1 Hydrology for Urban Stormwater Drainage

Learning objectives:
After completing this section, the student should know
- Hydrological processes relevant to urban storm drainage
- Impacts of urbanization on hydrological processes and on surface runoff
- Various methods to mitigate adverse hydrological impacts of urbanizations
- The important aspects including structural and nonstructural measures for flood and
water quality control that need to be given attention in urban development planning
- Basic concepts in catchment modelling

1.0 Introduction

In this chapter, processes in the hydrological cycle relevant to urban stormwater drainage are
briefly discussed first and then, impacts of urbanization on the hydrological processes and
various approaches to mitigate adverse impacts are discussed.

Urbanization is essentially characterized development of habitats and associated infrastructure

facilities required for economic and social activities necessary for livelihood of growing
population in the area concerned. Thus, urbanization brings changes in land use with
construction of buildings, roads, parks and other facilities, and increases supply of water for
consumptive use and release of wastewater. The natural hydrological processes that prevail in the
area are therefore seriously affected due to urbanization.

1.1 Introduction to hydrological processes

The hydrologic cycle is the circulation of water through the hydrosphere which extends to about
14 km to the atmosphere and about 1 km into the earth crust. The hydrological cycle has various
components as shown in Figure (1.1) and there is a continuous interchange of water among these
different components of the cycle. Water is driven in the cycle by solar energy directly and
indirectly, by Coriolis forces and gravitational and capillary forces. However, the total mass of
water in the hydrological cycle remains constant.

As shown in Figure (1.1), water evaporates from the land surface, ocean, inland water bodies,
vegetation enters as vapour into the atmosphere. Water vapour is transported to higher altitudes
in the atmosphere until it condenses and forms clouds and eventually falls on the earth by
precipitation. Precipitation can be in the form of rainfall, snowfall or in other forms. Precipitated
water may be intercepted by vegetation, may reach the land and flows as overland flow.
Overland flow discharges into the streams and then to lakes or to the ocean. Some water may
infiltrate into the ground, flows as subsurface flow, percolates to recharge deep groundwater.
This groundwater may emerge as springs or seep into the water bodies.

From all the water in the hydrological cycle about 96.5 percent is in the oceans, 1.7 percent is in
the polar ice, 1.7 percent is in the form of groundwater and only the remainder which is 0.1
percent is in the surface and atmospheric water systems. The estimated water quantities in
different components of the hydrological cycle are given in Table 1.1. Although the percentage
of water in the surface and atmosphere is relatively small, there is a large quantity of water in
them. Also, the hydrologic processes involved in the surface and atmospheric water systems are
enormous and vibrant, and have a vast effect on the earth environment.

39
100 Moisture over land
Precipitation on land

385
precipitation
61
on ocean
Evaporation from land

Evaporation and
Surface evapotranspiration
runoff

Infiltr ation
424
Evaporation from ocean
Soil Subsurface
moisture flow Water
table
Impervious 38 Surface outflow
strata
Groundwater flow Groundwater
outflow
Fig. 1.1 Hydrologic cycle
 Table 1.1 Water quantities in different components of the hydrologic cycle
Item Volume (km3) Percent of water
Oceans 1,388,000,000 96.5
Ground water 10,530,000 0.76
Fresh 12,870,000 0.93
Saline
Soil moisture 16,500 0.0012
Polar ice 4,023,500 1.7
Other ice and snow 340,600 0.025
Lakes
Fresh 91,000 0.007
Saline 85,400 0.006
Marshes 11,470 0.0008
Rivers 2,120 0.0002
Biological water 1,120 0.0001
Atmospheric water 12,900 0.001
Total of water 1,385,984,610 100

Although all processes in the hydrological cycle are equally important, only the hydrological
processes relevant to generation and flow of surface water that require thorough understanding
for the subject of storm water drainage are discussed here.

1.1.1 Precipitation

Precipitation and evaporation are the hydro-meteorological processes in the atmosphere that
interact with surface water. Precipitation is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the earth.
Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 of it over the
oceans. Given the earth's surface area, that means the globally-averaged annual precipitation is
990 millimeters. Much of the water precipitated on the land surface is derived from moisture
evaporated from the oceans and transported by atmospheric circulation.

The pattern of atmospheric circulation has three cells in each hemisphere as shown in Fig. 1.2.
In the tropical cell, heated air ascends at the equator, proceeds toward the poles at upper levels,
loses heat and descends toward the ground at latitude of 30 deg. In the polar cell, air rises at 60
deg and flows toward the poles at upper levels then cools and flows back to 60 deg near the
earth’s surface. The middle cell is driven frictionally by the other two; its surface air flows
toward the pole, producing westerly air flow in the mid-latitudes.
The main forms of precipitation include rain, snow, hail and sleet and it occurs when the water
vapour in the atmosphere condenses and falls to the earth. The process requires saturation of the
air mass by the processes of decreasing its temperature or by increasing the concentration of
water vapour or by both together.

