to detect the marked areas because they reflect less light than the
blank areas of the paper.
OMR is generally distinguished from optical character recognition (OCR) by the fact that a
complicated pattern recognition engine is not required. That is, the marks are constructed in such a
way that there is little chance of not reading the marks correctly. This does require the image to have
high contrast and an easily-recognizable or irrelevant shape.
One of the most familiar applications of optical mark recognition is the use of HB pencil bubble
optical answer sheets in multiple choice question examinations. Students mark their answers, or other
personal information, by darkening circles marked on a pre-printed sheet. Afterwards the sheet is
automatically graded by a scanning machine.
Optical character recognition: It is usually abbreviated to OCR, is the mechanical or electronic

conversion of scanned images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text into machine-encoded text.
It is widely used as a form of data entry from some sort of original paper data source, whether
documents, sales receipts, mail, or any number of printed records.
It is crucial to the computerization of printed texts so that they can be electronically searched,
stored more compactly, displayed on-line, and used in machine processes such as machine translation,
text-to-speech and text mining. OCR is a field of research in pattern recognition, artificial intelligence
and computer vision.
Early versions needed to be programmed with images of each character, and worked on one
font at a time. "Intelligent" systems with a high degree of recognition accuracy for most fonts are now
common. Some systems are capable of reproducing formatted output that closely approximates the
original scanned page including images, columns and other non-textual
components.
Barcode Reader (or barcode scanner): It is an electronic device for reading

printed barcodes. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light source, a lens and a
light sensor translating optical impulses into electrical ones. Additionally, nearly all
barcode readers contain decoder circuitry analysing the barcode's image data
provided by the sensor and sending the barcode's content to the scanner's output
port.
Output Devices:
Monitors: A monitor or display (also called screen or visual display unit) is an electronic visual
display for computers. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry, and an enclosure. The
display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid
crystal display (TFT-LCD) thin panel, while older monitors use a cathode
ray tube about as deep as the screen size.
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): A VDU or CRT monitor is very similar to a

television and its size is measured in diagonal length of the screen.
Monitors are available in 12”, 14”, 15”, 17”, 19” and even in 21” size. It
shows text or picture in colour or black and white, depending on the type.
Colour monitors are more costly than black and white monitors. Whenever
you type on the keyboard, you can see it on the monitor.
TFT-LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): LCD monitor is the flat panel type of
monitor found on notebook PCs. TFT-LCD (Thin Film Transistor – Liquid Crystal
Display) is a variant of LCD which uses TFT technology to improve image
quality. TFT LCD is one type of matrix LCD. It is used in televisions, flat panel
displays, projectors etc. LCD Monitors are available in 15”, 17”, 19”, 21” and 23”
size.
LED (OLED) Monitor: Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) monitors provide

higher contrast and better viewing angles than LCDs, and are predicted to
replace them. Lower cost in the future. Light weight & flexible plastic
substrates. Wider viewing angles & improved brightness. Better power
efficiency and Response time.
PRINTER: A device that prints images (numbers, alphabets, graphs etc.) on paper is called Printer.
After creating a document on the computer, you can send it to the printer for printing its hard-copy
which is generally called a printout. The speed of a printer is rated either by pages per minute (ppm)
or by characters per second (cps). You can take printout in full colours or
in black colour only.
1. Dot Matrix Printer: A dot matrix printer or impact matrix printer is

a type of computer printer with a print head that runs back and
forth, or in an up and down motion, on the page and prints by
impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much
like a typewriter. Unlike a typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters
are drawn out of a dot matrix, and thus, varied fonts and arbitrary
graphics can be produced. Because the printing involves mechanical
pressure, these printers can create carbon copies and carbonless
copies.
2. Inkjet Printer: This type of printer sprays ink on a sheet of paper. Ink-
jet printers produce high-quality text and graphics. An inkjet printer can
print 4 to 6 pages in one minute. Due to its low price it is popular in
homes. In these printers we will use cartridges. In this type we can print
colour and black & white also.
3. Laser Printer: This type of printer uses fine powder ink called toner. Laser
printers use the same technology as photocopy machines. They produce
high quality text and graphics printouts. The laser printer also quite
popular in corporate world and printing houses. Laser printers also
available in black & white and colour.
4. Plotter: It is a computer printer for printing vector graphics. In the

past, plotters were used in applications such as computer-aided
design, though they have generally been replaced with wide-
format conventional printers. It is now commonplace to refer to
such wide-format printers as "plotters," even though they
technically are not.
Speakers: deliver sound. Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers are

external speakers, commonly equipped with a low power internal amplifier. The
standard audio connection is a 3.5mm (1/8 inch) stereo jack plug often colour-
coded lime green (following the PC 99 Standard) for computer sound cards. A
few use an RCA connector for input.
Modem: These used to access data via telephone line (dial-up connection) used to access BBS and
Internet. A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to
encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted
information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce
the original digital data. They are different types of modems. There are explained below
1. Internal modems: Internal computer modems are used with Dial-Up

Internet connection through a couple of RJ-11 connection. Internal
computer modems are usually 56K modems which mean that the
modem is able to receive 56 Kbits/s (56 kilobits or 56000 bits per
second) of data. This kind of data transmission is called downstream
transmission, came from a provider and transmitted over telephone
lines. Commonly it is the standard bandwidth with telephones lines.
2. External modems: It is the second term we have to consider from

different types of computer modem. An External modem can be used
to the same purpose and in the same conditions as internal computer
modem. However external modem is a small box that uses other kind
of interfaces to be connected to the computer.
3. USB modem: The same small box, on the other hand, can be an USB modem
which normally uses USB port usually placed on the back or in front of the
computer. Some Internet Service Providers supports wireless internet services.
The wireless modems are used for this service. These modems work similar to
traditional wired modems except its structure.
4. Cable modem: The cable modem uses a coaxial cable television lines to provide a greater
bandwidth than the dial-up computer modem. An extremely fast access to the Web is providing by
the cable modem with downstream transmission up to 38 Mbits/s and an upstream transmission
up to 1 Mbits/s.
5. DSL modem: DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) modem is exclusively used for connections from a
telephone switching office to the user. This technology, available and frequently usable, split up
into two main categories:
6. ADSL or Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line: It is used in North America and supports from 1.5
Mbits/s up to 9 Mbits/s of downstream transmission rate and up to 3 Mbits/s of upstream
transmission rate.
MS-DOS: MS-DOS (short for Microsoft Disk Operating System) is an operating system for x86-based
personal computers. It was the most commonly used member of the DOS family of operating systems,
and was the main operating system for IBM PC compatible personal computers during the 1980s to
the mid-1990s, until it was gradually superseded by operating systems offering a graphical user
interface (GUI), in particular by various generations of the Microsoft Windows operating system.
Internal Commands:
DIR: - To see the List of the files in the directory
Syntax: - DIR drive: file name(s) /Switches
Eg: - 1. DIR Displays files in Drive C
2. DIR/P Displays all files in the directory in page wise manner.
3. DIR/S Displays files in all subdirectories nested below the specified directory.
4. DIR/W Displays all files in the directory uses wide list format.
Copy: - This is used to copy one or more specified files from one disk to another in the same name or
different name.
Syntax: - C:\> COPY Sourcefile Target file
Eg: 1. COPY oldname newname It copies the data in “oldname to newname”
2. COPY C:sal.dat A:sal.dat It copies sal.dat file from C drive to A drive.
Type: - To display the content of file.
Syntax: - TYPE <filename>
Eg: 1. TYPE APPAJI.C To display the contents in the file.
2. TYPE C:\AP\APPAJI.TXT To Display the contents of the file in any other drive
CLS: - It Clears the Information on the screen and redisplays the prompt at the upper left hand corner
of the Screen.
Syntax: C:\> cls
Eg: C:\> cls
DATE: - Displays or sets the current date.
Syntax: - C:\> DATE
Eg: - C:\> DATE
The current date is : 20-12-2012
Enter the new date (dd:mm:yy)
Time: - Displays or sets the current time.
Syntax: - C:\> TIME
Eg: - C:\> TIME
The current time is: 12:12:12
Enter the new time
VER: - It displays the current version.
Syntax: - VER
Eg: VER displays the dos version number
VOL: - It displays the current volume.
Syntax: - VOL
Eg: VOL displays the Volume Label and Serial Number
PROMPT: - Changes the appearance of the DOS prompt
Syntax: - PROMPT <PROMPT STRING>
Eg: - PROMPT Appaji changes C:/> to hello. It displays the “Appaji” prompt.
MD: MD (Make Directory) is a command used to create directories in MS-DOS and the Windows
command line.
Syntax: - MD Directory Name
Eg: - MD Appaji or MKDIR APPAJI
CD: CD (Change Directory) is a command used to switch directories in MS-DOS and the Windows
command line.
Syntax: - CD Directory Name
Eg: - CD Appaji
CD.. CD/
REN: - Used to rename files and directories from the original name to a new name. In earlier releases
of MS-DOS instead of using ren or rename you need to use the move command to rename your
MS-DOS directories or files.
Syntax: - REN <OLD FILE NAME> <NEW FILE NAME>
Eg: - REN APPAJI1 APPAJI2
External Commands:
Format: - It is an external DOS command that is available on all versions of dos. This command
prepares a new DISK for use of organizing the disk into magnetic tracks and sectors. The no. of tracks
varies from one dos version to another dos version.
Syntax: - FORMAT DRIVE Specification
Eg: - 1. FORMAT A: This command formats the floppy drive in drive A.
2. FORMAT A:/S This command formats the floppy drive in drive A and transfers DOS
System files.
DISKCOPY: - This command copies all the files of a floppy into another floppy on a track by track
basis.
Syntax: DISKCOPY <SOURCE> <TARGET>
Eg: DISKCOPY A: B: Copies the disk in drive A onto a disk in drive B.
MOVE: - This command is used to move files from one directory to another directory or one drive to
drive.
Syntax: - MOVE <OLD FILE> <NEW FILE>
Eg: - MOVE APPAJI1 APPAJI3
Tree: - List the contents of directories in a tree-like format.

