1

Governmental Intervention and the Promotion of

Schedule Castes in India

Introduction
One of the most controversial topic regarding India’s society and culture is its
stringent caste system. The word “Caste” is taken from the Portuguese word
“Casta”. It can be defined as a rigid social system in which a social hierarchy is
maintained generation after generation and allows little mobility out of the
position to which a person is born. This system dates almost 3000 years back
and was formed based on the need to form a social order in ancient India.
Today, it occurs more in the rural villages than in big urban cities and more in
the social matters of kinship and marriage than in impersonal day to day
interaction.

The original caste system came about when the Aryans migrated from the
north to India around 1600 BC. During this age, social classification system of
four different classes (Vernas) was thus devised so that the human race could
have a smooth and ordered life in society.

The origin of the caste system is in Hinduism, but it affected the whole Indian
Society. The Caste system in the religious form is basically a simple division of
society in which there are four castes arranged in a hierarchy and below them
the out caste. Legallybthe government disallows the practice of caste system,
but has a policy of affirmative discrimination of the backward classes.

The untouchables occupy a place that is not clearly defined by boundaries and
is outside of the Verna scheme. Their jobs ( such as toilet cleaning and garbage
removal) cause them to be considered impure and thus “Untouchable”.
Historically the untouchables were not allowed in temples and many other
public places. In 1950 legislation was passed to prevent any form of
discrimination towards the untouchables. Although the legislation has affected
the status of the people, they are yet very much a visible part of Indian Society.

The leaders of Independent India decided that India will be democratic,

socialist and secular country. According to this policy there is a separation
between religion and state. Practising untouchability or discriminating a
person based on his caste is legally forbidden. Along with this law the
Government allows positive discrimination of the depressed classes of India.
The Indians have also become more flexible in their caste system customs.
Sometimes in villages or in the cities, there are violent clashes which are
connected to caste tensions.
The form, caste was used by the British, who ruled India until 1947. The
British who wanted to rule India efficiently made lists of Indian Communities.
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Scheduled Castes :-

The castes, which were the elite of the Indian Society, were classified as high
castes. The other communities were classified as lower castes or lower classes.
The lower classes were listed in three categories. The first category is called
“Scheduled Castes”. The term “Schedule Caste” is a politico-legal one. It was
introduced by the British. It was first coined by “Simon Commission” in 1928
and then “Government of India act 1935”. The word “Schedule” refers to a
“List” or “Table”. The Government of India Act 1936 listed out or scheduled
a few of the castes as the most interior ones which required some special
attention. This list of castes was designated as “Scheduled Castes”. When India
became independent, this term was adopted by the constitution for the purpose
of providing them some special facilities and constitutional guarantees.

Dr. D.N.Majumdar uses the term “Scheduled Castes to refer mainly to the
untouchable castes. The untouchable castes are those who suffer from various
social and political disabilities, many of which are traditionally prescribed and
socially enforced by higher castes”.

Dr. G.C. Ghurye says “ scheduled castes are those groups which are named in
the scheduled caste order in force from time to time”.

The population of the scheduled castes has been steadily increasing. According
to the 1941 Census report, their population was about 48 million and it
increased to 140 millions as per 1991 Census report. This would constitute
16.48% of the total population of India. The Scheduled Caste people are seen
in Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh. Mizoram, Dadra and Nagra Haveli.

As per 1981 and 1991 Census report, about 2/3rd of the schedules castes live in
the six states only. The highest number of schedules castes is found in Uttar
Pradesh, i.e. 22.3% of the total SC population in the country. Then West
Bengal(11.4%), Bihar (9.6%), Tamil Nadu(8.5%), Andhra Pradesh(7.6%) and
Madhya Pradesh(7%) and majority of them live in rural areas. While the
overall growth of population during the decade was 23.79%, it was much
higher in the case of scheduled castes , that is 30%.

About 84 to 85% of the SC people live in rural areas about 80% of them
depend on agriculture. According to a survey report, almost 50% of the SC
people are agricultural workers and they would constitute about 1/3rd of the
total number of agricultural worker in the country. Majority of them do not
own any land. About 2/3rd of the bonded labourers are from the scheduled
castes. Their literacy level is extremely low. It was 21.4% in 1981 as against the
all India average of 41.3%.
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The SC people who belong to the rural areas virtually live as agricultural
labourers, tenants and marginal farmers. Almost all persons engaged in jobs
like sweeping, scavenging, tanning, fishermen, toddy-tappers, basket makers,
washermen, artisans, fruit vegetable sellers, shoe makers, liquor
manufactures, carpenters, iron smiths and some other following petty
occupations.
Table-1
Increase in the Scheduled Caste Population in Decades
Years of Census Total population Percentage of the Increase in
of SCs in Millions SC population percentage from
out of the total Decade to Decade
population
1941 48 - -
1951 55.3 - -
1961 64.5 - -
1971 89.5 15.50 -
1981 104.75 15.75 0.25
1991 140.00 16.48 0.73