Ionosphere
Tropical Stratosphere
tropopause

Equator Doldrums
Troposphere

NE trade SE trade
30 N winds
0
winds 300 S
High pressure High pressure
Polar
Westerlies Westerlies
tropopause
600N 60 S
0

Low pressure Low pressure

Tropical cell
Easterlies Easterlies
Middle cell
N pole Polar cell S pole

Fig 1.2 Pattern of atmospheric circulation

The main mechanisms of adding more water vapour into air masses are by daytime evaporation
water from the water bodies, evapotranspiration from plants and by wind convergence into areas
of upward motion. The cooling of air masses and condensation of water vapour happens when
they are lifted to higher altitudes in the atmosphere. The three main mechanisms of air mass
lifting are frontal lifting, where warmer air is lifted over cooler air by frontal passage; orographic
lifting, where air masses rises to pass over a mountain, and convective lifting where air moves
upward due to instabilities in the air columns. Also, upward motion of the outgoing air masses at
a cylcone which happens due to convergence of air masses on low pressure zone at lower
elevation, leads to cooling and condensation of water vapour.

a) Frontal precipitation
Frontal precipitation occurs when a warm air mass, moved by wind currents and atmospheric
pressure gradients, overtakes and rises above a cooler air mass. The rising of the warm, moisture-
laden air to a higher altitude causes it to cool and the water vapour condenses. The precipitation
from this process often extends over large areas, interface between the warm and cool air masses
is called a warm front.
A cold front occurs when a cold air mass overtakes a warmer one and displaces the warm air
upwards. Again, the rising and cooling of the warm air is what causes condensations to occur.
Unlike warm fronts, the precipitation arising from a cold front is frequently spotty and often
covers relatively small area.

b) Cyclonic precipitation
A cyclone is a region of low pressure into which air flows from surrounding higher areas. Flow
around the low pressure centre moves in a counterclockwise direction in the northern hemisphere
and in a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere due to Coriolis forces.
As air masses converge on the low pressure area, the incoming mass of air must be balanced by
an outgoing one. Because air is entering from all directions horizontally, the outgoing air has no
choice but to move vertically upward. Precipitation of this type is closed cyclonic precipitation.

c) Convective precipitation
Convective precipitation is caused by different heating of an air mass. It takes place in small,
localized areas of a few square kilometers. This may occur in urban areas or during summer
months when air near the ground surface becomes heated and rises with respect to the cooler
surrounding air. This rise can be quite rapid and often results in thunderstorms.

d) Orographic precipitation
Orographic precipitation occurs when an air mass is forced by topographic barriers to higher
altitude where the temperature is cooler. This type of precipitation is common in mountainous
regions where air currents are forced up over the tops of the mountains by wind movement.
When the air rises to a cooler altitude, condensation occurs. Orographic precipitation can be
quite pronounced on the windward side of a mountain range while there is often a relatively little
precipitation on the leeward side.

Changes of precipitation due to global warming

Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1999 to 2008 with respect to the average
temperatures from 1940 to 1980.

Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which leads to more precipitation. As

average global temperatures have risen, average global precipitation has also increased.
Precipitation generally increased over land north of 30°N from 1900 through 2005 but has
declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically significant
overall trend in precipitation over the past century, although trends have varied widely by region
and over time. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and
central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of
southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy
precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the
1970s in the prevalence of droughts—especially in the tropics and subtropics.

1.1.2 Interception
During precipitation, the leaves and stems of vegetation, buildings, etc capture some of the
precipitation before it reaches the ground surface. This is termed as interception and the
intercepted water is dissipated by evaporation during the dry weather after rainfall. Interception
depends on the land cover (vegetation types, density) cover and can be significant fraction of the
annual precipitation ranging up to about 30 percent.

1.1.3 Evaporation and Evapotranspiration

Evaporation which is the vaporization of water from a water surface depends on the supply of
heat energy to provide latent heat to produce vapour and transport of the vapour away by the
wind. The measured pan evaporation data provide the best indication of nearby open water
evaporation. A measured value of pan evaporation is multiplied by a pan factor in the range of 0
to 1 (usually taken as 0.7) to convert it to open water evaporation value.

Evapotranspiration (ET) is the evaporation from land surface and transpiration from vegetation.
It depends on the availability of moisture in the evaporative surface other than the above two
factors governing the evaporation. The evaporation component of ET includes direct evaporative
loss from the soil surface, depression storages and intercepted water. Transpired water is that
which is used by vegetation and subsequently lost to the atmosphere as vapor. The water
generally enters the plant through the root zone, is used for various biophysiological functions
including photosynthesis, and then passes back to the atmosphere through the leaf stomates.
Transpiration will stop if the vegetation becomes stressed to the wilting point, which is the point
in which there is insufficient water left in the soil for a plant to transpire, or if the plant to
atmosphere vapor concentration gradient becomes prohibitive to plant physiological processes.

The calculations of rate of evapotranspiraton are made using the pan evaporation with
adjustments to account for the condition of the vegetation and soil. For a given climatic condition,
basic rate is the reference crop evaporation defined as the rate evapotranspiraton from an
extensive surface of 8 cm to 15 cm all green grass cover of uniform height, actively growing,
completely shading the ground and not short of water.
The potential evapotranspiration of another crop growing under the same conditions as the
reference crop is calculated by multiplying the reference crop evaportaspiration by a crop
coefficient. Crop coefficient changes with the stage of growth of the crop.

