Types of Syllogisms

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Syllogisms are arguments that take several parts, typically with two
statements which are assumed to be true (or premises) that lead to a
conclusion.
There are three major types of syllogism:
* Conditional syllogism: If A is true then B is true (If A then B).
* Categorical syllogism: If A is in C then B is in C.
* Disjunctive syllogism: If A is true, then B is false (A or B).
Conditional Syllogism
The basic form of the conditional syllogism is: If A is true then B is also true. (If
A then B). It appears through a major premise, a minor premise and a
conclusion.
Example:
You are sad.
I am qualified to help people who are sad.
I can make you happy.
Categorical Syllogism
The basic form of the categorical syllogism is: If A is part of C then B is a part
of C. (A and B are members of C).
Example:
All New Yorkers are happy.
Some people live in New York.
Some people are happy.
Disjunctive Syllogism
The basic form of the disjunctive syllogism is: Either A is true or B is true. (A
exclusive-or B). Thus, if A is true, B is false, and if B is true, A is false. A and
B cannot both by true.
Example:
Either you vote for me or you vote for disaster.
The Rules of the Syllogism
There must be three terms.
The middle term must be distributed at least once.
No term may be distributed in the conclusion, if it was not distributed in the
premise.
No conclusion may be drawn from two particular premises nor from two
negative premises.
If one of the premises is negative, the conclusion must be negative.
These rules concern the validity of a syllogism, but NOT its truth. Truth is
determined by whether or not we agree with the premises.
Syllogisms are today’s most commonly accepted form of logical reasoning in aptitude tests, however
they are closer related to mathematical reasoning.
Prepare for logical reasoning tests just like the ones used by employers with JobTestPrep.
Within the syllogisms three different types can be distinguished:

Conditional syllogisms
Conditional syllogisms are better known as hypothetical syllogisms, because the arguments used
here are not always valid. The basic of this syllogism type is: if A is true then B is true as well. An
example will follow to elucidate the former.

Major premise: If Johnny is eating sweets every day, he is placing

himself at risk for diabetes.

Minor premise: Johnny does not eat sweats everyday

Conclusion: Therefore Johnny is not placing himself at risk for
diabetes
This conclusion is invalid because it is possible that Johnny does not eat sweats every day but does
eats cake every day what also puts him at risk for diabetes.

Disjunctive syllogisms
These syllogism types do not actually state that a certain premise (major or minor) is correct, but is
does states that one of the premises is correct. The basic type for this syllogism is: Either A or B is
true, but they can’t be true at the same time. Example:

Major premise: Either the meeting is at school or at home.

Minor premise: The meeting is not at home.
Conclusion: Therefore the meeting is at school.

The conclusion of the syllogism type may be given, however most of the times the conclusion can be
drawn based up on own conclusions.

Categorical syllogisms
The third and most commonly used type of syllogisms are the categorical syllogisms. The basic for
this syllogism type is: if A is a part of C, then B is a part of C (A and B are members of C). An
example of this syllogism type will clarify the above:
Major premise: All men are mortal.
Minor premise: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Both premises are known to be valid, by observation or historical facts. Because the two premises
are valid, the conclusion must be valid as well. Be aware that this conclusion is based on logical
reasoning and thus it doesn’t have to represent the “truth” always.

Next, these categorical syllogisms can be divided into 4 kinds of categorical propositions which will
be explained separately:

Propositions

1. A: Universal Affirmative
This is a syllogism of the form: All X are Y, like the example: all woman are shopaholic.
2. E: Universal Negative
This is the negative form of universal affirmative, which is a syllogism of the form: No X is Y, or
as example: No humans are perfect. This syllogism type is exactly the opposite of proposition “A”
explained above.
3. I: Particular Affimitive
Another syllogism type is the “particular form” which only influences some people and not the
whole population. This syllogism is of the form: Some X are Y.
4. O: Particular Negative
The opposite of proposition “I” is proposition “O” which is of the form: Some X are not Y. an
example of this would be: some cars are not green.
Syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning where you arrive at a specific conclusion by examining
two other premises or ideas. Syllogism derives from the Greek word syllogismos, meaning
conclusion or inference.
Some syllogisms contain three components:
 Major Premise
 Minor Premise
 Conclusion
For Example: All roses are flowers (major premise). This is a rose (minor premise). Therefore, I am
holding a flower (conclusion).