Table -2
Total Population and percentage of Scheduled Caste-1991
Sl. India/State or Union Total Scheduled Caste
Teritory Population Population Percentage of
(’000) (’000) total
population
INDIA 8,38,584 1,38,223 16.48
STATES
1. Andhra Pradesh 66,508 10,592 15.93
2. Arunachal Pradesh 865 4 0.47
3. Assam 22,414 1,659 7.40
4. Bihar 86,374 24 2.08
5. Goa 1,170 3,060 7.41
6. Gujrat 41,310 3,251 19.75
7. Haryana 16,464 1,310 25.34
8. Himachal Pradesh 5,171 7,369 16.38
9. Karnataka 44,977 2,887 9.92
10. Kerala 29,099 9,627 14.54
11. Madhya Pradesh 66,181 8,758 11.10
12. Maharashtra 78,937 8,758 11.10
13. Manipur 1,837 37 2.02
14. Meghalaya 1,775 9 0.51
 4

15. Mizoram 690 1 0.10

16. Nagaland 1,210 - -
17. Orissa 31,660 5,129 16.20
18. Punjab 20,282 5,743 28.31
19. Rajasthan 44,006 7,608 17.29
20. Sikkim 406 24 5.93
21. Tamil Nadu 55,859 10,712 19.18
22. Tripura 2,757 451 16.36
23. Uttar Pradesh 139,112 29,276 21.05
24. West Bengal 68,078 16,081 23.62
UNION
TERITORIES
1. Andaman & Nicobar 280 - -
Islands
2. Chandigarh 642 106 16.51
3. Dadra & Nagar 138 3 1.97
Haveli
4. Daman & Diu 102 4 3.83
5. Delhi 9,421 1,795 19.05
6. Lakshadweep 52 - -
7. Pondicherry 808 131 16.25
Source : Census of India 1991, Final Population Totals

The wall in Uthapuram in Madurai district, Tamil

Nadu, which was a 150 metre stretch was
demolished by the state Government in 2008,
blocked dalits from entering areas previously under
common use. The wall was built in 1989, the year the
prevention of Atrocities Act came into force.

Problems:
 5

Majority of the castes that come under the category of “scheduled castes” are
regarded as “untouchables’. These untouchable caste have been suffering from
various disabilities throughout the history. After independence, the practice of
untouchability was declared unconstitutional , but the fact is that it still exists.
The suffering of the untouchables have not come to an end. This problem can
not be solved by an act of legislation. According to Dr. Majumdar, “the
untouchable castes are those who suffer from various social and political
disabilities, many of which are traditionally prescribed and socially enforced
by the higher castes. Thus if the whole bases of untouchability are not
destroyed, a simple provision for its legal status will bear scanty fruits”.

The “Untouchable” castes have been suffering from various religious, legal,
political, educational, economic and other disabilities. From centuries, they
were denied political representation, legal rights, civic facilities, educational
privileges and economic opportunities. During the British rule also, no proper
attention was paid to uplift the untouchables to relieve them from their
bondages. Even today they are not completely free from the problem, which
made them to suffer for centuries. These problems can be grouped into three
main categories like social problems, economic problems and political
problems.

Social Problems :-

In the caste hierarchy the untouchable castes are ascribed the lowest status.
They are considered to be ‘Unholy’ and ‘low’ and are looked down upon by
the other castes. Their very touch is considered to be polluting the higher caste
people. Hence they have been subjected to exploitation and humiliation. They
have been treated as the servants of the other caste people. They were kept at a
distance from other caste people. In some instances (in South India) even the
exact distance which an upper caste man was expected to keep between himself
and the ‘untouchables’ was specified. During the early times, they were
branded as “Panchamas, Antyajas, Suapachas, Atisudras, Chandals, Avariks”
etc. and were given the bottom most place in society. They were not given any
good position in the army, politics and public life, but made to follow
“unclean” occupations such as scavenging, removing human wastes and dead
animals, tanning, shoe making, spinning, washing clothes, barbering,
supplying water and so on.