Actual evapotranspiration (AET) is the quantity of water that is actually removed from a surface
due to the processes of evaporation and transpiration. AET is found by multiplying the potential
evapotranspiration by a soil coefficient.

1.1.4 Infiltration

The process of penetrating of water from the ground surface under gravity is called infiltration.
Many factors influence the infiltration rate. It mainly depends on condition of soil surface,
existing land cover, properties of soil beneath. Properties of soil include porosity, hydraulic
conductivity and existing moisture content of the soil. These properties significantly vary with
time and space, and therefore the infiltration process is a complex process to describe
mathematically.

In unsaturated soil, that is when the void spaces in soil are only partially filled with water, the
water is attracted and kept bonded to the particle surfaces through surface tension and a soil
suction force is present. The energy possessed by unit weight of water due to suction force is
referred to as suction head. The suction head varies with the moisture content and it diminishes
as the soil gets saturated. The hydraulic conductivity, on the other hand, increases with the
increase of moisture content (Fig 1.3).

1.1.5 Subsurface flow

Subsurface flow which occurs as lateral flow beneath the land surface is a major component in
the hydrological cycle. Subsurface water zones and processes are shown in Fig. 1.4. The water
stored in the form of soil moisture in unsaturated or saturated soil laterally flows under energy
gradient. The subsurface flow finally leads to a stream at a depression and subsurface flow
contributes for the base flow present in streams during dry weather periods.

During dry weather period with no infiltration from other than the surface water storages, the
source for subsurface flow is the stored water in the catchment in the form of soil moisture. The
subsurface flow released into streams and evapotranspiration gradually reduces the subsurface
storage. In turn, the depleting soil moisture storage reduces the subsurface flow into the streams.
Subsurface flow velocities and discharge can be estimated by the application of Darcy’s law.
 Fig 1.3 Soil suction force and suction head

Fig 1.4 Subsurface water zones and processes

1.1.6 Surface water flow

Inland surface water is a major part in the hydrological cycle. Surface water flows are caused
during precipitation as excess over infiltration, and due to releases of water after consumptive
uses from houses, industries and irrigation, discharge from springs, and secretion (or exfiltration)
from saturated and unsaturated soil as base flow. Surface water flow appears as overland flows
during precipitation and for short period after precipitation, etc. and as channel flows in drains,
streams and rivers.

As the rainfall continues, the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil and
excess water begins to pond on the land surface. The ponded water fills depressions and potholes
in the ground surface and, also remain attach to the surface by surface tension. Depression
storages are depleted by infiltration and evaporation. It is only after filling these depression
storages that water starts to flow downstream as overland flow. First, overland flow concentrates
into rill flow, and then rill flow concentrates into gully flow and stream flow. The overland flow
continues to flow downstream in the catchment slope until it is discharged to a drain or a stream.
However, overland flow may be intercepted within the catchment by natural depressions in
ground or manmade storage facilities and detained or retained. When a rainfall of intensity (i)
occurs on a plain sloping ground of a unit area with an infiltration rate (f), generates a runoff of
equivalent to the excess precipitation over infiltration (i-f). The same may be extended to
estimate the overland flow generated from a catchment slope by multiplying the excess
precipitation over infiltration over by the catchment area. This type of overland flow is known as
Hortonian overland flow. When the soil profile is saturated, there is no infiltration and saturation
overland flow occurs.

Stream flow hydrograph

Stream flow is formed by both overland flow and subsurface flow. Stream flow hydrograph
gives the discharge at a location of a stream as a function of time. It may be used to represent
variation of monthly stream flow at the location over a period of several years or it may be used
to represent the response of the catchment at the location during a rainfall event hourly rainfall.
 Figure 1.5 Typical stream flow hydrograph

Figure 1.5 shows a typical stream flow hydrograph at a location in a stream during a rainfall.
Prior to the beginning of the rainfall, base flow is gradually diminishing (segment AB). Direct
runoff begins at B, peaks at C and ends at D. Segment DE follows as base flow recession begins
again. T p, called time of concentration, is the time taken for flow in the catchment to concentrate
to the location .

Time of concentration implies that during this period of time the flow rate gradually increases
until rainfall from the entire catchment has had time to travel to the outlet and contributing to the
flow at the location.

The characteristics of a catchment have two basic effects on the shape of the hydrograph at the
outlet of the watershed. The geometric characteristics including size, shape, hydraulic length,
slope and drainage pattern these are reflected by the time of concentration, depression storages,
runoff volumes.
1.2 Impacts of urbanization on surface and subsurface hydrology

Urban areas concentrate population and production and provide some obvious advantages over
rural settlements. Urban community is served with the facilities of all kinds mostly at door step
at a cheaper price compared to rural community. In particular, the service providers have larger
and concentrated customer population in urban areas to enable them to maintain lower specific
cost for the provision of potable water supplies, sewers and drains, garbage collection,
telecommunication, transportation, health, educational and emergency services.