Syntax: - Tree
Eg: - Tree
Scandisk: - Microsoft Scandisk was first introduced with MS-DOS 6.2 and is a software utility capable
of checking the hard drive and floppy diskette drive for any disk errors.
Syntax: - SCANDISK Drive

Eg: - SCANDISK C:
XCOPY: - XCOPY is a powerful version of the copy command with additional features; has the
capability of moving files, directories, and even whole drives from one location to another.
Syntax: - XCOPY [source] [destination]

Eg: - xcopy c:\Appaji d:\Appaji
DiskComp: - Compares the contents of a floppy disk in the source drive to the contents of a floppy
disk in the target drive.
Syntax: - DISKCOMP [source] [destination]

Eg: - discomp a: b:
DiskCopy: - Copies the contents of a floppy disk in the source drive to the contents of a floppy disk in
the target drive.
Syntax: - DISKCOPY [source] [destination]

Eg: - discopy a: b:
DelTree: - Short for delete tree, deltree is a command used to delete files and directories permanently
from the computer.
Syntax: - Deltree [source]

Eg: - DELTREE C:\Appaji
RD / RMDIR : - Removes an empty directory in MS-DOS. To delete directories with files or directories
within them the user must use the deltree command, or if you are running Microsoft Windows 2000
or Windows XP use the /S option.
Syntax: - Deltree [source]
Eg: - RD Appaji
MODE: - Mode status is used to view or modify a port or display setting.
Syntax: - MODE
Eg: - MODE
Wildcards
Wildcards are characters that can be used to stand-in for unknown characters in file names. In card
games, a wildcard is a card that can match up with any other cards. In DOS, wildcard characters can
match up with any character that is allowable in a file name. There are two wildcards in DOS:
* = matches up with any combination of allowable characters or can stand in for any number of characters
? = matches up with any single allowable character
Attributes
Every file in DOS has four attributes. These are:
Read-only
Archive
System
Hidden
Change the attributes for any file by making the following arguments in the command:
+r = makes a file read-only
-r = removes the read-only status, makes a file editable again
+a = turns on the archive bit (i.e. flags this file as not having been backed up)
-a = turns off the archive bit (i.e. shows this files as having been backed up)
+s = marks the file as a system file
-s = removes the system file designation
+h = makes the file "hidden" to other commands
-h = reveals the file to other commands
Batch Files:
Batch files allow MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows users to create a lists of commands to run in
sequence once the batch file has been executed. For example, a batch file could be used to run
frequently run commands, deleting a series of files, moving files, etc. A simple batch file does not
require any special programming skills and can be done by users who have a basic understanding of
MS-DOS commands.
To create a basic batch file in MS-DOS, follow the below steps that give you an example of how to
create a basic batch file.
1) Open an MS-DOS command window or get to MS-DOS. Start  Run  type “cmd” and Click OK
2) At the MS-DOS prompt, type: edit appaji.bat and press enter.
3) If typed properly, you should now be in a blue screen. Within the screen, type:
cls
Date
Dir
Time
Tree
Dir/p/w
4) Once the above six commands have been typed in, click File and choose exit; when prompted to
save, click "Yes." Users who do not have a mouse cursor can accomplish this same task by
pressing ALT+F to access the file menu, then pressing "X" to exit, and pressing enter to save
changes.
5) Once you are back at the MS-DOS prompt, type: Appaji and press enter. This will execute the
test.bat file and begin running the file. Because the first line is pause, you will first be prompted
to press a key. Once you press a key the batch file will run line-by-line; in this case, listing the
files in the windows and windows\system directories.
6) If you wish to add more lines to this batch file you would type "edit test.bat" to edit the file
again.
Batch commands
Just like all MS-DOS commands, all batch file commands are not case sensitive. However, in the below
listing we have listed all commands in all caps to help you identify what is a command and what is not.
@
%1
::
:LABEL
CALL
CHOICE
CLS
ECHO
EXIT
GOTO
LABEL
IF
PAUSE
REM
SHIFT
START
Operating System: It is a type of software that controls and coordinates the operation of the various types of
devices in a computer system. The two objectives of an operating system are controlling the computer’s
hardware and providing and interface between the user and machine. An operating system (OS) is an
interface between hardware and user which is responsible for the management and coordination of
activities and the sharing of the resources of a computer that acts as a host for computing applications
run on the machine.
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM:
The operating system has evolved immensely form its primitive days to the present digital era. From batch
processing systems to the latest embedded systems, the different types of operating system can be classified
into SIX broad categories.
1. Batch Processing Operating System: This type of operating system was one of the first to evolve.
Batch processing operating system allowed only one program to run at a time. The operating system is
responsible for scheduling the jobs according to priority and the resources required. Batch processing
operating systems are good at churning through large numbers of repetitive jobs on large computers.
For example, this operating system would be best suited for a company wishing to automate their
payrolls. A list of employees will be entered, their monthly salaries will be calculated, and
corresponding pay slips would be printed. Batch processing is useful for this purpose since these
procedures are repeated for every employee each month.
2. Time-Sharing or Multi-User Operating System: This system is used in computer networks which
allow different users to access the same data and application programs on the same network. The multi-
user operating system builds a user database account, which defines the right that users have on a
particular resource of the system.
3. Multi-Tasking Operating System: In this system, more than one process (task) can be executed
concurrently. The processor is switched rapidly between the processes. Hence, a user may run more
than one process at a time. It is quite common that a user on his computer can have a word processor
open and running, an audio CD player playing at the same time. This type of operating system allows a
user to switch between the applications and even transfer data between them. For example, it allows a
user to copy a picture from an Internet opened in the browser application, and paste it into image
editing application.
4. Real-Time Operating System (RTOS): This system is designed to respond to an event within a
predetermined time. This kind of operating is primarily used in process control, telecommunications,
and so on. As the real-time operating systems respond quickly, they are often used in applications such
as air flight or railway reservation booking.
5. Multi-Processor Operating System: This system can incorporate more than one processor dedicated
to running processes. This technique of using more than one processor is often called parallel
processing.
6. Embedded Operating System: It refers to the operating system that is self-contained in the device and
resident in ROM. Since embedded systems are usually not general purpose systems, these operating
systems are lighter or les resource intensive as compared to general purpose OS. Most of these
operating systems also offer real-time operating system qualities. Typical systems that use embedded
operating systems are household appliances, car management systems, traffic control systems, and
energy management systems.
FUCNTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM: The main functions of a modern operating system are as follows:
1. Process Management: As a Process manger, the operating system handles the creation and deletion of
processes, suspension and resumption of processes, and scheduling and synchronization of processes.
2. Memory Management: As a memory manger, the operating system handles allocation and deallocation
of memory space as required by various programs.
3. File Management: The operating system is responsible for creation and deletion of files and
directories. It also takes care of other file-related activities such as organizing, storing, retrieving,
naming, and protecting the files.
4. Device Management: Operating system provides input/output subsequent between process and
device driver. It handles the device caches, buffers, and interrupts. Operating system also detects device
failures and notifies the same to the user.
5. Security Management: The Operating system protects system resources and information against
destruction and unauthorized use.
6. User Interface: Operating system provides the interface between the user and the hardware. The user
interface is the layer that actually interacts with the computer operator. The interface consists of a set
of commands or menus through which a user communicates with a program
User interface: Operating System organizes applications so that users can easily access them, use them, and
store application data. When an application is opened, the operating system lets the application provide the
majority of the user interface. Common interfaces provided by different operating systems can be categorized
as Command Line user Interface (CLI) and Graphical User Interface (GUI).
1. Command Line user Interface (CLI): In early days of computing, operating systems provided the user
with the facility of entering commands via an interactive terminal. Those were the only means of
communication between a program and its user, based solely on textual input and output. Commands were
used to initiate programs, applications, and so on. A user had to learn many commands for proper
operation of the system.
2. Graphical User Interface (GUI): A program interface that takes advantage of the computer's
graphics capabilities to make the program easier to use. Well-designed graphical user interfaces
can free the user from learning complex command languages. Graphical user interfaces, such as
Microsoft Windows.
Icons: Small pictures that represent commands, files, or windows. By moving the pointer to the
icon and pressing a mouse button, you can execute a command or convert the icon into a
window. You can also move the icons around the display screen as if they were real objects on
your desk.
Desktop: The area on the display screen where icons are grouped is often referred to as the desktop
because the icons are intended to represent real objects on a real desktop.
Windows: You can divide the screen into different areas. In each window, you can run a different
program or display a different file. You can move windows around the display screen, and change their
shape and size at will.
Menus: Most graphical user interfaces let you execute commands by selecting a choice from a menu.
Desktop: Desktop is the first screen visible after logging in Windows XP operating system. The
Desktop is a full screen display where all Windows activity takes place. It is part of a graphical user
interface, where icons, menus and dialog boxes on the screen represent programs, files and options on
your Computer.
Start Button: The Start menu provides a way to open most of the software applications that are
installed on the computer. The Start Menu has been customized to provide quick access methods to all
the programs.
Quick launch Toolbar: The Taskbar also displays its own set of toolbars; the most frequently used is
the quick launch toolbar. The Quick launch bar is a customizable toolbar that displays Single Click
links to programs and commands. By default, the Quick launch Toolbar displays links to Internet
Explorer, Media Player, and Show Desktop.
Notification Area: The Notification area (also known as system tray in older versions of Windows
Operating System) is located on the right hand side. This includes time and date, volume control and
Antivirus programs (if any) etc., will be displayed.
Taskbar: It is used as a link to easily open and close programs. It also allows you to switch between
the open application programs and files.
When we click Start Menu the icons will be displayed:
My Computer: Displays documents and files. It also provides access to hard drives and removable
drives of the computer (both local and network).
My Network Places: Enables you to communicate with network resources on the network for file
sharing purpose.
My Documents: It is used to store documents. It also contains data files, which can be easily
organised.
My Pictures: It is used to store picture files. Which can be easily organised Images.
Recycle Bin: It is a temporary storage area used for storing deleted file and recover files accidentally
deleted from hard drive or Floppy Drive.
Internet Explorer: Provides access to Internet.
Shut Down: This item has several options such as Shut Down and Restart Computer or Stand by the
Computer.
Log off: close all programs and log on as a different user.
Run: Start’s a program by typing in the program’s name and path. There is a browse button to search
for the program to be opened, in case, path is not known.
Help and Support: Gives access to the help feature for the Windows XP environment.
Printers and Faxes: Access to your printers and faxes folder, allows you to add and configure
Printer/faxes.
Search: Searches for the different types of files in various locations.
Settings: Provides quick access to the Control Panel, Printer options and taskbar properties.
My Recent Documents: Reopens one of the last 15 files you have opened by clicking on its name.
All Programs: Provides access to a list of available programs and submenus of related programs.
Recycle Bin: The Recycle bin is a temporary storage area where you can move any files or folders that
you no longer need. Recycle bin contains files deleted from hard drive only. Files or folders stored on a
Floppy Disk or network drive are not sent to the recycle bin when deleted. Instead, they are
permanently deleted.
Windows Explorer: Windows Explorer displays the hierarchical structure of files, folders, and drives
on your computer. It also shows any network drives that have been mapped to drive letters on your
computer. Using Windows Explorer, you can copy, move, rename, and search for files and folders. For
example, you can open a folder that contains a file you want to copy or move, and then drag the file to
another folder or drive.
Features of Windows XP:
Windows XP introduced several new features to the Windows line, including:

1. Windows XP operating system is a product of Microsoft and is a part of Windows family of
operating System.
2. The new interface of Windows XP provides more stable and reliable environment than the
earlier versions of Windows.
3. Faster start-up and hibernation sequences
4. The ability to discard a newer device driver in favour of the previous one (known as driver
rollback), should a driver upgrade not produce desirable results
5. A new, arguably more user-friendly interface, including the framework for developing themes
for the desktop environment
6. Fast user switching, which allows a user to save the current state and open applications of their
desktop and allow another user to log on without losing that information
7. The Clear Type font rendering mechanism, which is designed to improve text readability
on Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and similar monitors
8. Remote Desktop functionality, which allows users to connect to a computer running Windows
XP Pro from across a network or the Internet and access their applications, files, printers, and
devices.
9. Support for most DSL modems and IEEE 802.11 connections, as well as networking
over FireWire, and Bluetooth.
10. NTFS File System supporting.
11. Remote Desktop feature supported.
12. Internet Explorer version 6.0.
13. Bluetooth 2.0 Update.
14. Inbuilt Firewall.
15. Internet Connection Firewall.
16. Recovery Console.
17. System Restore
18. Peer-to-Peer Networking Support
Features of Windows XP:
1. New Visual Design: The whole look and feel of the Windows Interface has changed providing a
crisper, clearer display.
2. Multiple User Accounts: Now provide for multiple user accounts. Logging on and switching between
users is simplified by the new Welcome screen. Each user can have own private My Documents folder,
favorites, desktop settings, and other items, without stepping on another user’s toes.
3. Simplified File Management: Managing files and folders has never been easier. The new Explorer bar
at the left side of the Windows Explorer program provides one-click access to common tasks and
other places.
4. Improved Multimedia: Windows XP brings many improvements to multimedia, including the
following:
 Windows Movie Maker
 Photo Printing Wizard
 Improved support for cameras and scanners
 Web Publishing Wizard
 Media Player 8
 DVD and video
5. Built-in CD Burning: If you have a CD-R or CD-RW disc and a CD Writer, you can burn files from your
hard disk to a CD just by dragging and dropping.
6. Built-in Handling of Zip Files: Compressed Zip files are treated as compressed folders in Windows XP.
7. Speech and Handwriting Recognition: Speech recognition enables you to type text or choose menu
commands by speaking into a microphone. Handwriting recognition can convert handwritten text to
typed text.
8. Better Help and Support: The new Help and Support window provides simplified, centralized access
to all types of help and support automatically under “Did you know?”
9. Remote Assistance: If you’re connected to a network, you can turn control of your computer over to a
friend or technician to allow that user to work on your computer from his own computer.
10. Personal Firewall: A firewall is a program that protects your computer from hackers and intruders.
11. Network Connections: All types of network connections, including dial-up, local area network and
VPN (Virtual Private Networking), can be created and maintained within the single Networking
Connections window.
12. System Restore: Whenever you’re about to make a significant change to your system, such as
installing some new hardware device, System Restore copies all your important system files to a
folder on your hard disk.
13. Improved Performance, Reliability, and Compatibility: Windows XP is built on the fully protected
32-bit engine developed for Windows NT and Windows 2000.
MS- WORD
1. Design a visiting card for Managing Director of a Company with following specification
i. Size of visiting card is 3.5” x 2”

ii. Name of a company with big font using Water Mark
iii. Phone number, fax number and e-mail address with appropriate symbols
iv. Office and residence address separated by line.
Opening a MS Word Program and creating a Visiting Card:-
Step 1: Click the Start button; it will display a Start Menu

Step 2: In that Select the Programs option. Again it will display a Submenu i.e., Microsoft Office
Step 3: In that Select the MS Word 2003 Program then click the mouse left button.
Step 4: MS Word displays a Blank Word document.
Step 5: In the new document save it with name “visiting card”.
Step 6: Go to Page Setup in the file Menu and set page margins and paper size to 3.5” X 2”
Step 7: Set border using page border option and give any type of boarder if required.
Step 8: Type the Name of a company with big font using Water Mark.
Step 9: Insert the Company logo in the visiting card using Insert Picture from file.
Step 10: Centre the name of the company and apply under line effect.
Step 11: Choose insert menu and choose symbols option and choose appropriate symbols, like
phone number, fax number and e-mail address.
Step 12: Type phone number, fax number, and e-mail address at the symbols
Step 13: Type office and residence address on the visiting card
Step 14: Draw a Separating line between the office address and residence address. (or)
Step 15: Type all the address in the visiting card line by line and go to the column menu and
select two columns and draw a line between them.
Step 16: In this step required alignment and text effect to the address.
Step 17: Apply required text color to the text.
Step 18: Visiting card is created.
Step 19: After completing this save the Document with the name “VC” and exit from word.
2. Create a letter head of a company
i. Name of Company on the top of the page with big font and good style
ii. Phone numbers, fax numbers, e-mail address with appropriate symbols
iii. Main products manufactured to be described at the bottom
iv. Slogans if any should be specified in bold at the bottom
Step 1: Open MS-Word 2003. Start a new document and save it with the name “letter head”
Step 2: Set the paper size to A4 and set appropriate top, bottom, left and right margins.
Step 3: Choose Header and Footer option from view menu and type the company name.
Step 4: Center company name and increase font size, change the font color change the required
font style set into Bold.
Step 5: choose right alignment and type the phone number, fax number and e-mail
address.
Step 6: Type these with appropriate symbols.
Step 7: Switch to the footer area and the products information in the footer.
Step 8: Place the curser below the product information and type the company slogan.
Step 9: Set appropriate font size, color, style to the text in the footer.
Step 10: On the Header and Footer toolbar, click Close.
Note: You can save your new letterhead as a document template file (*.dot) that you can reuse later.
3. Creation of your Bio-Data: consisting Name, email-id, Contact Address, Career Objective, Educational
qualifications, social activities, achievements.
Step 1: Open Ms-Word 2003. Start a new document and save it with the name “Bio-Data”
Step 2: Set the paper size to A4 and set appropriate top, bottom, left and right margins.
Step 3: Type your consisting Name, email-id, Contact Address in the top most of the bio-data.
Step 4: Type your Career Objective
Step 5: Type your Educational qualifications
Step 6: Type your social activities.
Step 7: Type your achievements.
Step 8: Set appropriate font size, color, style to the text.
Bold, Italics and Underline

Any text you type in Word, can be further customized by using the bold, italicized or underlined
options. You can even do a combination of all three options!
To Change the Type Style of Text:
 Select the text you want to change.
 Choose one or more of the following options: (to stress emphasis you might want to try using
the bold option)
o Click the Bold button on the Formatting toolbar. Ctrl + B
o Click the Italic button on the Formatting toolbar. Ctrl + I
o Click the Underline button on the Formatting toolbar. Ctrl + U
o Word automatically displays your changes.
To avoid frustration, remember to select text before you apply style. If you choose a type style without
selecting any text, Word uses your chosen styles on whatever text you type next.
Font Names and Size:
To select a font, you can scroll through the Font list. The list shows you all the fonts that are
available on the computer you are using.
As you scroll through the many different font names, take notice of those fonts that have TT
beside their name. These TrueType fonts and size will look the same on both the computer
screen and when you print them on paper.
Find and Replace
Word 2003 allows you to search for specific words in your document as well as fonts, special
characters and formats. The Find and Replace functionality can really help save you time and effort in
your word processing goals.
For example, consider a document you are editing that displays Word XP needs to be updated
to Word 2003. Currently the document has the text, Word XP, typed again and again throughout the
document. Using Find and Replace to replace Word XP with Word 2003 will save you much time and
effort in your editing process.
Using Find - CTRL + F
 Click Edit on the menu bar
 Select Find. The Find and Replace dialog box appears.
 Type a word, phrase or format in the Find What box.
 Click Find Next to start the search.
 Word will jump to the first instance of this word and will highlight the word for easy location.
 Continue Clicking the Find Next button to find all other instances of this word.
or
Check the Highlight all items found in: box to find all instances of the word at the same time. Use the
list box below to select all, or portions of your document.
You can perform a more detailed search by clicking the More button on the Find and Replace
dialog box:
 Click Edit on the menu bar
 Select Find. The Find and Replace dialog box appears.
 Type a word, phrase or format in the Find What box.
 Click More to conduct a detailed search.
 Click the Search list box if you want to limit your search to a specific part of the document.
 Use the check boxes to limit your search.
 Click Format if you want to limit your search to words in a specific Font, Paragraph, Tab,
Language, Frame, Style or Highlight.
 Click Special to search for punctuation marks or section breaks.
 Click Find Next to start the search.
Using Replace - CTRL + H
 Click Edit on the menu bar.
 Select Replace. The Find and Replace dialog box appears.
 Type the word, phrase or format in the Find What: box that you are searching for.
 Type the word, phrase or format in the Replace With: box that will replace what is in the Find
What: box.
 Click Find Next to conduct your search.
 When Word finds a word of phrase, do one of the following:
Ignore it.
Click Replace.
Click Replace All to replace every occurrence of the selected text with the replacement
text.
 Click Find Next to bypass it and find the next.
 Click Cancel to quit.
Insert Headers and Footers
The Header and Footer usually contain title and author information, dates, and page numbers.
The Header appears at the top of the page and the Footer appears at the bottom of the page.
To Insert a Header and Footer:
Click View on the Menu Bar.