For a long time the untouchable castes were not allowed to use public places
and avail of civic facilities such as village wells, ponds, temples, hostels , hotels,
schools, hospitals, lecture halls, dharmashalas etc.. They were forced to live on
the outskirts of the towns and villages during the early days. Even today they
are segregated from others specially. They were not allowed to enter the
houses of the higher castes. They were allowed to work as labourers during
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construction or repair, storing grains etc. But later the houses were purified by
sprinkling cow urine or cow dung. In South India, restrictions were imposed
on the mode of construction of their houses, types of dresses and patterns of
their ornamentation. Some lower caste people were not allowed to carry
umbrellas, to wear shoes or golden ornaments and to milk cows. They were
prohibited from covering the upper part of their body. The services of barbers,
washermen and tailors were refused to them. In the court of justice they had to
shout from the pointed distance and take their chance of being heard.

The untouchables were forbidden from taking up education during the early
days. Sanskrit education was denied to them. Public schools and other
educational institutions were closed for them. Even today majority of them are
illiterate and ignorant. The literacy level of scheduled caste is extremely poor
(21.4 % in 1981). It is less than half of the national average (41.3%). In states
like Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh their literacy level
is less than 1/4th of the national average. The literacy percentage among the
SCs, however , had increased to 37.41% in 1991 (SC males 49.9% and SC
Females 23.7%). Female literacy is still poorer among them. In 1991 only
23.76% of SC women were literate in Bihar. The pass percentage of the SCs at
the high school level is 53,at the graduate level 35, and at the post graduate
level 60. The corresponding general pass percentage figures are: - 65, 57 and
76 respectively. The enrolment of SCs at primary, secondary and high school
levels is also for less than the national average.

They are allowed to enter temples in many places. Even after the successful
campaign of Dr. Ambedkar demanding the untouchables right to enter the
Kalaram temple at Nasik in 1930, things have not improved much. The Vedic
mantras which are considered to be more pure, could not be listened to and
chanted by the untouchables because of the taboos.

Economic Problems :

For centuries the untouchables were not allowed to have land and business of
their own. It is only recently their ownership to the property has become
recognized. The propertied people are comparatively less among them.
Majority of them depend upon agriculture , but only a few of them(only 28%)
own land.

The caste system imposed restrictions on the occupational choice of the

members. The occupational choice was very much limited for the
untouchables. They were not allowed to take up to occupations which were
reserved for the upper caste people. They were forced to stick on to the
traditional interior occupations such as caring kids, removing the human
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wastes, sweeping, scavenging, oil grinding, spinning, tanning, shoe making ,

leather works, carrying the dead animals etc.

The SCs have not been able to take full advantage of the reserved seats allotted
to them in government jobs. The data collected from the reports of the
Commissioner of SCs reveal that the representation in Central Govt.
Departments , public sector undertakings and the nationalized banks in 1993
was 7% to 10% in Group A posts, 9% to 14% in Group B posts, 13% to 19%
in Group C posts and 21% to 23% in Group D posts. The poor educational
performance of the SC candidates has been the major obstacle in this regard.

Majority of untouchables are toady working as landless labourers. More than

90% of the agricultural labourers in India belong to the depressed classes,
which include the scheduled castes. According to 1981 census, more than 52%
of the scheduled caste workers in rural areas are agricultural labourers. A
large number of SC families are in debts. Their indebtdness is increasing day
by day. The SCs are economically exploited by the upper caste people. Even
today they are the lowest paid workers. The untouchables constituted 90% of
the total number of the bonded labourers found in India, according to a recent
survey report.

Political Problems :

The untouchables hardly participated in the political matters for centuries.

They were not given any place in politics, administration and general
governance of the country. They were not allowed to hold any public post.
Political rights and representation were denied to them. Under the British
rule, they were given the right to vote for the first time. After independence,
equal political opportunities and rights have been provided for the SCs also.
Politically, the SCs are yet to become a decisive force.

The untouchables or the SCs living in the city are trying to organize
themselves in the form of “Dalit Sangharsha Samiti” and such other
organizations to fight for their rights. But the vast mass of rural SCs are
totally unorganized. Political parties such as “The Republican Party of India”,
started by Dr. Ambedkar, “Dalit Panthers’ Party (of 1970s), “Bahujan
Samajvadi Party” are not doubt mobilising the SCs, but so far they have not
been able to form a “dalit Lobby” or “Harijan Lobby” at the national level
except in some pockets. Their political influence is mostly localised. Their total
influence in the Indian politics is , so far, not very much impressive.

Another problem confronting the untouchables is that lot of atrocities are

being committed against them. In fact, such atrocities are on the increase even
now. According to the report of Crime in India (1995), “ Every 2 hours, 1 dalit
 8

is assaulted, every day 3 dalit women are raped, 2 dalits are murdered and 2
dalit houses burnt”. Further, as per the same report, in 1955, about 180 cases
of atrocities committed against the SCs were registered with the police and this
number increased to 18,336 in 1991 and to 30,990 in 1995.