Urbanization accompanies the introduction of vast impervious areas, efficient hydraulic

conveyance systems and supply of large volumes of pipe water resulting changes to an urban
setting to dramatically alter the surface and subsurface hydrology. Urbanization is also
responsible for increase of discharging pollutants to natural water bodies. The concentration of
domestic, commercial and industrial wastes causes major environmental and health problems for
the inhabitants. Principal phases of the urban water cycle are given in Fig. 1.6.
 Fig 1.6 Movement of water in urban environment
Source: Technical Documents in Hydrology , No. 50, UNESCO
1.2.1 Changes forced to hydrological setting by urbanization
In a pre-urbanized catchment, naturally evolved surface flow drainage systems and hydrological
processes prevail. Natural storage in a catchment is being made available by the effects of
infiltration, vegetation wetting, interception and depression storage. Urbanization affects the
hydrological processes through the changes introduced to the parameters governing the processes
(boundary conditions of the system).

Reduced interception
With the removal of vegetation in the catchment, interception of precipitation is reduced
allowing higher volume of precipitation to reach the ground.

Increased imperviousness
Changes in land use by the construction of buildings, roads, parking areas and other facilities in
the process of urbanization increases the impervious proportion in the land area. With the
urbanization, vegetation cover is drastically reduced.

Faster conveyance system

Water drainage system is improved by introducing lined canals, buried sewers to efficiently drain
water out from the urbanized area to avoid inconvenience to the public. Changes in hydraulic
efficiency of storm water collection systems with artificial channels, storm sewers increase the
velocity of flow. In an efficient manner, stormwater from roofs are conveyed to storm drains
through gutters and downpipes, curbs and gutters are designed to convey storm water away from
the road surface to storm drains. Thus drainage systems quickly convey the runoff directly into
receiving waters compared to pre-urbanized setting. The surface topography is altered in open
areas to avoid water logging. The retention period of water is reduced.

Increased water supply for consumptive use

Large volumes of piped water are supplied for municipal, industrial and other consumptive uses
in an urban area. Most of this water is released as wastewater after consumptive use. Sources for
supplying this water demand can be various; from a catchment outside urban area, from the head
waters of catchment of the urban area or from the area itself. If water is supplied from a source
outside the catchment, it means there is more water now in the catchment (urban area) the than
before. If the water is from the urban area itself, water abstraction can be from the subsurface
storages or from the surface water flow. Increased water supply changes the hydrology in the
area, and the effect can be significant specially during the dry weather period.
Release of wastewater (urban drainage flows) and sewer systems

Water is consumed all over the urbanized area and released as wastewater after use. Wastewater
is generated from residences, business and services (e.g. restaurants), industries. Theses
wastewater sources are spatially distributed and the discharges are time-varying. The facility for
wastewater drainage from urban areas is generally provided in two ways: separate sewer system
for wastewater from storm sewers or as combined sewer system. In separate sewer systems,
wastewater is collected and treated separately and treated water is discharged sometimes to
surface water bodies. In combined sewer systems, wastewater and stormwater are drained
together and released to surface water bodies or main stormwater drains after treatment.
Overflow under extreme conditions are however directed to main stormwater drains bypassing
the treatment facilities.

The changes to diurnal and seasonal flow patterns prevailed in the streams in the area and the
downstream are discussed later.

Increase in material consumption and commercial activities

Population increase leads to increase in consumption of material and increase of commercial
activities. Therefore, there is an increase in the generation of municipal and industrial wastewater,
and solid waste in the catchment. The sources of stormwater pollutants are diffuse and highly
variable.

1.2.2 Urbanization effect on surface water flow

Changes to the flood hydrograph

Increase in runoff
The volume of water available for runoff increases because of the increase in the impervious
cover provided by roofs of buildings, streets, paved parking lots, lined drains which reduce the
amount of infiltration. Before urbanization much of the rainfall is absorbed by the surrounding
vegetation, soil and ground cover.

The runoff coefficient is a measure of the amount of rainfall that is converted to runoff or storm
runoff generation. As the percentage of watershed imperviousness increases, the runoff
coefficient increases with urbanization.
Decrease in time of concentration
Changes in hydraulic efficiency of storm water collection systems with artificial channels, storm
sewers increase the velocity of flow. In an efficient manner, stormwater from roofs are conveyed
to storm drains through gutters and downpipes, storm water from road surfaces are conveyed to
storm drains through curbs and gutters. Thus, drainage systems convey the runoff quickly into
receiving waters compared to pre-urbanized setting. The retention period of water is reduced and
time concentration of flow at a stream section is drastically reduced.

Figure 1.7 Changes in the flood hydrograph

Figure 1.7 shows the typical change brought to flood hydrograph at the outlet of an area due to
urbanization. The hydrograph depicts the increase in flood peak due to increased runoff and the
reduced time of concentration. The total volume of discharge is increased due to reduction in
infiltration (increase in the runoff coefficient). The hydrograph indicates steeper limbs, i.e. the
rapid increase and drop in discharge, and this steepness of the hydrograph implies the increase in
flash floods brought by urbanization.

Floods in urban conditions occur both on urbanized surfaces (streets, parking lots, yards, parks)
and in small urban creeks that deliver water to large water bodies. Urban floods are flashy.
Furthermore, flooding is aggravated due to lack of maintenance of drainage facilities due to
clogging the drainage system and sediments and solid wastes/debris transported with the
stormwater.