Types of Syllogism
The type of syllogism that typically contains these three components is categorical syllogism.
However, there are two other major kinds of syllogism. We'll discuss each one here, plus
enthymemes and syllogistic fallacy.

Categorical Syllogism
As we know, our first example about roses was a categorical syllogism. Categorical syllogisms
follow an "If A is part of C, then B is part of C" logic.
Let's look at some more examples.
 All cars have wheels. I drive a car. Therefore, my car has wheels.

o Major Premise: All cars have wheels.
o Minor Premise: I drive a car.
o Conclusion: My car has wheels.
 All insects frighten me. That is an insect. Therefore, I am frightened.

o Major Premise: All insects frighten me.
o Minor Premise: That is an insect.
o Conclusion: I am frightened.
Conditional Syllogism
Conditional syllogisms follow an "If A is true, then B is true" pattern of logic. They're often referred
to as hypothetical syllogisms because the arguments aren't always valid. Sometimes they're merely an
accepted truth.
 If Katie is smart, then her parents must be smart.

o Major premise: Katie is smart.
o Conclusion: Katie's parents are smart.
 If Richard likes Germany, then he must drive an Audi.

o Major premise: Richard likes Germany.
o Conclusion: He must like all things German, including their cars.
Disjunctive Syllogism
Disjunctive syllogisms follow a "Since A is true, B must be false" premise. They don't state if a
major or minor premise is correct. But it's understood that one of them is correct.
Major Premise: This cake is either red velvet or chocolate.
Minor Premise: It's not chocolate.
Conclusion: This cake is red velvet.
Major Premise: On the TV show Outlander, Claire's husband is either dead or alive.
Minor Premise: He's not alive.
Conclusion: Claire's husband is dead.

Enthymemes
An enthymeme is not one of the major types of syllogism but is what's known as rhetorical
syllogism. These are often used in persuasive speeches and arguments.
Generally, the speaker will omit a major or minor premise, assuming it's already accepted by the
audience.
 He couldn't have stolen the jewelry. I know him.

o Major Premise: He couldn't have stolen the jewelry.
o Minor Premise: I know his character.
 Her new purse can't be ugly. It's a Louis Vuitton.

o Major Premise: Her new accessory can't be ugly.
o Minor Premise: It's made by famous designer Louis Vuitton.
In an enthymeme, one premise remains implied. In the examples above, being familiar with someone
or something implies an understanding of them.

Syllogistic Fallacy
Some syllogisms contain false presumptions. When you start assuming one of the major or minor
premises to be true, even though they're not based in fact - as with disjunctive syllogisms and
enthymemes - you run the risk of making a false presumption.
 All crows are black. The bird in my cage is black. Therefore, this bird is a crow.

o Major Premise: All crows are black.
o Minor Premise: The bird in my cage is black.
o Conclusion: This bird is a crow.
 The scenery in Ireland is beautiful. I'm in Ireland. Therefore, the scenery must be beautiful.

o Major Premise: The scenery in Ireland is beautiful.
o Minor Premise: I'm in Ireland.
o Conclusion: The scenery is beautiful.
Of course, not every black bird is a crow and not all of Ireland is beautiful. When preparing a speech
or writing a paper, we must always make sure we're not making any sweeping generalizations that
will cause people to make false presumptions.

Rules of Syllogism
There are six known rules of syllogism. However, they mainly apply to categorical syllogism, since
that is the only category that requires three components: major premise, minor premise, conclusion.
Here are six rules that will ensure you're making a strong and accurate argument.
1. Rule One: There must be three terms: the major premise, the minor premise, and the conclusion
- no more, no less.
2. Rule Two: The minor premise must be distributed in at least one other premise.
3. Rule Three: Any terms distributed in the conclusion must be distributed in the relevant premise.
4. Rule Four: Do not use two negative premises.
5. Rule Five: If one of the two premises are negative, the conclusion must be negative.
6. Rule Six: From two universal premises, no conclusion may be drawn.