In some states severe caste conflicts are taking place and in many instances the
targets of attack are the SCs. Bihar is notorious for caste conflicts. Bihar has
sheltered several “Jati senas” which take a leading role in caste conflicts. For
example, Bhoomi sena of Krmis, Losik Sena of Yadavs, Brahmarshi and
Ranvir sena of the Bhumihars, Ganga Sena of the Brahmins, and the Kunwar
sena of the Rajputs, represent such Jati Senas. These Jati Senas and Naxal
groups organized mass murders in the past. The reason for these murders was
a long standing conflict between upper caste land owners and landless dalit
farmers. The central and the state governments are also seriously concerned
with these crimes.

Government Measures for Scheduled Castes :

The Government of independent India has been trying to uplift the scheduled
castes right from its very inception. The Governmental attempts to promote
the welfare of the SCs and STs can be classified into two groups – (i)
Constitutional and legislative measures and (ii) other welfare measures and
programs, otherwise known as Government policies measures.

(A) The Constitutional and Legislative Measures

(B)
The Government of India has incorporated same special provisions in its
constitution for the removal of untouchability and to promotion of interests of
SCs, such as political representation, representation in services, economic
development, socio cultural safeguards and legal support.
• The preamble of the constitution of India declares that , it assures
equality, promotes fraternity, guarantees liberty and ensures justice to
one and all.
• Articles 15,16,17, 38 and 46 guarantee that the state shall not
discriminate between persons on account of their religion or region and
caste or class.
• Article 15 prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, caste, race,
sex or place of birth.
• Article 15(a) provides for removal of any disability, restriction or
condition with regard to access shops, restaurants, tanks, bathing ghats,
roads, places of public convenience and so on.
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• Article 15(4) , special provisions have been made for educational

advancement of scheduled castes. These provisions exist in the form of
reservation of seats in educational institutions and scholarships etc.
• Article 16(4) provides for reservations in services in favour of persons of
backward classes, which are inadequately represented there in. The
‘backward classes’ is a generic term adopted in the constitution. This
generic term also includes scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. It was
been further amended with the 85th Constitutional Amendment Act
2001. The amendment shall be deemed to have came into force on 17 th
June 1995.
• Article 17 of the constitution abolishes untouchability and forbids its
practice in any form.
• Article 23 prohibits traffic in human beings and forced labour or
“beggar”. Bonded labour is an extreme form of forced labour and
majority of bonded labourers belong to the scheduled castes.
• Article 24 prohibits child labour. Again, a good proportion of child
labourers also belongs to scheduled castes.
• Article 25(2) (b) scheduled castes have access to all temples of any seat.
• Article 29(2), in general, safeguards access to educational institutions
maintained by the state or those receiving grants out of state funds.
• Article 46, “The state shall promote, with special care the educational
and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in
particular of scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes, and shall protect
them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation”.
• Article 330, 332 and 334 of the constitution provide for special
representation of schedule caste candidate in Lok Sabha and state
Vidhan Sabhas. The period of political reservations was initially
conceived for ten years.
• Article 330 reserves representation for scheduled caste and scheduled
tribes in houses of the people.
• Article 334 relates to reservation of seats and special representation to
cease after fifty years (Originally reservation was made for ten years and
it was extended four times, the present period expiry being 2010 AD).
• Article 335 mentions the claims of scheduled casts and scheduled tribes
to services and posts.
• Article 338 empowers the Central Government to appoint a National
Commission for Scheduled castes and Scheduled tribes.
• Article 339 empowers the president to appoint a commission to report on
the administration of the scheduled areas and welfare of scheduled
tribes in the states.
• Article 341 the president to specify the castes, races or tribes deemed as
scheduled casts in a particular state or union territory.
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Legislative measures or policy :

The government has been taking up the required legislative measures for
the removal of untouchability. In pursuance of the provision of the Article
17 of the constitution which declares the practice of untouchability a
punishable offence, the Parliament passed the Untouchability Offences Act
1955. It was later substituted by the Protection of Civil rights Act 1976. It
includes –
• Committing any kind of social injustice, such as denying access to any shop,
restaurant, public hospital, educational institution or any place of public
entertainment.
• Preventing a person, on the grounds of untouchability, from entering a
place of worship and offering prayers, or from drinking water from a public
well or spring.
• Refusal to sell goods or render services to a person on the grounds of
untouchability is an offence punishable with imprisonment for six months or a
fine upto Rs.500 or both.
• Enforcing occupational, professional trade, disabilities in the matter of
enjoyment of any benefit under a charitable trust etc.