Increase in urban drainage flow

Water supplied to the urban area is discharged to the drainage system after consumptive use and
creates a considerable drainage flow in the sewers.

The urban wastewater flow has variations in daily, weekly, monthly, and annually scales. The
typical diurnal variation in urban drainage flows in a residential area takes the pattern shown in
Figure 1.8. There is relatively little sanitary flow at night, increased flow during the early
morning hours as people wake up and prepare for the day, decreased flow during the middle of
the day, and, finally, increased flow again in the early evening as people return home. Figure 1.9
shows the difference in drainage flows between residences and industries.

Weekly variation is mainly due to usage pattern of water that often differ during weekdays and
weekends. Seasonal variations in urban wastewater flows is related to changes in climatic
variables, such as temperature and precipitation, and also to the changing habits of customers,
such as travel and other activities occurring in the summer. Higher drainage flows are evident
during summer season compared to winter season.

Changes in dry weather flow

An increase in impervious surface decreases the amount of rainfall available for infiltration. The
efficient hydraulic conveyance system reduces ponding time and the detention time of water and
thus reduces infiltration. The groundwater recharge is therefore greatly reduced and the
subsurface flow is drastically reduced. As a result, streams will lose the potential source of water,
and base flow from the catchment reduces.

Dry weather flow in an urbanized catchment depends not only on the base flow but also on the
contribution from wastewater flows after consumptive use or urban drainage flow. The urban
drainage flow discussed above will enter into the drains and finally to the streams. Drainage flow
contribution has a significant share in the dry weather flow.

Figure 1.8 Diurnal variation in urban drainage flows

Fig 1.9 Difference of drainage flows in residences and industries

Degradation of water quality
Urban drainage flow is expected to be discharged to streams after treatment. However, a certain
percentage of urban drainage flows generated after consumptive use may be discharged without
adequate water quality treatment. The water quality in the dry weather flow in urban areas can be
very poor due to higher contribution from drainage flows. The poor water quality in urban
streams during dry weather is a major issue in developing countries today.

The storm runoff is directly discharged into nearby drains and finally to water bodies.
Urbanization increases the amount of pollutants in storm runoff, such as sediment, nutrients,
organic matter, trace metals (copper, cadmium, lead), pesticides, herbicides and hydrocarbons,
and others. Wear of tires (a known source of zinc), deteriorating brake pads, or just leaks, drips
and spills of oil and other pollutants from the automobiles that accumulate on impervious
surfaces. Soil erosion is increased with the increase of flow and availability of exposed loose soil
in urban areas.

Impervious cover increases air and soil water temperatures and can increase temperature in urban
discharges. Stream temperature is an important parameter for aquatic habitats. Some of the
indicators of the impact of urbanization on water quality include increased stream temperature
and pollutants.

Effect on receiving water bodies

Urban area is a part of the catchment of a stream or other water body at the down stream. The
peak flow generated by urban areas has a significant effect on the hydraulics and ecosystem in
the receiving water bodies. In the case of streams, frequent high flows cause stream bed and
erosion causing widening of the stream. Also, urbanization directly impacts the quality of the
receiving water bodies. The pollutants and suspended matter in the storm water change the
nature of the substrate in the receiving body. Habitats of aquatic life are threatened and
biodiversity is affected.

1.1.6 Urban heat build-up and rainfall changes

The urban heat build-up, the phenomena known as urban heat island warms cities above
surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This occurs because in urban areas, there are fewer trees,
and other natural vegetation to shade buildings, block solar radiation and cool the air by
evapotranspiration. In addition, the materials used in buildings, roads, etc. have significantly
high thermal bulk properties, including heat capacity and thermal conductivity, and surface
radiative properties ,(e.g. albedo and emissivity) than the surrounding rural areas. Furthermore,
tall buildings within many urban areas provide multiple surfaces for the reflection and absorption
of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are heated. There is also waste heat
from automobiles, air conditioning, industry.roof and paving materials. These reasons cause
both surface temperature and overall ambient air temperature in an urban area to rise.

A typical profile of the urban heat island effect and its relationship to the urban landscape is
shown in (Figure 1.10) below.

Figure 1.10 : Urban Heat Islands Profile

[Source: (EPA, 2008)]

Due to release of excessive heat, mega cities cause local atmospheric flow to deflect upwards, in
effect acting as virtual mountains. As mountains participate in orographic enhancement of
rainfall, these convective currents also cause a significant increase of rainfall over and in the
vicinity of cities. Converging air due to city surfaces of varying heights, like buildings, also
promotes rising air needed to produce clouds and rainfall.

In mega cities like Tokyo, it has been established that there is a significant increase of high-
intensity rainfall events and one of the major driving forces of these small-scale enhanced rain
events has bee identified as the urban heat island effect.
1.3 Mitigation of adverse impacts of urbanization

Mitigation of adverse hydrological impacts of urbanization is essentially requires a multi-

disciplinary approach through structural and non-structural measures. The hydrological impacts
affect the socio-economic and environmental conditions in the area and vise-versa. The civil
engineering components fall mainly to the structural measures and those alone fails to mitigate
the adverse impacts on hydrological environment. Non-structural measures of mitigation of
urbanization impacts on hydrology include measures that do not involve constructions, such as
conducting awareness building among the population about the consequences of ad hoc
developments on development projects, preparedness for facing floods, introduction of
legislations, introduction of environmental impact assessment, etc that contribute directly
towards reducing losses of life and damage to property. Structural and non-structural measures
must be integrated to the planning and development of urban areas to avoid the need for an
isolated approach to solve urban drainage problems.