Select Header and Footer.
The document will appear grayed out with a dotted Header and Footer box showing at the top
and bottom of the page.
Locate the Header and Footer Toolbar on the page.
Type inside the dotted boxes to insert your Header and/or Footer.
Click Close on the Head er and Footer Toolbar when you are finished.
and
Header and Footer Toolbar

The Header and Footer Toolbar contains buttons that can help you automatically enter important
information in your header and footers.
Some of the useful features located on the Header and Footer Toolbar are:
 Insert Auto-Text - drop-down menu showing commonly used header and footer information,
including, author, page number and date.
 Insert Page Numbers - inserts the page numbers.
 Insert Number of Pages - inserts the number of pages in the entire document.
 Format Page Number - opens the Page Number Format Dialog box so that you can format your
page number in the header and footer.
 Insert Date.
 Insert Time.
 Page Setup - opens the Page Setup Dialog box so that you can adjust the location of the header
and footer.
 Switch between Header and Footer - allows you to jump quickly between the header and footer
on a page.
 Close - closes the Header and Footer Toolbar.
Delete Header and Footer

If you choose to delete your Header or Footer, Word will automatically delete the Header or Footer
within the entire document.
To Delete the Header or Footer:

Click View on the Menu Bar.
Select Header and Footer.
Highlight the text within the Header or Footer (whichever text you would like to delete).
Press Delete. The text is now removed.
Click Close.
 You can delete the Header and Footer on just the first page of the document by choosing
File - Page Setup. On the Page Setup Dialog Box, choose the Layout Tab and place a
checkmark next to Different First Page under Headers and Footers, then click OK.
Bullets and Numbering

Word lets you make two types of lists: bulleted and numbered. Bulleted and numbered lists help to
simplify steps or items to the reader. Teachers often use bulleted lists to highlight important pieces of
their lessons. Manuals often include numbered lists to assist the reader in step-by-step instruction.
A bullet is usually a black circle but it can be any other symbol used to highlight items in a list. Use
bullets to list items that do not have to be in any particular order.
Numbers (or letters) are used when information has to be in a

certain order. You can use the default Bullets and Numbering
settings by clicking on the appropriate button on
the Formatting toolbar.
Create Bulleted and Numbered Lists

To Create a Bulleted List:
 Click the Bullets button on the Formatting toolbar.
 Type the first item on your list and press Enter.
 The next line will begin automatically with a new bullet.
 Type the next item on your list and press Enter.
 When your list is complete, press the Enter key twice to stop the bulleted list.
To Create a Numbered List:
1. Click on the Numbering button on the Formatting toolbar.
2. Type the first item on your list and press Enter.
3. The next line will begin automatically with the next number.
4. Type the next item on your list and press Enter.
5. When your list is complete, press the Enter key twice to stop the numbered list.
Review the following tips that will help you manage your numbered or bulleted lists.
 Remove a bullet by placing the insertion point to the right of the bullet or number and
press backspace (you will not be able to place your insertion point to the left of the bullet).
 If you want to change a bulleted list to a numbered list (or vice versa), select the entire list and
click on the appropriate button.
 To create a line break between items in a bulleted or numbered list, place your cursor where
you want the line break and press Shift + Enter.
The Bullets and Numbering Dialog Box

Word offers you many other options for your bullets and numbers, other than the default that you
have seen so far.
You can view the type of bullets and numbers available to you by opening the Bullets and
Numbering Dialog Box.
 Select the text you want to turn into a list.
 Click Format on the Menu Bar.
 Select Bullets and Numbering. The Bullets and Numbering Dialog Box appears.
 Click on the Bulleted Tab to view all the bullet options and click on the Numbered Tab to
view all the number options.
 Select what kind of bullets or numbers that you want, and click OK.
The Bullets and Numbering Dialog Box also offers you Outline Numbered options. By clicking on
the Outline Numbered Tab you can view templates for creating an outline. The List Styles
Tab allows you to create your own list style using similar alignment, bullets and characters.
Use of Symbols
There are many Symbols that you might often see in publications that are not directly available from
your keyboard. For example, the Copyright symbol, ©, is not available on the keyboard but can be
selected from Word's Symbol Dialog Box.
Other commonly used symbols that appear in the Symbol Dialog Box are:
 © Copyright
 ® Registration
 TMTrademark
 Checkmark
 -- Em Dash
Insert Symbols
To Insert Symbols into your Document:
 Click Insert on the Menu Bar.
 Select Symbols. The Symbols Dialog Box appears.
 Click the Symbols Tab to select a symbol from a Font type.
OR
 Click the Special Characters Tab to view other commonly used symbols.
 Click on the Symbol or Special Character you would like to select and then Click Insert.
 The Symbol or Character will show up in your document.
 Click Close.
The available symbols will depend on which fonts you have installed on your machine. Word
comes with pre-installed symbols for you use, but other fonts such as, Wingdings, will also offer
numerous symbol options.
Inserting Clip Art

Word comes bundled with hundreds of Clip Art images that are copyright free and available for your
personal use. The clip art images that are available through Word cover many different categories and
can really help enhance your pages. If you have never inserted clip art before, Word will ask if you
would like to catalog all of the available resources (clip art, sound and video files) on your computer. It
is a good idea to go ahead and catalog all of these free resources.
To Insert Clip Art:
Place the insertion point where you want to insert the clip.
Click Insert on the Menu Bar.
Select Picture and then Clip Art from the cascading menu. The Insert Clip Art menu opens on
the Task Pane.
Type a keyword in the Search Text: field.
Click Search.
and
Specify your search by using the Other Search Options.
 Search in: - specifies where Word will search for clip art. As long as the check box
for Everywhere is checked, Word will search through All Collections.
 Results should be: - specified what type of file Word will search for (video, audio,
photographs, clip art). As long as the check box for All Media Types is checked, Word
will search through All Media Files.
Double-click the clip art or picture to add to the document.
To change your Search For text: Click the Modify button below the clip art results
To preview video and sound clips, click the appropriate tab and click the Play button to preview the
file.
To Delete a Picture:
 Select the image (click on it).
 Press the delete key on your keyboard.
Inserting Pictures from your Computer

A picture doesn't have to be in the Clip Gallery in order for you to insert it into your document. The
Clip Gallery is just an easy place to store clips you want to use again and again.
To Insert a Picture that is NOT in the Clip Gallery:
 Click Insert from the Menu Bar.
 Select Picture and From File from the cascading menu. The Insert Picture dialog box opens.
 Locate and select the file to insert the selected picture into your document.
Creating Tables Using the Insert Table Dialog Box:

 Click Table on the Menu Bar.
 Select Insert and then Table from the cascading menu. The Insert Table dialog box appears.
 Determine the number of columns and rows you need in your table. You can add more later,
but save yourself some work. You can always add rows by pressing Tab at the end of a row.
 To create a table as wide as your page, leave the Fixed Column Width setting on Auto.
 Click OK. A table is inserted into your document.
Another automated way to create a quick table is by using the Insert Table Button on the Standard
toolbar.
Creating Tables Using the Insert Table Button:
 Click the Insert Table Button .
 Now, drag the number of columns and rows you want in your table.
Insert a Hyperlink
You can insert hyperlinks to websites or documents within your Word document.
To Insert a Hyperlink:
Select Insert Hyperlink from the main menu. The Insert Hyperlink dialog box will appear.
Enter the text you wish to display as your link in the Text to display: field.
Enter the web address in the Address: field.
Click OK.
Printing Envelopes
To Address and Print Envelopes:
 Select Tools from the main menu.

 Select Letters and Mailings Envelopes and Labels from the cascading menu. The
Envelopes and Labels dialog box will appear.
 Enter the Delivery Address. This will appear automatically if you are working with a letter at
the same time.
 Enter the Return Address.
 Click Options to set the envelope and printing options. The Envelope Options dialog box will
appear.
 Click the Envelope Options tab.
 Make any changes to the envelope size or font.
 Click the Printing Options tab.

 Choose the correct feed method for your printer.
 Click OK.
 Click Add to Document if you are working with a letter. This will display a version of the
completed envelope.
or
 Click Print to just print the envelope.
Printing Labels
Word allows you to print a single mailing label or a full sheet of mailing labels.
To Print Mailing Labels:
 Select Tools from the main menu.

 Select Letters and Mailings Envelopes and Labels from the cascading menu. The
Envelopes and Labels dialog box will appear.
 Select the Labels tab.
 Enter the address in the Address: field.
 Select Full Page of same label or Single label.
 Click Options. The Labels Options dialog box will appear.

 Select the product number for the labels you are using.
 Select the printing tray.
 Click OK.
 Click New Document to view the labels in a new document.
OR
 Click Print to just print the labels.
Mail Merge: Mail Merge involves taking information from one document—the data source—and
combining it with another document—the main document. The data source is a document,
spreadsheet, database, or other type of file that contains the variable information (such as names,
addresses, and phone numbers) that changes from one merged document to the next. The main
document contains the text that does not change, as well as merge fields, which are placeholders that
indicate where Word should insert the variable information from the data source. When you merge
the data source and the main document, Word creates one copy of the main document for every set of
information in the data source, inserting the data source’s information in place of the merge fields
To Use Mail Merge:
 Select Tools on the main menu.

 Select Letters and Mailings Mail Merge.
The Mail Merge task pane appears and will guide you through the six main steps to complete a mail
merge. You will have many decisions to make during the process. The following is an example of how
to create a form letter and merge the letter with a data list.
Steps 1-3
 Choose the type of document you wish to create. In this example, select Letters.
 Click Next: Starting document to move to Step 2.
 Select Use the current document.
 Click Next: Select recipients to move to Step 3.
 Select the Type a new list button.
 Click Create to create a data source. The New Address List dialog box appears.
To Edit the New Address List:

 Click Customize in the dialog box. The Customize Address List dialog box appears.
 Select a field and click Delete.
 Click Yes to confirm that you wish to delete the field.
 Continue to delete any unnecessary fields.
 Click Rename. The Rename Field dialog box appears.
 Enter the new name you would like to give the field in the To: field.
 Continue to rename any fields necessary.
 Click OK to close the Customize Address List dialog box.
Enter the necessary data in the New Address List dialog box.
Click New Entry to enter another record.
Click Close when you have entered all your data records.
Enter the file name you wish to save the data list as.
Choose the location you wish to save the file.
Click Save. The Mail Merge Recipients dialog box appears and displays all the data records in
the list.
Confirm the data list is correct and click OK.
Click Next: Write your letter to move to Step 4.
Steps 4-6
 Write a letter in the current Word document. Stop writing when you reach a place in the letter
where you wish to enter a field from your data record.
To Insert Data from the Data List:

Click the Insert Merge Fields button. The Insert Merge fields dialog box appears.
Select the field you would like to insert in the document.
Click Insert. Notice that a placeholder appears where information from the data record
will eventually appear.
Repeat these steps each time you need to enter information from your data record.
 Click Next: Preview your letters in the task pane once you have completed your letter.
 Preview the letters to make sure the information from the data record appears correctly in the
letter.
 Click Next: Complete the merge.
 Click Print to print the letters.
 Click All.
 Click OK in the Merge to Printer dialog box.
 Click OK to send the letters to the printer.
Note: The Mail Merge wizard allows you to complete the mail merge process in a variety of ways.
The best way how to use the different functions in Mail Merge is to try to develop several of the
different documents -- letters, labels, envelopes -- using the different types of data sources.
Drawing Objects
To Draw Lines and Shapes:
 Open the Drawing toolbar by clicking View on the Menu Bar, Select Toolbars and
then Drawing from the Cascading Menu.
or
 Right-click on any toolbar and select drawing.
or
 Click the Drawing button on the Standard toolbar.
 The Drawing toolbar will appear.
 Choose an AutoShape from the AutoShape drop down menu.

or
 Click any of the drawing tools in the first group of buttons.
o Line Tool -
o Arrow Tool -
o Rectangle Tool -
o Oval Tool -
 The mouse pointer changes to a crosshair .
 Drag the crosshair from a starting point until the object is the desired size.
 Release the mouse button to end the drawing object and turn off the Drawing tool.
Hold the Shift key down to create straight lines, perfect circles, or perfect squares.
AutoShapes are inserted (on their own layer) with in front of text wrapping style applied.
WordArt Drawing Objects

Also included on the Drawing toolbar is the WordArt Feature. Using WordArt, you can create text
graphics that bend, slant, and appear metallic or wooden and much, much more. WordArt can even be
shadowed, skewed, rotated, and stretched.
Here are just a few examples of what WordArt allows you to do:
To Insert WordArt:
 Place the insertion point where you would like to insert WordArt.
 Click the WordArt button on the Drawing toolbar . The WordArt gallery opens.
 Choose (click) a WordArt style.
 The Edit WordArt Text dialog box appears.
 Edit the font, size, and style.
 Click OK.
MS-EXCEL
Different Types of Charts: Excel 2003 allows you to create many different kinds of charts.
Area Chart: An area chart emphasizes the trend of each value over time. An area chart also shows the
relationship of parts to a whole.
Column Chart: A column chart uses vertical bars or columns to display values over different
categories. They are excellent at showing variations in value over time.
Bar Chart: A bar chart is similar to a column chart except these use horizontal instead of vertical bars.
Like the column chart, the bar chart shows variations in value over time.
Line Chart: A line chart shows trends and variations in data over time. A line chart displays a series of
points that are connected over time.
Pie Chart: A pie chart displays the contribution of each value to the total. Pie charts are a very
effective way to display information when you want to represent different parts of the whole, or the
percentages of a total.
Other Charts: Other charts that can be created in Excel 2003 include: Doughnut; Stock XY (scatter);
Bubble; Radar; Surface; or Cone, Cylinder, and Pyramid charts.
Parts of a Chart: Have you ever read something you didn't fully understand but when you saw a chart
or graph, the concept became clear and understandable? Charts are a visual representation of data in
a worksheet. Charts make it easy to see comparisons, patterns, and trends in the data.
Source Data: The range of cells that make up a chart. The chart is updated automatically whenever
the information in these cells change.
Title: The title of the chart.
Legend: The chart key, which identifies each color on the chart represents.
Axis: The vertical and horizontal parts of a chart. The vertical axis is often referred to as the Y axis,
and the horizontal axis is referred to as the X axis.
Data Series: The actual charted values, usually rows or columns of the source data.
Value Axis: The axis that represents the values or units of the source data.
Category Axis: The axis identifying each data series.
1. Create a suitable examination data base and find the sum of the marks(total) of each student and
respective class secured by the student rules:
Pass if marks in each subject >=35
Distinction if average>=75
First class if average>=60 but <75
Second class if average>=50 but <60
Third class if average>=35 but <50
Fail if marks in any subject is <35
Display average marks of the class, subject wise and pass percentage.
Step 1: Start a new work book and save it as student.

Step 2: Type the required column headings &students data i.e (student no marks etc) below the
headings.
Step 3: Position the cell pointer below total column for the first student unperform sum
operation to calculate total of the marks.
Step 4: Drag the fill handle to remaining student record to calculate total for these students
also.
step5: Position the cell pointer below average. Heading for the first student
step6: Perform average calculation for the first student.
Step7: Drag the fill handle to remaining student’s record to calculate average these students
also.
Step8: Position the cell pointer below results and enter the following formula to find the result.
Formulas;
If (And) (A2>35) B2>35,C2>=35 If (F2>=60)
“FIRST” IF (F2>=”second” IF (F2>=35,”THIRD”)),”FAIL”).
Step8: Drag on the cell pointer to copy the same formula for the remaining student.
Using AutoFilter
The AutoFilter feature makes filtering, or temporarily hiding, data in a spread sheet very easy. This
allows you to focus on specific spread sheet entries.
To Use AutoFilter:
 Select Data from the main
menu.
 Select Filter AutoFilter.
 Click the drop-down arrow
next to the heading you would
like to filter.
For example, if you would like to
only view data from the West Sales
Region, click the drop-down arrow
next to Sales Region.
 Choose the data you would

like to display.
In this example, you would
choose West. All other data will be
filtered, or hidden, and only the West
Sales Region data is visible.
Click the drop-down arrow again
and select All to display all of your original data.
Types of functions: There are different types of functions used in Ms-Excel.
 Mathematical
 Statistical
 Text
 Date and Time
 Logical
Mathematical functions:
1) Sum: Add all the numbers in the given range.
=SUM(A1:A10)
2) Product: Multiplies all the numbers in the given range.
=PRODUCT(A1,A2)
3) Mod: returns the remainder after a number divided by a divisor.
=MOD(NUMBER,DIVISOR)
4) Abs: Returns absolute value of a number. That is a number without sign.
=ABS(Number)
5) Fact: Returns the factorial of a given number.
=FACT(Number)
6) Sqrt: Returns the square root of a given number.
=SQRT(NUMBER)
Statistical functions:
1) Average: Its returns Average of its arguments.

=AVERAGE(A3:A7)
2) Max: It returns the maximum of the given numbers.
=MAX(A1:A6)
3) Min: It returns the minimum of the given numbers.
=MIN(A1:A6)
4) Count: Counts the number of cells.
=COUNT(A1:A6)
Text functions:
1) Concatenate: Joins several text strings into one text string

=Concatenate (text1, text2…) OR
=Concatenate (A1, A2, A3, A4, A5) Then press enter.
2) Len: Returns the number of characters in a text string. Characters include spaces, commas
and special characters etc. =Len(text)
3) Upper: Converts text to Upper case
=Upper(text)
4) Lower: Convert text to Lower case.
=Lower(text)
5) Exact: Compares two text strings and returns True if they exactly the same, False otherwise.
=EXACT (text1,
text2)
6) Rept: Repeats text a given number of times.
=Rept (text, number of times)
7) Left: Left returns the first character or characters in a text string, based on the number of
characters.
=Left (text, number of characters)
8) Right: Right returns the last character or characters in a text string, based on the number of
characters.
=Right (text, number of characters)
9) Mid: Returns a specific number of characters from a text string, starting at the position you
specify, based on the number of characters you specify.
=Mid (text, start_num, number of characters)
10) Trim: Removes all UN used spaces from the text.
=Trim (text)
Date & Time functions:
1) Today: Returns the current date in the month-date-year format. =Today()

Type the above syntax in the cell and press enter. Note the current date appearing in
cell . Here 8 is the month 9 is the date and 2009 is the year.
2) Now: Returns the current date and time. In the format of month/date/year Hours: minutes
=Now()
3) Weekday: Returns the day of the week corresponding to a date. The day is given as an
integer, ranging from 1(Sunday) to 7(Saturday), by default. =Weekday(date)
4) Day: Returns the day of the date, represented by a serial number. The day is given as an
integer ranging from 1-31.
5) Month: Returns the month of the date, represented by a serial number. The day is given as
an integer ranging from 1(January)-12(December)
6) Year: Returns the year of the date, represented by a serial number. The day is given as an
integer ranging from 1900-9999.
=Year(Cell address)
Logical functions:
1) And: Returns True if all its arguments are True, Returns false one or more argument is false.
=And(logical1,logical2,…)
2) Or: Returns True if any argument is True, Returns false if all arguments are false.
=or(logical1,logical2,…)
3) Not: Reverses the value of its argument
=Not(logical)
4) True: Returns the logical value True =True()
5) False: Returns the logical value False =False()
6) If: Returns one value if a condition evaluates true and another value if it evaluates false.
=If(logical, value if true, value if false)
EX: =If(B4>30, ‘Pass’, ‘Fail’) it returns Pass if value of B4 is >30, otherwise it returns Fail.
MS-POWERPOINT
Creation of PowerPoint Presentation
 PowerPoint offers three ways to create a presentation: Blank presentation, From Design
Template or From AutoContent Wizard.
 The Blank presentation option is one of the more commonly used methods. It offers several
blank slides with layouts for text and graphics.
To Create a Blank Presentation:
Step 1: Open PowerPoint.

Step 2: A slide featuring a place for a title and subtitle appears by default. You may begin your
presentation with this slide or choose a different slide layout.
Step 3: The New Presentation Pane appears on the right side of the screen.
Step 4: Under New, click Blank Presentation.
Step 5: A list appears.
Choosing a Slide Layout:
 As you work on your presentation, think about the type of layout you want. Do you want a slide
with text and lots of clip art or one with text and a chart? PowerPoint offers many layout
options.
To Choose a Slide Layout:
Step 1: Move your arrow pointer over the layouts or use the scroll bar in the Slide Layout Pane.
Step 2: A gray bar appears on the right of each layout.
Step 3: When you find a layout that you like, click the down-pointing arrow and choose Apply to
Selected Slide.
Note: You can also click on the slide layout to apply it. Notice that the slide you are currently
working on has a dark border in the Outline Pane.
Placeholders
 Once you choose a layout for your slides, you can begin adding text, graphics or other items.
You do this with placeholders - specials places within a slide where you can add content.
To Add Text to a Placeholder:

Step 1: Click on the placeholder.
Step 2: Start typing.
Saving a Presentation
 You can save, close, and exit presentations in PowerPoint just as you would while using other
Microsoft applications.
Step 1: To Save a Presentation:

Step 2: Click on File  Save. (Ctrl + S)
Step 3: Choose the location where you want to save your presentation. (My Documents is a
good place).
Step 4: Type a name in the File Name box or keep the one that PowerPoint has provided.
Closing a Presentation and Exiting PowerPoint
To Close a Presentation:
Step 1: Click the X in the PowerPoint presentation window (Ctrl + W).
To Exit PowerPoint:
Step 1: Click the X in the far right top corner.
or
Step 1: Choose File Exit. (Alt + F4)
Step 2: Before you exit PowerPoint, make sure that you save any work that you want to keep.
or
Creation of PowerPoint Presentation
Step 1: Start a new Presentation by choosing new option from the file menu
Step 2: Choose slide layout from the displayed layout window
Step 3: Type the main title and subtitle in the available boxes i.e. (Welcome Presentation)
Step 4: Apply font size, color, styles
Step 5: Apply required background color by choosing background option from the format
menu.
Step 6: Apply required animation for slide by choosing slide transition from slide show menu.
Step 7: Set animation option from slide show menu and set required animation for each object
on the slide
Step 8: Set animation speed & other effects
Step 9: Choose new slide option from insert menu and choose the required from slide layout
Step 10: Choose main heading and points with bullets layout from the displayed layout window
Step 11: Type the required text and sub points
Step 12: Apply font color, size, style, options
Step 13: Apply slide transition & custom
Step 14: We can change slides order by choosing slide sorter view
Step 15: We can delete or copy slides anytime in the presentation
Step 16: We can record timing by choosing rehearse timings option from the slide sorter view
this recording helps in displaying slides automatically.
Creating Presentation through Auto Content Wizard:
The AutoContent Wizard takes you step by step through the process of choosing a presentation design
and entering text.
1. Click File > New
The New Presentation task pane is displayed
2. Click on From AutoContent wizard
The AutoContent Wizard appears
3. Click Next to move onto choosing the presentation type
4. Click the buttons to browse the different presentation type categories. Select
the presentation type you want and click Next
5. At the next step, select the output type of your presentation
6. Click Next
7. Enter a Presentation title:, and select the required options for the Footer: of
your presentation
8. Click Next
9. The final screen is displayed. Click Finish
10. The presentation is created. Replace the existing content with your own
MS-ACCESS
1. Create a database using MS-ACCESS with at least 5 records
TABLE1 STRUCTURE:
REGISTER NUMBER NAME DOB GENDER CLASS
TABLE2 STRUCTURE:
REGISTER NUMBER M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 TOTAL
Maintain the relationship between two tables with REGISTER NUMBER as a Primary Key and answer
the following quarries:
Query 1: Show the list of students with the following fields as one query
REGISTER NUMBER NAME GENDER TOTALMARKS
Query 2: Show the list of students with the following fields as one query
REGISTER NUMBER, NAME, and AVERAGE.
Opening a MS ACCESS Program and creating a database:-

Step 1: Click the Start button; it will display a Start Menu
Step 3: In that Select the MS Access Program then click the mouse left button.
Step 4: MS Access displays a Microsoft Access dialog box.
Step 5: In that Select the Blank access database.
Step 6: Click on OK button. MS Access displays a Save as dialog box.
Step 7: In that enter the name of the database i.e., Student and click on Create button it will
automatically saved.
Creating a Table1 in design view:-

Step 1: After creating a database the MS Access will display a database window.
Step 2: In database window, under the objects select the table double click on create table in
design view option.
Step 3: The MS Access will provide a screen for us. In that we can enter the Register Number
under the field name, and enter the Number data type under the data type and press 2
times tab key. The cursor moves to the next line and enter the Name press the tab key
and enter the Text data type. Press the tab key and enter the Date of Birth press the tab
key and enter the data type Date/Time and in the below General tab Choose Format =
Medium Date. Enter the Gender press the tab key and enter the data type Text and
enter the Class press the tab key and enter the data type Text.
Step 4: Select the Register Number field and click on Primary key button on the Standard tool
Bar.
Step 5: Click on Save Button on the Standard Toolbar, MS Access will ask a name for the table,
give a name “Student Address” in the text box and click the OK Button.

Step 1: After creating a Table1 the MS Access will display a database window.
design view option.
Step 3: The MS Access will provide a screen for us. In that we can enter the Register_Number
under the field name, and enter the Number data type under the data type and press 2
times tab key. The cursor moves to the next line and enters the M1 press the tab key and
enters the Number data type. Press the tab key and enter the M2 press the tab key and
enter the Number data type. Similarly enter the M3, M4 and M5.
Step 4: Select the Register Number field and click on Primary key button on the Standard tool
Bar.
give a name “Student Marks” in the text box and click on OK Button.
Maintaining Relationship between Student Address and Student marks: -

Step 1: Click on Tools menu in that select the relationship option.
Step 2: MS Access displays Relationships dialog box.
Step 3: In that select the table “Student Address” and click the add button. Again select the table
“Student Marks” and click the add button.
Step 4: After adding the tables click the Close button.
Step5: Now Select the field register Number in Student address table drag it to the register no
in the student marks table.
Step 6: MS Access displays edit relationship dialog box. In that click on Create button. MS
Access will ask to save the relationship. Click on the Yes button.
Entering Records in “Student Address” Table: -
Step 1: In the database window created tables will be displayed. In that double click on
“Student Address” table.
Step 2: Enter the records for “Student Address” Table.
Entering Records in “Student Marks” Table: -
“Student Marks” table.
Step 2: Enter the records for “Student Marks” Table.
1. A Query to display Register Number, Name, Gender and Total Marks of all the Students: -
Step 1: In the database window under the objects Click on Queries.

Step 2: Double Click on the Create Query by using Wizard Option.
Step 3: MS-Access will display a new window simple Query Wizard.
Step 4: In that select the “Student Address” and Select the field Names (Register Number, Name
& Gender) using click on button.
Step 5: Now again we can select the “Student Marks” table in that select field Names (M1, M2,
M3, M4 & M5) using click on button.
Step 6: Click on next button select the Summary (or) Details option.
Step 7: Click on Next button MS-Access asks for the Name of the Query, enter the name of the
Query.
Step 8: Click on Next button in the next Screen click the modify button. MS-Access displays the
Query in design view.
Step 9: In the design view enter the field Name
Total: [M1] + [M2] + [M3] + [M4] + [M5]
Step 10: Click on run button on the Standard tool bar, MS-Access will display the records.
2. A Query to display Register Number, Name, and Average Marks of all the Students: -
Step 1: In the database window under the objects click on Queries.

Step 2: Double Click on the Create Query by using Wizard Option.
Step 3: MS-Access will display a new window Simple Query Wizard.
Step 4: In that select the “Student Address” and Select the field Names (Register Number,
Name) using click on button.
Step 5: Now again we can select the “Student Marks” table in that select field Names (M1, M2,
M3, M4 & M5) using click on button.
Step 6: Click on next button select the Summary (or) Details option.
Step 7: Click on Next button MS-Access asks for the Name of the Query, enter the name of the
Query.
Step 8: Click on Next button in the next Screen click the modify button. MS-Access displays the
Query in design view.
Step 9: In the design view enter the field Name
Average: [[M1] + [M2] + [M3] + [M4] + [M5]]/5
Step 10: Click on run button on the Standard tool bar, MS-Access will display the records.
Exit from MS-Access Program:
Step 1: Click the file Menu.

Step 2: Select the exit option and click on it.
2. Create a database using MS-ACCESS with at least 5 records
TABLE1 STRUCTURE:
EMP-CODE EMP-NAME AGE GENDER DOB
TABLE2 STRUCTURE:
EMP-CODE BASIC-PAY
Maintain the relationship between two tables with EMP-CODE as a Primary Key generate the following reports:
REPORT1: EMP-CODE EMP-NAME AGE GENDER DOB BASIC-PAY
REPORT2: EMP-CODE EMP-NAME BASIC-PAY DA HRA GROSS-SALARY
Opening a MS ACCESS Program and creating a database:-

Step 1: Click the Start button it will display a Start Menu
Step 3: In that Select the MS Access Program then click the mouse left button.
Step 4: MS Access displays a Microsoft Access dialog box.
Step 5: In that Select the Blank access database.
Step 6: Click on OK button. MS Access displays a Save as dialog box.
Step 7: In that enter the name of the database i.e., Employee and click on Create button it will
automatically save.

Step 1: After creating a database the MS Access will display a database window.
design view option.
Step 3: The MS Access will provide a screen for us. In that we can enter the EmpCode under the
field name, and enter the Number data type under the data type and press 2 times tab
key. The cursor moves to the next line and enters the EmpName press the tab key and
enters the Text data type. Press the tab key and enter the Age press the tab key and
enter the Number data type. Press the tab key and enter the Gender press the tab key
and enter the Text data type. Press the tab key and enter the Date of Birth press the tab
key and enter the data type Date/Time and in the below General tab Choose Format =
Medium Date.
Step 4: Select the EmpCode field and click on Primary key button on the Standard tool Bar.
give a name “Employee Address” in the text box and click the OK Button.

Step 1: After creating a Table1 the MS Access will display a database window.
design view option.
Step 3: The MS Access will provide a screen for us. In that we can enter the EmpCode under the
field name, and enter the Number data type under the data type and press 2 times tab
key. The cursor moves to the next line and enters the BasicPay press the tab key and
enters the Number data type.
Step 4: Select the EmpCode field and click on Primary key button on the Standard tool Bar.
give a name “Employee Salary” in the text box and click on OK Button.
Maintaining Relationship between Employee Address and Employee Salary: -

Step 1: Click on Tools menu in that select the relationship option.
Step 2: MS Access displays Relationships dialog box.
Step 3: In that select the table “Employee Address” and click the add button. Again select the
table “Employee Salary” and click the add button.
Step 4: After adding the tables click the Close button.
Step5: Now select the field EmpCode in Employee Address table drags it to the EmpCode in the
Employee Salary table.
Step 6: MS Access displays edit relationship dialog box, in that click on Create button. MS Access
will ask to save the relationship. Click on the Yes button.
Entering Records in “Employee Address” Table: -

“Employee Address” table.
Step 2: Enter the records for “Employee Address” Table.
Entering Records in “Employee Salary” Table: -