Measures to Check Atrocities against SCs:-

Scheduled Castes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989, which came into force on
30th January 1990, specifies offences, which are considered as atrocities and
provides for deterrent punishments for commission of the same.
Comprehensive rules were also framed under this Act in 1995 to provide relief
and rehabilitation of the affected persons. This Act describes the following
acts as punishable crimes:

1. Forcibly occupying and cultivating the land of SC man.

2. Confiscating the land/property of any SC person.
3. Forcing an SC person to eat and drink some disgraceful substance.
4. Throwing into the house or the neighbourhood of SC person any rubbish
dead animal, etc. to humiliate him.
5. Forcibly snatching away the clothes from the body of SC person and
making him naked.
6. Insulating a SC person in someway or the other.
7. Sexual harassment of an SC woman.
8. Molesting or raping an SC woman.
9. Polluting the drinking water used by an SC person.
10. Forcibly evacuating an SC person from his house, neighbourhood or
village.
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11. Preventing an SC person from voting or forcing him to vote for a

particular person.
12. Compelling an SC person for forced labour or using him as a bonded
labourers.

Impact of the Act :

The Act attempts to curb and punish violence against Dalits through
three broad means. Firstly, it identifies what acts constitute “atrocities.”
These include both particular incidents of harm and humiliation such as
the forced consumption of noxious substances, as well as the systemic
violence still faced by many Dalits, especially in rural areas. Such
systemic violence includes forced labor, denial of access to water and
other public amenities, and sexual abuse of Dalit women. Secondly, the
Act calls upon all the states to convert an existing sessions court in each
district into a Special Court to try cases registered under the POA.
Thirdly, the Act creates provisions for states to declare areas with high
levels of caste violence to be “atrocity-prone” and to appoint qualified
officers to monitor and maintain law and order.

Unlike its predecessor, the 1955 Civil Rights Act, which only concerned
itself with superficial humiliations such as verbal abuse of the lower
castes, the POA is a tacit acknowledgement by the government that caste
relations are defined by violence, both incidental and systemic. The POA
gives Dalits vital ammunition in the form of legal redress for this
violence.

Although the POA is a powerful and precise weapon on paper, in

practice the Act has suffered from a near-complete failure in
implementation. Ironically, the primary obstacles to implementation are
intended to be the primary enforcers of the Act—the lowest rungs of the
police and bureaucracy that form the primary node of interaction
between state and society in the rural areas. Policemen have displayed a
consistent unwillingness to register offenses under the act. This
reluctance stems partially from ignorance. According to a 1999 study,
nearly a quarter of those government officials charged with enforcing
the Act are unaware of its existence.

In most cases, unwillingness to file a First Information Report (FIR)

under the Act comes from caste-bias. Upper caste policemen are
reluctant to file cases against fellow caste-members because of the
severity of the penalties imposed by the Act; most offenses are non-
bailable and carry minimum punishments of five years imprisonment.
Hard work by human rights defenders has slowly begun to decrease this
 12

problem. Nevertheless, the staggering scope of the problem demands

government intervention before cases can be properly registered under
the Act.

A bigger obstacle faces victims who actually manage to lodge a

complaint. Failure to follow through with cases is alarmingly apparent
at the lowest echelons of the judicial system. The statistics speak for
themselves: out of 147,000 POA cases pending in the courts in 1998, only
31, 011 were brought to trial. Such delay is endemic to the Indian
judicial system. Although the POA mandated the creation of Special
Courts precisely to circumvent this problem, only two states have
created separate Special Courts in accordance with the law. In other
states, existing sessions courts have been designated Special Courts,
while still being asked to process their usual caseloads. Since many
different Acts require the creation of Special Courts, such sessions
courts are often overloaded with a number of different kinds of
“priority” cases, virtually guaranteeing that none of these cases receive
the attention they are mandated to receive.