Preventive actions for hydrological impacts are always simpler and cost effective compared to
corrective actions. Some suggested actions include: maintaining the natural rainfall-runoff ratios,
protecting hydrological sensitive areas, sediment sources, and sensitive habitat areas, minimize
and hydraulically disconnect impervious areas, such as rooftops, rain gutters, parking lots and
roads, minimize topography changes and soil compaction, cluster development in less sensitive
areas, integrate flood control and water quality control structures into the landscape. Stormwater
is a significant source of pollution, and therefore concepts of source control, flow attenuation and
treatment in natural and artificial biological systems are important.

1.3.1 Non-structural measures

Non-structural measures applicable are greatly area specific and depend on the socio-economic,
environmental policies of the governing local authorities. Nevertheless, the new urban
development projects can be enforced with conditions to maintain natural drainage, minimize the
impervious areas to be created, provide sufficient areas for infiltration and storm water storage.

Legislation that needs to be enacted in order to provide legal basis for implementation of
stormwater directives and programs should include provisions for:
- temporary storage of excess runoff, i.e. release of runoff during a storm is
controlled by imposing mandatory storm water retention or detention facility
within the premises. Building codes are introduced to include storm water storage
facilities, infiltration trenches, etc..
- provisions for floodplain zoning and regulation, i.e. to regulate land use changes,
some areas will be prohibited for developments and left out for flood control.
 - provisions for flood-proofing of buildings, i.e. buildings are required to adopt
flood proofing techniques to coop with floods
- stormwater pollution control, i.e. source is controlled by imposing quality
standards for wastewater and solid waste disposals in urban environments, to
adapt devices to control the discharges, to improve the quality at the premises
itself by owners before releasing to the public facility such as storm water drains
- provisions for development of a compatible and coordinated stormwater drainage
system.

1.3.2 Structural measures

The traditional prescriptions for urban drainage are the rapid removal of surface water through
artificial drainage systems, straightening and channelizing the existing streams. However, as
discussed in Section 1.2.2, these practices shorten the time of concentration and increases the
flash floods and peak discharges at the downstream. Therefore urban drainage solutions require
to adopt rapid removal structures and retarding structures and onsite techniques to minimize
runoff generation and to increase infiltration. The traditional “efficient conveyance” approach is
shifted gradually towards the “water storing” approach, focusing on detention, retention and
recharge. In most cases the natural depressions can be used to provide storage as temporary
storages or continuous storages for urban flows to relieve the drainage network and the
downstream receiving bodies of excess discharges and pollutant loads.

a) Flow detention and retardation structures

Detention and retardation structures can be subdivided into storage type and infiltration type.
Storage type structures can be on-site storage structures such as large scale detention ponds and
retarding basins with a large catchment area or off-site storage structures such as small tanks or
reservoirs located in residential units, parking areas, playgrounds etc. to retard stormwater
discharges. The infiltration type structures include pervious pavements, infiltration trenches,
ponds and inlets.

Detention ponds
Detention pond or retarding basin is a facility for temporary water storage to reduce the flood
peaks (Fig 1.11a). When the water level in the stream rises, water spills or flows into the
detention pond. When the water level in the stream recedes, water in the detention pond flows
back to the stream slowly. Detention ponds are usually constructed at natural depressions. The
pond may be provided with control gates and may be kept with a minimum storage to maintain
aquatic life alive during low flow periods.
Retention ponds
Retention pond is a reservoirs to retain water and they are not emptied after storms like in the
case of detention ponds (Fig 1.11 b). There is a residence time provided for water, for pollutants
and sediments to settle down on the reservoir bed. The design of capacity is based on the runoff
generated from the basin due to a design storm. Sluices are designed to make control releases
and spillway is provided to discharge the excess water not to damage the structure and not to
inundate the upstream in case of heavy storm. Sluices are designed such away that a dead storage
is provided to trap heavy metal pollutants and sediment without releasing to the downstream.

On-site detention ponds

These are small reservoirs or ponds provided in residential and commercial plots. These are
enclosures surrounded by concrete walls to collect excess water during a storm and to release
gradually to the downstream drains by a controlled outlet. Thereby, the stormwater release is
regulated to reduce the flood peak downstream. In most cases open areas such as play grounds
and parks are uses as on-site detention ponds. Once the water is completely released the facility
is cleaned and put into normal use.

a) Detention pond

b) Retention pond

Fig 1.11 Flow detention and retention structures

b) Infiltration type devices

Infiltration trenches
Infiltration trenches are provided to enhance the infiltration of storm water into the ground. A
trench is excavated in the ground and filled with crushed stone and top of the trench is covered
by fabric to avoid sediments and debris entering into the trench. Trenches trap the stormwater
and facilitates infiltration of water into the soil and recharging the groundwater. Therefore, the
runoff volume is reduced. Inflow of sediment laden water will clog the trenches. Therefore, it is
important to provide suitable sediment traps or settling basins at the upstream of the trenches so
that sediment is removed from the water. Since the water is used to recharge the groundwater,
water should be free from heavy metal pollutants. Efficiency of an infiltration trench depends on
the infiltration rate. Trenches are long and narrow, excavated to a depth of about 0.5-1 m into the
ground.