“Employee Salary” table.
Step 2: Enter the records for “Employee Salary” Table.
Creating a report with the fields EMP-CODE EMP-NAME AGE GENDER DOB BASIC-PAY: -
Step 1: In the database window under the objects select the reports and Double Click on Create
report by using wizard.
Step2: MS-Access will display report Wizard dialog box.
Step3: Select the table “Employee Address”
Step 4: Click on >> button the MS-Access will add all the fields to the list.
Step 5: Select the table “Employee Salary”
Step 6: Click on button the MS-Access will add the field Basic Pay to the list.
Step 7: After selecting the fields click on Next button, select the order by which we want to view
the data on the report.
Step 8: Click on Next button and specify the grouping options if necessary.
Step 9: Click on Next button and select the Sorted order to view the data.
Step 10: Click on Next button and select the Layout Option.
Step 11: Click on Next button and select the Style of the Report.
Step 12: Click on Next button and enter the “Employee Details” for the Report.
Step 13: Click on Finish Button. MS-Access will display a Report.
2. Creating a report with the fields EMP-CODE EMP-NAME BASIC-PAY DA HRA GROSS-SALARY
Step 1: In the database window under the objects select the reports and Double Click on Create
report by using wizard.
Step2: MS-Access will display report Wizard dialog box.
Step3: Select the table “Employee Address”
Step 4: Click on button the MS-Access will add only the fields EmpCode, EmpName to the
list.
Step 5: Select the table “Employee Salary”
Step 6: Click on button the MS-Access will add the field Basic Pay to the list.
Step 7: After selecting the fields click on Next button, select the order by which we want to view
the data on the report.
Step 8: Click on Next button and specify the grouping options if necessary.
Step 9: Click on Next button and select the Sorted order to view the data.
Step 10: Click on Next button and select the Layout Option.
Step 11: Click on Next button and select the Style of the Report.
Step 12: Click on Next button and enter the “Employee Details with all” for the Report.
Step 13: Click on Finish Button. MS-Access will display a Report.
Exit from MS-Access Program:
Step 1: Click the file Menu.
Step 2: Select the exit option and click on it.
Internet
World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web, or “the web”, is an Internet based global
information system that makes available multimedia information from over 5million computers
around the world. The Web offers video, interactive multimedia and live audio, in addition to more
basic data types, such as text documents and still photographs.
The Web is the second most popular Internet service only next to e-mail, but it accesses a larger
quantity and greater variety of data than any other service on the Internet.
Internet: Internet is a worldwide system of computer networks, which allows the participants to
share the information. It enables the users to use applications such as e-mail and the World Wide
Web.
The Internet has grown from a small project to today’s biggest network of computers. Due to
this colossal growth, the Internet has become the biggest domain of information. Nowadays, an
Internet user has access to a wide variety of services such as electronic mail, file transfer, vast
information resources, interest group membership, interactive collaboration, multimedia displays,
real-time broadcasting, shopping opportunities, and much more.
Intranet: Intranet is an internal company version of the inter connection of networks. Intranets allow
workers with PCs to access information from company computer via the same user-friendly browsing
software Internet Explorer 10 etc. used on the Internet. Corporations that adopted this approach feel
Intranets simplified employees work and thus led to higher worker productivity.
Extranet: An extranet is a part of a corporate intranet that allows companies to communicate with the
intranets of their customers and suppliers, facilitating electronic transactions.
E-commerce: E-commerce (Electronic Commerce) online business management via the Internet.
Electronic commerce, commonly known as (electronic marketing) e-commerce or ecommerce,
consists of the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet
and other computer networks. The amount of trade conducted electronically has grown
extraordinarily with widespread Internet usage. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the
World Wide Web at least at some point in the transaction's lifecycle, although it can encompass a
wider range of technologies such as e-mail as well.
Web Page: The World Wide Web consists of files, called pages or web pages, which contain
information and links to resources throughout the internet. A web page is an electronic document
written in a computer language called GTML (Hyper Text Mark-up Language). These web pages are
linked together through a system of connection (called hypertext links, hyperlinks or links), which
enable the user to jump from one web page to another by clicking on a link. On the web, the user
navigates through these pages of information in accordance of his/her interests.
Note: web pages are also known as HTML documents.
Website: A website is a set of related (linked through hypertext links) web pages, published by an
organization or individual. Normally a website contains a home page along with other additional web
pages. Each website is owned and updated by an individual, company or organization. It is an area on
the web, which is accessed by its own address (known as URL or the Uniform Resource Locator). Note
that, the quality, detail, and style of websites vary enormously, depending on how it is designed.
Home Page: When you browse the world wide web, you will often see the term ‘Home Page’. A home
page is the starting point or a doorway to the website. Like the table of contents of a book, the
homepage usually provides an overview of what could be found at the website. If there is not much
information, the home page may be the only page of the website. However, usually you will find at
least a few other pages.
Note: Home page is also known as the index or index page.
Browser: A browser (short for web browser) is a computer program that accesses web pages and
displays them on the computer screen. It is the basic software that is needed to fine, retrieve, view,
and send information over the Internet. In fact, to access the world wide web, the user requires a web
browser. The most popular browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator.
Browsers are to two types:
1. Graphical browsers allow retrieval of text, images, audio, and video. Navigation is
accomplished by pointing and clicking with a mouse on highlighted words and graphics. Both
Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer are graphical browsers.
2. Text browsers provide access to the web in text-only mode. Navigator is accomplished by
highlighting emphasized words on the screen with the arrow up and down keys, and then
pressing the Enter key to follow the link. Lynx is an example of text-based browser.
Different types of Web browsers available in the market are:

1. Internet Explorer
2. Mozilla Firefox
3. Netscape Navigator
4. Google Chrome
5. Opera
6. Safari
Uniform resource locator (URL): Each web page has a unique address, called a uniform resource
locator (URL) that identifies its location on the Internet. Web browsers utilize the URL to retrieve a
file from the computer on which it resides. Usually, the format of an URL consists of four parts:
protocol, server (or domain), path, and filename. Here is an example,
http://www.annapurnacollege.org/tutor/start/main.htm. The structure of this URL is:
 Protocol : http
 Host Computer Name: www
 Domain Name: annapurnacollege
 Domain Type: org
 Path: tutor/start/
 File Name: main.htm
Some of the Three – Letter Top-Level Domain types:
TLD Meaning Example

com Commercial and Profit organisations Yahoo.com
edu Colleges and Universities (Educational Providers) Stanford.edu
gov Goverenment Websites Indianrail.gov
mil US Military Services Army.mil
net Internet infrastructure and service Providers Usa.net
org Miscellaneous and Non-profit organisations. annapurnacollege.org
int International Itu.int
Some of the Two – Letter Top-Level Domain types: These are Country Codes
TLD Meaning Example

in India drc.in
us United States nasdaq.us
uk United Kingdom bbc.uk
de Germany (Deutschland) Sgi.de
jp Japan hitachi.co.jp
it Italy Nic.it
Hypertext: Hypertext refers to the text that connects to other documents. These texts are known as
hypertext link, hyperlink, hotlink or simply links. A hyperlink is used to “jump” to another part of the
same page or to load a different web page. Hypertext is a method of instant cross-referencing. It is
used for organizing information and to link related documents together using words and graphics
(also known as image maps). Usually hypertext links appear in a different colour (typically in blue and
underlined) form the rest of the text. When the cursor is moved over a text link or over a graphic link,
it will change from an arrow to a hand.
Internet Service Provider (ISP): An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an organization that provides
the required software, which is used to connect to the Internet. For a monthly fee, the ISP provides the
user software package, username, password, and access phone number(s). Equipped with a modem,
the user can then log on to the Internet and browse the web.
Bandwidth: It uses to refer to various bit-rate measures, representing the available or consumed data
communication resources expressed in bits per second or multiples of it (bit/s, kbit/s, Mbit/s, Gbit/s,
etc.).
Broadband: It refers to the wide bandwidth characteristics of a transmission medium and its ability
to transport multiple signals and traffic types simultaneously. The medium can be coax, optical fiber,
twisted pair or wireless. In contrast, baseband, describes a communication system in which
information is transported across a single channel.
How to Create a New Gmail ID
Gmail is an email service provided by search engine giant Google.com. When Gmail was first created,
users could only create a Gmail account ID if they were invited by someone else that already had
Gmail, but as its popularity has increased, Gmail opened its doors to all comers. Now you can make a
new Gmail email address at any time, even if you already have an existing Gmail account.
1. Visit the Gmail account login page i.e., http://www.gmail.com

2. Click on the "Create an Account" button at the bottom right corner of the screen. You can also click
"About Gmail," and "New Features" to find additional information about the Gmail service.
3. Fill out the information on the "Create a new Google Account" page as accurately as possible. You
will have to choose your desired Gmail username, a password & Retype your Password, Date of
Birth, Gender, Mobile Number, Current Email Address. Enter a user verification code, Location
and agree to the terms of service, program policy and privacy policy. (Links to these policies will
be provided on the sign up page). After entering your desired account ID, you can click the "check
availability!" button to see if that email address is free to use.
4. Click the "Next Step" button at the bottom of the form when you are finished. If you did not check
the availability of your new ID and it is taken, you will be prompted to select a new ID. Once the
account ID is accepted you will be done creating you new account.
5. Then it will display a new page i.e. Congratulations You've successfully signed up for Gmail! Here's
a quick run through to help you get comfortable.
6. Click on Continue to Gmail.
7. Our GMAIL Account or Inbox will be opened.
How to open an e-mail Account when you are having User name & password?
1. Visit the Gmail account login page i.e., http://www.gmail.com

2. Type Your User Name and Password and Click on the "Sign In" button at the bottom right corner of
the screen.
3. Your E-mail account will be opened.
Search engine:
A search engine can be defined as a web site with tools which help you to find information on the
internet
Function of a search engine:
You can find anything from a schedule of White house tours to instructions for removing stains from
clothes.
L imitations:
Search engines visit web sites only several weeks. Search engines cannot see information in other data
bases later on.
On the internet a search engine is a coordinated set of programs that includes: A spider (crawler or
bot) that goes to every page or representative pages on every web site that wants to be searchable
and reads it, using hypertext links on each page to discover and read site’s other pages. Thursday,
February 21, 2019
Pros :
You can select the search terms
You can use the same search terms with multiple search engines
You can change search terms as much as you wish
You will normally receive numerous links
Its fast
Cons:
There are so many different search engines it may be difficult to choose
You will normally receive too many links often making it difficult to identify the most
relevant sites.
The vast majority of links may be only marginally relevant or altogether irrelevant
Search Engine: A search engine is a searchable database of Internet files collected by a computer
program called a wanderer, crawler, or spider. It allows the user to enter keywords relating to
particular topics and retrieve information about internet sites containing those keywords. As such, a
search engine consists of four components:
1. Spider: Program that traverses the web from link to link, identifying and reading pages.
2. Indexing Software: Program that analyses web pages that are downloaded by spiders.
3. Database: Warehouse of the web pages downloaded and processed.
4. Search Engine Mechanism: Software that enables users to query the index and that usually
returns results in term relevancy ranked order.
Step1: Web spider gathers information about what is available on the internet. It sends the addresses
of the document back to search engine’s indexing software.
Step2: Indexing software extracts information from the documents and organises it into a database.
Step3: When users visit the search engine’s web page, they launch a search of its database by typing
the keywords that describe the information they are looking for.
Step4: Search engine looks for the keyword(s) in the index for the database. It creates a new web page
displaying the URLs and titles of the document.
Step5: To go to the actual page, the user just have to click on the link.
Searching the internet
Some of the well-known search engines are www.google.com, www.msn.com, www.yahoo.com,
www.altavista.com, www.indiatimes.com, www.guruji.com and etc.
Let us assume that you want to search the web to get information regarding computer
generations. To do this, first open the search engine’s web site (such as www.google.com). Now
type your keyword(s) in the search box and click the Google search button or press Enter.
The engine searches its index and generates a page with links to those resources containing some
or all of the search terms. Clicking on any link opens a web site or web page in which the searched
keyword appears.
Refining the Search