Further Examples of Syllogism

Literature
Syllogisms make for colorful literary devices. They explain situations indirectly, affording readers
the opportunity to practice reasoning and deduction skills. Shakespeare was a master of many things,
including syllogism. Here is an example of a syllogism fallacy in The Merchant of Venice:
Portia was a woman desired by many men. It was arranged she would marry the man who could
correctly guess which of three caskets contained her portrait.
One casket was inscribed with, "Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire." One man
concluded that, since many men desired Portia, her portrait must be in that casket.
He was wrong. His assumption falls under the category of syllogistic fallacy. One cannot deduce
that, since this casket contains what men desire, it's automatically the portrait. Men also desire
fortune and power, for example. There wasn't enough evidence to leap from premise to conclusion
here.

Philosophy
Socrates set up one of the most famous, and easily understand, examples of syllogism in philosophy.
He clearly followed the rule of three components.
All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, I am mortal.
This draws a clear picture of how one statement, when known to be universally true, should point
perfectly to another clear claim, thus drawing an accurate conclusion.

Modern Culture
Keep syllogisms in mind when viewing advertisements. Many leaps are made in advertising,
skipping either a major or minor premise:
Women love men who drive Lincoln MKZs.
Get ready for an enthymeme or syllogism fallacy. A blanket statement such as this skips one of the
two required premises. Every time a woman likes a man, it can't be assumed he drives a Lincoln
MKZ.

Persuasive Speeches and Writing

Understanding syllogisms will help you create masterful persuasive speeches and essays. They create
a formula for you to abide by, in order to ensure your main point is flawless.
Syllogisms also allow you to test your theories according to syllogistic fallacies. When examining
your main argument or point for discussion, be sure you haven't made any presumptions that your
audience might disagree with.
Definition of Syllogism
A syllogism is a form of logical reasoning that joins two or more premises to
arrive at a conclusion. For example: “All birds lay eggs. A swan is a bird.
Therefore, a swan lays eggs.” Syllogisms contain a major premise and a minor
premise to create the conclusion, i.e., a more general statement and a more
specific statement. In the example, the major premise is that all birds lay
eggs. The minor premise is that a swan is a bird. The conclusion links these
two propositions to conclude that if a swan is a bird it must lay eggs.
Syllogistic arguments are generally presented in this three-line format.
The word syllogism comes from the Greek word syllogismos, which means “a
conclusion” or “inference.” The definition of syllogism is very similar to that of
enthymeme. In an enthymeme, one of the premises—either major or minor—
is implied and thus left out of the reasoning. Even the conclusion can be
omitted in an enthymeme because it is obvious enough to the reader or
listener.
Types of Syllogism
While the most basic type of syllogism takes the form of “All A are B. All C are
A. Therefore all C are B,” there are, in fact, about two dozen types of
syllogisms. Here are just a few different ways that statements can be
combined to form conclusions:
 No A are B. All C are A. Therefore, no C are B. Example: No dogs are cats.
All beagles are dogs. Therefore, no beagles are cats.
 All A are B. Some C are A. Therefore, some C are B. Example: All
carnivores eat meat. Some mammals are carnivores. Therefore, some
mammals eat meat.
 Some A are B. All A are C. Therefore, some C are B. Some men eat meat.
All men are humans. Therefore, some humans eat meat.
Syllogistic Fallacies
Syllogisms can seem so logically precise that they present airtight arguments.
However, it is quite clear to see how there could be fallacy examples in
syllogisms if one or more of the premises is incorrect, or a faulty conclusion is
drawn when the premises are not absolute. Here are some examples of
syllogism that have inherent flaws:
 All men have brains. All humans have brains. Therefore, all humans are
men.
  Some horses are brown. Some shoes are brown. Therefore, some horses
are shoes.
 All carrots are orange. Some cats are orange. Therefore, some cats are
carrots.
Note that in all of these examples, the premises are all true. It is also possible
that the premises themselves are incorrect. For example: All humans are
moral. I am a human. Therefore, I am moral. In this case, the conclusion is
not borne out because it is false to state that all humans are inherently moral
creatures. Though the speaker could be a moral human being, the syllogistic
form cannot support this conclusion.