Grass filter strips

These are stripes of grassed soil surfaces introduced between the urban impervious surfaces and
the storm drains to slow down and partially infiltrate runoff. This is possible when the storm
water discharge can be spilled on to the strip and spread across the width of the grass strip. The
velocity of the flow over the grass is small and part of the flow is infiltrated and the suspended
particles in the flow are trapped within the grass strip.

Grass strip should be of very mild slope and grass should be dense to avoid erosion and forming
channels. The effect of grass filter strips however in reducing flood peak is negligible.

Grass swales
These are depressions in the grassed terrain designed to function as small unlined channels in
which storm water runoff is slowed down and partially infiltrated along their course. The flow
left after infiltration is conveyed to the storm drain system at the downstream. Grass swales also
perform similar to grass filter strips when the slopes are small, less than 5%.

Pervious pavements
Pervious pavements are permeable surfaces where the runoff can pass and infiltrate into the
ground. Pervious pavements facilitate peak flow reduction, ground recharge and pollution
filtering. There are three types of pervious pavements: i) porous asphalt pavements ii) porous
concrete pavements iii) garden blocks. The main difference to conventional pavement is that
there are no fine aggregate in the mixture used in the construction. Porous layer is constructed on
a granular base laid on the existing soil surface. These pavements not only reduce the flood peak
but also abate the pollutants in the surface runoff.
Porous asphalt pavements are popularly used today in roads and parking areas in urban areas.
Porous concrete pavements are used in open walkways and parking areas. In the gardens, for
pavements that are only used for walking garden blocks are also

used.

i) porous asphalt pavements ii) porous concrete pavements iii) garden blocks

* The cost
Some estimates put the cost of pervious pavements at two to
three times that of conventional asphalt pavements. Using
pervious pavements, however, can reduce the cost of
providing larger or more stormwater Best Managerment
Practises (BMPs) on site, and these savings should be factored
into any cost analysis. In addition, the off-site environmental
impact costs of not reducing on-site stormwater volumes and
pollution have historically been ignored or assigned to other
groups (local government parks, public works and
environmental restoration budgets, fisheries losses, etc.). Photo courtesy of National Ready Mix Concrete Assn

* Longevity and maintenance

Some pervious pavements require frequent maintenance because grit or gravel can block the
open pores. This is commonly done by industrial vacuums that suck up all the sediment. If
maintenance is not carried out on a regular basis, the porous pavements can begin to hold large
amounts of water and cause flooding. With more advanced paving systems the levels of
maintenance needed can be greatly decreased, concrete block pervious pavements requires no
more maintenance than regular concrete paving as the grit between the blocks enhances the
filtering properties of the pavement.
Some pervious pavements products are prone to damage from misuse, such as drivers who tear
up patches of plastic & gravel grid systems by "joy riding" on remote parking lots at night. The
damage is not difficult to repair but can look unsightly in the meantime. Grass pavers require
supplemental watering in the first year to establish the vegetation, otherwise they may need to be
re-seeded. Regional climate also means that most grass applications will go dormant during the
dry season. While brown vegetation is only a matter of aesthetics, it can influence public support
for this type of pervious pavements.
Traditional permeable concrete paving bricks tend to lose their color in relatively short time
which can be costly to replace or clean and is mainly due to the problem of efflorescence.
(www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki)

Infiltration ponds

Infiltration ponds are similar to detention ponds but they are specifically provided to infiltrate the
stormwater routed there into the soil. They are not usually provided sluices for releasing water.
However, spillways and low level outlets for emergency operations are provided. The
infiltration ponds are appropriate to places with pervious soils and deep water table. The
disadvantage of these ponds is the possible odour problems and becoming sites for breeding of
mosquitoes in tropical climates. Therefore combined detention and infiltration ponds are
preferred.

Infiltration inlets
Infiltration inlets are draining structures that replace the gulley holes, or the uptake points for
conventional storm water (Fig. 1.12). They are similar to infiltration trenches except that the
bottom is also isolated from the soil. Infiltration is not the main purpose and that collected runoff
is discharged to a storm drain. The purpose of the infiltration inlet is to convey the water slowly
through it to retard the arrival of water into the storm sewers. The inlet needs a large cross
section in the trench than in the case of a normal gulley hole.

Fig 1.12 Infiltration inlet

 c) Wetlands
Wetlands are shallow ponds with growing aquatic plants constructed across streams at
depressions for removal of pollutants in water. They provide a detention time for the water to
settle pollutants/sediments and for the aquatic plants to uptake pollutants. A low velocity has to
be maintained through wetland and wetlands are effective at removing phosphorus, nitrogen
compounds, metals and organic compounds, and sediments in water. However, the required
surface area of the wetland is large to treat high discharges of storm water runoff.

d) Flood proofing
Flood proofing is the use of permanent, contingent or emergency techniques to either prevent
flood waters from reaching buildings and infrastructure facilities, or to minimize the damage
from water that does get in. Fig 1.13 shows examples of flood proofing.