Even if cases make it to trial, the POA also suffers from abysmal rates of
conviction. Out of the 31,011 cases tried under the POA in 1998, only a
paltry 1,677 instances or 5.4% resulted in a conviction and 29,334 ended
in acquittal. Compare this to the conviction rate in cases tried under the
Indian Penal Code: in 1999, 39.4% of cases ended in a conviction and in
2000, 41.8%. Judicial delay is just one cause of this low conviction rate;
the lapse between the case being registered and the trial means that
witnesses who are often poor and face intimidation in the interim, turn
hostile and the case becomes too weak for a conviction. The long wait
also results in many plaintiffs losing interest. Judicial bias against Dalits
is rampant and unchecked, and court decisions frequently bear the
mark of such bias

So why has there not been more public outcry about the dismal failings
of the POA? Within the government, shoddy monitoring systems have
prevented effective action from being taken. Although not statutorily
mandated to do so, the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes (NCSCST) monitors the implementation of the Act.
The NCSCST only reports to the Central Government, although it
primarily monitors compliance to the POA in the states. The NCSCST
has state offices that report to it, but those are vastly understaffed and
only have an advisory relationship to the state legislatures. Such a
monitoring system depends on the central government’s commitment to
Dalit rights for enforcement of the NCSCST’s recommendations. The
 13

sorry record of the POA is ample evidence that this commitment is

lacking.

The structural flaws of the monitoring system have instead led to a lot of
futile finger-pointing about the failures of the POA. For example, in
1998, the NCSCST recommended that states conduct awareness
programs through NGOs about the Act for citizens and government
officials. In its reply to this recommendation, the Central Government
placed the responsibility for organizing awareness programs with the
states. However, there was no indication that the recommendation
would be referred to the states, nor was there any provision for follow-
up between the central government and the states. Such instances of
passing the buck are not exceptional; most of the recommendations,
particularly those relating to land reform laws and special court
creation, are referred to the states without any provision for follow-up.

The NCSCST is also hobbled by its mandate. Its chairman is not

authorized to release funds. Repeated requests from the NCSCST to the
central government to increase its funding and staff are either ignored
or deflected to various state agencies and then ignored. Similarly, the
Commission can also receive and investigate complaints under its
powers as a civil court, but cannot enforce its findings because it is not a
criminal court. The NCSCST is virtually powerless as a result, and
cannot carry out its responsibilities as the monitoring body of the POA.

Outside of the government, the steadily growing movement of NGOs

also seems to be misguided. Rather than holding India to its existing
legislative commitments to Dalits in the POA, the leading Dalit voices
push pie-in-the-sky agendas. The recommendations at the end of the
bleak “Black Paper” released by the National Campaign for Dalit
Human Rights include such absurdities as taxing corporations in order
to fund Dalit programs and allocating 20% of the GDP of the country in
order to fund programs meant specifically for Dalit welfare. Astute
recommendations that underscore what is already in the laws—
mandating the creation of special courts and the recruitment of a
minimum percentage of Dalits in all local police forces—lose their
weight in the midst of such impractical recommendations.

Worse yet, the recommendations of the Dalit groups seem to be taken

more seriously than the recommendations of government bodies. The
recent Bhopal Declaration, a set of demands issued at the end of a
conference of Dalit rights groups, included a demand for “a system of
collective punishment… as oppressors enjoy community support and
protection and escape the law.” Such a measure clearly circumvents the
 14

concept of individual rights that is the basis of the Indian justice system.
Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister Digvijay Singh’s zeal in implementing
such extra-legal measures is likely to result in a backlash against Dalit
rights.

The Prevention of Atrocities Act is a powerful piece of legislation. If only

the many voices professing to be working on behalf of the Dalits could
work effectively to make sure that the Central Government were held to
its promises.

In order to assure security and give more protection to the SCs and STs, some
states have resorted to some special measures among which the following may
be noted:
 Assisting the SCs in obtaining the possession of lands belonging or
allotted to them.
 Helping the SCs agricultural labourers in getting statutory minimum
wages.
 Setting up state level communities to loom after various aspects
concerning the welfare of the SCs.
 Establishing special SCs cells under the DIG Police to ensure that crimes
against the SCs are properly registered, investigated and quickly
prosecuted.
 To ensure quick disposal of cases pertaining to the SCs special courts are
set up in some states.
 The bureaucratic machinery is properly dealt with the solving disputes
of low wages, etc. concerning the SCs.
 Specially instructing the police authorities to treat cases of crimes
against the SCs as special cases and arrange for quick trial and
prosecution.

(B) Other Welfare Measures and Programmes for the upliftment

of Scheduled castes :

A national commission for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes has
been set up by the Central Government to safeguard the interests of the SCs
and STs. It functions as an advisory body on issues and policies related to
the development of SCs and STs. The state governments have separate
departments to look after the welfare of the SCs and STs. Their
administrative setup varies from state to state.