Common Examples of Syllogism

There are some examples of syllogism in popular culture, such as in
advertising and television.

Television
Dr. House: Words have set meanings for a reason. If you see an animal like
Bill and you try to play fetch, Bill’s going to eat you, because Bill’s a bear.
Little Girl: Bill has fur, four legs, and a collar. He’s a dog.
Dr. House: You see, that’s what’s called a faulty syllogism; just because you
call Bill a dog doesn’t mean that he is . . . a dog.
(“Merry Little Christmas” episode from House, M.D.)
Jaqen H’ghar: A man pays his debts. A man owes three.
Arya Stark: Three what?
Jaqen H’ghar: The Red God takes what is his, lovely girl. And only death may
pay for life. You saved me and the two I was with. You stole three deaths
from the Red God. We have to give them back. Speak three names, and a
man will do the rest. Three lives I will give you. No more, no less. And we’re
done.
(“The Ghost of Harrenhal” episode from Games of Thrones)
In this example, the character Jaqen H’ghar is presenting this syllogism: Only
death can pay for life. You saved three lives. Therefore, I must kill three men.

Advertising
 “With a name like Smucker’s, it has to be good.” —Smucker’s jams
  “These are the stakes–to make a world in which all God’s children can live
or go into the dark. We must either love each other or we must die.” —
Presidential Candidate Lyndon Johnson’s “Daisy commercial”
 “Want him to be more of a man? Try being more of a woman!” —Coty
perfume
♦
♦
♦

Significance of Syllogism in Literature

Syllogism has been an important part of logic for thousands of years,
especially popularized by Aristotle. One of his most famous syllogistic
statements was the following: “All men are mortal. Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.” Scholars during the Middle Ages also took up
the analysis of syllogisms and eighteenth and nineteenth century scholars
such as Immanuel Kant and George Boole also discussed the importance of
syllogistic reasoning. Even René Descartes famous statement “Cogito ergo
sum,” translated into English as “I think, therefore I am,” is an example of
syllogism. While it is important in logic, it is more difficult to find syllogism
examples in literature, as writers are usually not quite as explicit in their
reasoning as syllogism tends to be. However, some authors have characters
use syllogism to prove a point, while others use it subtly to describe a
situation. Generally, when syllogistic reasoning is found in literature, it is not
as explicit as the three-part structure we see in logic.

Examples of Syllogism in Literature

Example #1
All love is wonder; if we justly do
Account her wonderful, why not lovely too?
(“The Anagram” by John Donne)
This is an example of syllogism that presents the premises and conclusion in a
relatively straightforward manner. As the poet John Donne writes about his
love, he posits the following about his beloved: All love is wonderful. She is
wonderful. Therefore, she is lovely. Of course, whether or not this is true
about the woman, Donne employs a bit of false reasoning here. A correct
syllogism would be: All love is wonderful. She is love. Therefore, she is
wonderful.
Example #2
“Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire.”
Why, that’s the lady. All the world desires her.
(The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare)
In William Shakespeare’s play The Merchant of Venice, several suitors come to
woo Portia and are confronted with the riddle of the three chests—gold,
silver, and lead. The man who correctly chooses the chest that contains
Portia’s portrait can marry her. The Prince of Morocco reads the description of
the golden chest, which is stated above, and makes the following
syllogistic argument: All the world desires Portia. The golden chest contains
what many men desire. Therefore, the golden chest contains Portia’s portrait.
Unfortunately for him, he gets the riddle wrong.
Example #3
All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.
(Animal Farm by George Orwell)
There are several misconstructions of logic and reasoning in George Orwell’s
novel Animal Farm. The animals who take control of the farm from humans
make some new rules and manifestos. At the beginning of the story, the
pigs—who create these new rules—assert that all animals are equal. Later in
the novel as some pigs become power hungry, the syllogism grows and
changes, and becomes absurd. The above syllogism example implies: All
animals are equal. Some animals are more equal than others. Therefore, pigs
are more important than other animals. This is an example where the
conclusion is left out.