The major search engines allow the user to choose whether to search for the exact typed phrase,
all the wo4rds in the phrase, any of the words in a phrase, and so on. However, a few search
engines do not provide such options. In this case, the user can define the search by adding one or
more words or symbols to the search topic
AND: it is used to search for two or more terms on the same page. Type the word AND
between the terms (for example, poverty AND crime) or put a plus sign right before the
second term (example: poverty + crime).
OR: It is used to search for either of two (or more) terms on the same page. Type the word
OR between the terms (for example, college OR university).
NOT: It is used to search for pages that include the first term but not the second. Type the
words NOT between the terms (for example, cats NOT dogs) or put a minus sign right
before the second term (for example, cats-dogs).
“ “:Double quotes are used to search for an exact phrase, for example, “desktop wallpapers”.
( ): Parenthesis are used to group parts of the search phrase, for example, type desktop
AND (themes OR wallpapers). This returns pages with the words desktop and themes or
both the words themes and wallpapers.
*: Asterisk is used to search for various forms of a word. For example, prior* returns pages
with the words prior, prioritise, priority, and so on.
LAN (Local Area Network): Computers are located in the Same Building. Example: LAN can be an office whose
different departments such as personnel, accounting etc. are located in the same building and connected via bus
topology using Ethernet Cards.
CAN (Campus Area Network): Computers are confined within the limited physical area. The machines may be
installed in two different buildings close by or within the campus of the industry or the institute. Ex: CAN is
connected through University whose different departments and library etc are located in the near surroundings
and the systems are connected using fiber optic cables and FDDI ring topology.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Computers are located in the city are connected using modem or
telephone lines so that they can be easily connected with each other. Ex: MAN is a bank whose different
branches in a city like Delhi are connected using public telephone exchange and the systems are connected with
each other using LANs within each branch and the different branches are connected using modems and bridges.
WAN (Wide Area Network): Computers are distributed all over the country or the World. The connection is
made via satellite communication link or via Internet. Ex: The connection of various branches of a multinational
corporation such as Proctor & Gamble. These branches are linked using Microwave satellite communication
system are Internet Communicating with the Head Office using WAN link.
Internet Banking: Internet banking has been the greatest force for disintermediation that banks have
ever had to tackle. Internet banking refers to the use of the Internet as a remote delivery channel for
banking services. Such services include traditional ones such as opening a deposit account or
transferring funds among different accounts and new banking services such as electronic bill
presentment and payment.
Internet banking is also known as Online Banking. Online banking is becoming much more common.
You can pay your bills online and access a record of your checking account transactions online. Online
banking is a great feature, and most banks do offer it. Online banking makes everything you do with
your finances a bit easier. You can access the information anywhere that you have access to the
Internet. It makes your financial life much easier to manage.
1. Pay Your Bills Online: You can use online banking to pay your bills. This will eliminate the
need for stamps and protect you from the check being lost in the mail. Most banks will have a
section in which you set up payees. You will need to fill out the information once, and then you
can simply choose that profile every time you pay a bill online. If your bank will not pay bills
online you may consider paying online through the company. Be careful since some of these
companies may charge a convenience fee.
2. View Your Transactions: Online banking allows you to access your account history and
transactions from anywhere. This is the quickest way to check and see if a transaction has
cleared your account. This can help you to find out the amount of a transaction after you have
lost your receipt. It also allows you to find out about unauthorized transactions more quickly.
This can help you to resolve the issues more quickly.
3. Transfer Money between Accounts: Online banking also allows you to transfer money
between accounts much more quickly. It is more convenient than using the automated phone
service, and can save you a trip to the bank. When you apply or set up your online banking, be
sure that all of the accounts you have at the bank are listed. This will make it easier to transfer
money and make loan payments online.
4. Protect Yourself Online: It is important to be careful when banking online. You do not want
your safety or privacy to be breached. It is important to clear your cookies after each banking
session, if you are at a public computer. Additionally you need to make sure that your
password is long enough to prevent it from easily being hacked. Never give your online account
information to someone who is not an authorized signer on your account.
Applications of E-commerce:
Domestic and international payment Online shopping and order tracking

systems Online banking
Enterprise content management Online office suites
Group buying Shopping cart software
Automated online assistants Teleconferencing
Instant messaging Electronic tickets
Email Uses: Email allows individuals and groups to communicate with one another. Imagine that
you've been asked to coordinate work on a proposal to address a problem in your dorm or Greek
organization. You need to get information and ideas from people living in your dorm or house, from
members of the surrounding community, from university officials, and perhaps other groups. Once
you've established contact with these groups and individuals, you can gather and share information as
well as elicit reactions to on-going proposals through email rather than face-to-face meetings or
repetitive telephone calls.
Information Exchange Transmitting Documents

Brainstorming and Problem Solving Email Versus the Telephone
Record Keeping Using Email to Collaborate
Group Work Information Transfer
Staying in Touch Professionally Professionals Use Email
Staying in Touch Socially
E-Commerce or Cyber Trading: E-commerce involves automation of variety of Business to Business

(B2B) and Business to Commerce (B2C) transaction through reliable and secure connections.
Benefits of Cyber Trading at a Glance:

1) Paperless and screen based trading 5) Access to quality products
2) Speedy trading 6) Information of new products
3) Fast and quality customer service 7) Increase in international trade
4) Efficient payment system 8) Earning of Foreign Exchange
Features of E-Commerce: These sites are mass usage sites like the ones for business to consumer, as
they depend on more people visiting and using the site and its services.
Other areas of E-business : Other related e-business include Electronic Data Inter change (EDI), the
business-to-business exchange of data E-mail and fax and their use as media for reaching prospective
and established customers (for example, through newsletters).
Security of Business Transactions: Security of E-business transactions includes authenticating

business transactions, access to resources such as Web pages for registered or selected users,
communications, and in general, ensuring the privacy and effectiveness of Secure Electronic
Transactions (SET) is an emerging industry standard. Companies are discovering that E-commerce is
where the business is, but getting there requires careful planning. Differentiating a Web site from
competitors, attracting customers by offering added services and at the same time managing the
systems end of an E-business call for special skills. And, as online transactions grow more complex,
these challenges will only mount.
E-Commerce is Revolutionary Middlemen disappear

Creating a Web Site is Easy E-Commerce means end of mass
On-Line shopping is Cost Effective marketing
Customers are self-created E-commerce is still lucrative
E-commerce is cheap compared to the
technology procurement
Types of E-Commerce: The major different types of e-commerce are: business-to-business (B2B);
business-to-consumer (B2C); business-to-government (B2G); consumer-to-consumer (C2C); & mobile
commerce (M-commerce).

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Computer: It is an electronic device, which takes input from the user in the form of data and

Reliability: Generally, reliability is the measurement of the performance of a computer, which is

A computer can only perform what it is programmed to do.

Engineering/Architecture/Manufacturing: The architects and engineers are extensively using

Input Unit CU Output Unit

Personal Computer: A personal computer is made up of multiple physical components of computer

Differences between the primary and secondary memory:

Primary memory Secondary memory

Magnetic tapes: A magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data can be

Tapes are sequential access media, which means that to get to a

Input and Output Devices:

MOUSE: It is a pointing device that functions by detecting

Scanner: Scanner is a kind of input devices. They are capable of

Other Input Devices:

Optical character recognition: It is usually abbreviated to OCR, is the mechanical or electronic

Barcode Reader (or barcode scanner): It is an electronic device for reading

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): A VDU or CRT monitor is very similar to a

LED (OLED) Monitor: Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) monitors provide

1. Dot Matrix Printer: A dot matrix printer or impact matrix printer is

4. Plotter: It is a computer printer for printing vector graphics. In the

Speakers: deliver sound. Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers are

1. Internal modems: Internal computer modems are used with Dial-Up

2. External modems: It is the second term we have to consider from

DIR: - To see the List of the files in the directory

Syntax: - DIR drive: file name(s) /Switches

Eg: - 1. DIR Displays files in Drive C

2. DIR/P Displays all files in the directory in page wise manner.

Syntax: - C:\> COPY Sourcefile Target file

Eg: 1. COPY oldname newname It copies the data in “oldname to newname”

2. COPY C:sal.dat A:sal.dat It copies sal.dat file from C drive to A drive.

Type: - To display the content of file.

Syntax: - TYPE <filename>

Eg: 1. TYPE APPAJI.C To display the contents in the file.

Syntax: C:\> cls

Eg: C:\> cls

Syntax: - C:\> DATE

Eg: - C:\> DATE

The current date is : 20-12-2012

Enter the new date (dd:mm:yy)

Time: - Displays or sets the current time.

Syntax: - C:\> TIME

Eg: - C:\> TIME

The current time is: 12:12:12

Enter the new time

VER: - It displays the current version.

Eg: VER displays the dos version number

VOL: - It displays the current volume.

Eg: VOL displays the Volume Label and Serial Number

PROMPT: - Changes the appearance of the DOS prompt

Syntax: - PROMPT <PROMPT STRING>

Syntax: - MD Directory Name

Eg: - MD Appaji or MKDIR APPAJI

Syntax: - CD Directory Name

Syntax: - REN <OLD FILE NAME> <NEW FILE NAME>

Eg: - REN APPAJI1 APPAJI2

Eg: - 1. FORMAT A: This command formats the floppy drive in drive A.

Syntax: DISKCOPY <SOURCE> <TARGET>

Eg: DISKCOPY A: B: Copies the disk in drive A onto a disk in drive B.

Syntax: - MOVE <OLD FILE> <NEW FILE>

Eg: - MOVE APPAJI1 APPAJI3

Tree: - List the contents of directories in a tree-like format.

Syntax: - SCANDISK Drive

Syntax: - XCOPY [source] [destination]