Impact of Educational Policies :

 15

Due attention is paid to extend the educational opportunities of SCs and

hence special provisions have been made in this regard. Free education, free
distribution of books, stationery, uniform etc., giving scholarships, banking
loan facilities, providing mid day meals, arranging for free boarding and
lodging facilities, reserving seats for SCs and STs in all the government and
government aided institutions etc. are some of the concrete steps which the
Government has taken in this regard.
It is the State Governments which have been given special responsibility for
educational development. The State Governments operate post-metric
scholarships for all eligible candidates: out of these a few are reserved for
Scheduled Caste candidates. Earmarking a specific number of seats at the
institutions imparting professional and technical education the Union
Government has been trying to raise the SC candidates to a higher label in
the fields of medicine, engineering and science. For the Indian
Administrative service while the upper age limit is 28, scheduled caste boys
and girls can take the examination upto the age 33 and make any number
of attempts to pass the examination.(For the year 1992 alone the age limit is
extended to 33 for general category and 38 for SC/ST.)
Hostels play an important role in encouraging SC candidates to pursue
their studies because of specific grants made for boys and girls.
Realizing the under-representation of Schedule Castes in the administrative
services the Union Government has also launched a programme of coaching
the SC students for All-India competitive examinations.
Despite the various development measures undertaken by the Union and
State Governments the gap between the general population and S.C. still
remains wide which is manifested by the fact that the literacy rate among
the S.C according to 1991 census was 19.67% as against 52.11% for Non-
Scheduled Caste population.

Centrally Sponsored scheme of Hostels for Scheduled Caste

Boys and Girls :

The main objective of the scheme of hostels for scheduled castes boys and
girls is to provide hostel facilities to scheduled caste students studying in
middle, high and secondary schools, colleges and universities for enabling
them to pursue their studies in educational centres . Under this scheme,
financial assistance is provided to the state government in 50:50 (100% to
Union Territories) matching share basis for the construction of hostels.
NGOs are given central assistance for expansion of existing hostels on 45%
central Share, 45 % state share and 10% own contribution. The details of
allocation, amount released as Central share, number of hostels sanctioned
and inmates covered are as under.
 16

Table 1.1
Year Amount Released No. of Hostels No. of Seats
(In Crores) Sanctioned
Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys
1997-98 6.00 9.05 78 27 12851 282
1998-99 7.94 11.00 46 86 2263 3386
1999-00 8.37 11.95 89 137 3398 6399
2000-01 11.47 13.53 22 33 2404 1272
2001-02 19.34 19.44 131 116 4535 6119
2002-03 2.98 7.39 7 50 490 2530

Central Sector of Upgradation of Merit of SC students :

The objective of the scheme is to upgrade the merit of scheduled caste

students by providing them with facilities for all round development
through education in residential schools. 100 percent central assistance to
and states/UTs for arranging remedial and special coaching for scheduled
castes students studying in classes IX to XII. Under this scheme, coaching is
provided in linguistic skills, science and mathematics. The number of
awards in respect of each state/UT will have a minimum of five awards. A
package grant of Rs.15,000/- per year per student is given. Students with
disabilities are eligible for additional grants as provided for in the scheme.

The details of release of the Central share and number of SC students

benefited under the scheme are as follows-
Table1.2
Year Amount Released No. of awards
(In Crores)
1997-98 0.76 609
1998-99 1.00 966
1999-00 1.50 1490
2000-01 0.47 345
2001-02 1.01 711
2002-03 1.20 849
(As on 27.12.2002)
Book Bank for scheduled Caste students :

The scheme is intended to provide SC students access to the latest text

books for courses such as medicine, veterinary, engineering, agriculture
and polytechnic courses that require expensive books through the
establishment of book banks. The scheme also includes Law course,
Chartered Accountancy, MBA and Bio Sciences. Central Assistance is
 17

provided to the states on 50% basis (100% to UTs). The details of

expenditure out of the central share and number of SC students benefited
under the schemes are as follows –

Table1.3
Year Amount Released No. of Beneficiaries
(In Crores)
1997-98 1.05 16482
1998-99 1.19 15230
1999-00 2.43 32409
2000-01 2.49 20349
2001-02 2.99 24421
2002-03 1.85 15791

 Post Matric scholarship for providing financial assistance for

higher education :-
Government spent 66.5 crore rupees for this purpose in the year 1993-
94. The University Grants Commission and the Ministry of Education
had earmarked 15% of their budget for this purpose during the 6th Plan
1980-85. Beginning with there were 114 students in 1993-94, the scheme is
presently covering nearly 20 lakh students. During 2002-03, central
assistance of Rs.84.18 Crore was released for this scheme.
 National Overseas scholarships and package grants for higher
education :-
This scheme provides financial assistance to selected meritorious
students for pursuing higher studies abroad in specified fields of Masters
level course, PhD and Post Doctoral research programmes in engineering,
Technology and science only. The modified scheme would provide
maintenance allowance of US Dollars 7700 per annum or Pound Sterling
5000 per annum per candidate in UK for courses covered under the
scheme. From the very inception of the scheme in 1954-55, a total no. of
732 scholarships have been offered, out of which 532 scholarships have
been availed of till 1998.

Impact of Economic Policies :

Government has taken up economic programmes also for the benefit of

SCs. For example, landless SC labourers are allotted land. Land reforms have
been undertaken to bring benefits of land ownership for them. Poor SC
farmers are supplied with seeds, agriculture implements, fertilizers, pesticides,
interest fee loans, pair of bullocks for ploughing, subsidy for developing dairy
 18

farming, poultry farming, piggery, animal husbandry, handicrafts, spinning

and weaving.
In order to enhance the economic position of the SCs the constitution has
provided for the reservation in services. Reservation of jobs, operates in All
India Services, central government, state governments and government owned
and managed public sector units and institutions. Reservation exists in all
these sectors for the SCs to the tune of 15% respectively. The reservations are
also extended to promotions, concessions such as relaxation of age limit,
relaxation in the standards of suitability, relaxation of the qualification and
experience, have also been provided to them.

Literacy rates among the Scheduled Castes :

Based on 1991 census the overall literacy rate for India was 52.11%. While
63.86% of the male population were literate only 39.42% of female came in
that group. According to 1991 census the literates among scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes comprised of 32.6 million males and 9.4 million females.

State % Literacy rate among % literacy rate (Overall)

SCs
Andhra Pradesh 19.67 52.11
Arunachal Pradesh 14.18 45.11
Assam 18.61 41.22
Bihar 21.42 53.42
Goa 9.19 38.54
Gujarat 38.16 76.96
Haryana 34.19 60.91
Himachal Pradesh 16.16 55.33
Jammu & Kashmir 23.45 63.56
Karnataka 12.16(1981) 32.68(1981)
Kerala 19.62 55.98
Madhya Pradesh 58.61 90.59
Maharashtra 14.91 43.45
Manipur 31.18 63.05
Meghalaya 41.18 60.96
Mizoram 23.17 48.26
Nagaland 43.16 81.23
Orissa 31.18 61.30
Punjab 19.28 48.55
Rajasthan 19.19 57.14
Sikkim 11.18 38.81
Tamilnadu 18.21 56.53
Tripura 36.18 60.39
 19

Uttar Pradesh 16.72 41.71

West Bengal 23.18 57.72

Conclusion :

The Hindu caste system is still quite rigid, particularly in rural areas. This
institution has even affected the social structure of Indian Muslims and also
that of Christians in some parts of India. So long as the endogamous Hindu
castes continue with caste based taboos, we can not hope to achieve any kind of
social equality.

But in the present context, it is essential to make maximum efforts against the
evil effects of casteism , which is adversely affecting almost all walks of our life.
A social environment needs to be created, which is free from caste based
distinctions or discrimination and where social mingling, based on freedom
and equality, prevails among all citizens of the country.

Multilevel and multi dimensional efforts are needed to achieve the objectives
of integration of the scheduled castes with the other sections of the community.
While economic development of the scheduled castes is primarily essential, it is
no less important to bring about attitudinal change in the minds of higher
castes towards the scheduled castes. Education and media, particularly
television, can create a general awareness against the evils of untouchability,
social discrimination and casteism. Intercaste marriages have to be
popularized and encouraged in several ways. All these government efforts can
not achieve the objectives of integration and creation of an egalitarian social
order. Therefore, voluntary organizations, social workers and religious leaders
must be actively involved for attaining these goals.

____________

BIBILOGRAPHY

• Ambedkar B.R. The Untouchables, who were they and

 20

Why they became untouchables

• Beteille Andre Caste, Class x Power, University of

California Press, Berkeley, 1965

• Chaurasia B.P. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes,

Allahabad, Chugh Publication, 1990

• Freeman, James M. Untouchables, London, George Allen

X Unwin, 1979

• Kar P.K. Indian society, Kalyani Publication,

New Delhi, 1998

• Shakar Rao C.N. Sociology of Indian Society, S.Chand

&Co.
New Delhi, 2005

• Annual Reports 2003-04 Ministry of Social Justice and

empowerment
Govt. of India, New Delhi

• Handbook National Commission for SCs & STs,

New Delhi, 1997

SEMINAR PAPER
 21

ANITA BAHALIA

P.G. 5th YEAR

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

RAVENSHAW UNIVERSITY,
CUTTACK