Fig 1.13 Examples of flood proofing

1.4 Urban catchment modeling concepts

The purpose of the urban stormwater drainage system is to convey the runoff generated from the
urban area safely to a receiving water body which has assimilating capacity. The urban
stormwater drainage system consists of structures designed to collect, convey, store, detain, treat
and release the urban runoff. The urban runoff is contributed by the stormwater generated by
precipitation to the catchment or snowmelt and urban flows. A typical urban runoff hydrograph
in an urban stream is shown in Figure 1.14 .A peak flow of runoff is required to be used as
design flow of the design of stormwater drainage system. It is estimated by runoff generated due
to a selected storm event which is the dominant contributor and by urban flows. This design peak
flow inflicts requirement of the conveyance capacities of canals and pipes, storage capacities of
retention/detention basins, discharging capacities of spillways and gates, etc. in the system. Dry
weather flows depends mainly on the urban flows and are specially important in the water
quality aspects of the stormwater drainage system design.

40 0.00

35 0.05
3
Peak Flow = 38.2 ft /s Storm Hydrograph
Baseflow Hydrograph
Total Rainfall = 0.19 in.
30 0.10

25 0.15
Flow, ft /s

Rainfall, in./hr
3

20 0.20

15 0.25

10 0.30

5 0.35

3
Average DWF = 4.8 ft /s
0 0.40
12:00 AM 2:00 AM 4:00 AM 6:00 AM 8:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 PM

June 21, 2002

Figure 1.14 A typical urban runoff hydrograph
Urban catchment modeling involves simulation of hydrological processes of the urban catchment
to derive runoff required for the design of appropriate stormwater drainage system. Event-based
hydrologic modeling is carried out to estimate flows due to a given storm event and is the tool
used for deciding design flows of system components. On the other hand, continuous hydrologic
modeling is carried out to derive long-term continuous flows and to understand the long-term
variations of flows. The latter is particularly useful in water quality estimations in the system.

This section gives only the catchment hydrological modeling concepts and hydrological models
are given in Chapter 5.

1.4.1 Hydrologic processes modelling

Modeling of hydrologic processes for estimating runoff generated from the catchment for the
purpose of stormwater drainage design is discussed here. Stormwater runoff generated by a
rainfall event depends on the catchment characteristics and rainfall characteristics. Design
requirements for urban stormwater drainage are usually specified in terms of a rainfall of certain
return period.

a) Catchment and sub catchment delineation

The catchment area to be drained is required to be defined based on the topography of the area.
In some cases, there may be discharges into the catchment other than through gravity flow from
areas outside the normal catchment. For example, there may be pumping of urban drainage flow
from an adjacent catchment. The effective catchment area contributing to the catchment drainage
flow includes all such contributory catchments (Figure 1.15).

Drainage network in a catchment whether pre-urban or urban catchment, consists of distribution

of drainage paths (drains, streams) that converge to form the main drain/stream at the outlet of
the catchment concerned. Urban catchments are usually modeled not as a single catchment but as
collection of subcatchments. This practice has several advantages. Distributed properties in a
heterogeneous urban catchment can be taken into consideration. In relation to the design of
components of urban stormwater drainage system, the design flows are required not only at the
outlet of the catchment but also at the outlets of all drainage paths converging to the main stream.
Also, the effect of attenuation of peak flow within the drainage network of the catchment by
routing the flows discharged into the main stream (and sub-mains) at different points with time
lags provides realistic distributed discharges in the network. Overland flow routing may be not
necessary if a subcatchment is very small.
 Figure 1.15 Subcatchments for an urban catchment

b) Rainfall Analysis

Rainfall characteristics important for planning and design of stormwater drainage in a catchment
are rainfall intensity, temporal variation including rainfall duration and rainfall depth, spatial
variation and recurrence interval of rainfall. Intensity is a measure of the quantity of rain falling
in a given time (e.g. mm/hr). Duration is the period of time during which rain falls. Recurrence
interval or return period of a rainfall of certain magnitude is the average length of time expected
to elapse between the rainfall events of equal or greater magnitude.

Intensity-Duration-Frequency Analysis

Intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves at a location are one way of presenting rainfall data
available at location by statistical analysis. Frequency refers to the probability that a storm of
given magnitude will be equaled or exceeded in a given year and is equal to the reciprocal of the
return period in years. IDF curves provide average rainfall intensities corresponding to a
particular return period for different durations. Typical IDF curves are given in Fig.1.16 and
Fig.1.17

Generally the greater the intensity of rainfall, the shorter is the duration of rainfall. The equation
of IDF curves has the form of
a
i
tb
where, i = intensity (mm/hr)
t = time (hour)
a and b are locality constants

http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/eng/documents/drainage/drainage.shtm
Figure 1.16 Typicall Intensity Duration Frequency Curves.
 thecriticalflow.wordpress.com
Figure 1.16 Rainfall intensity Duration Frequency Graph for London, UK

SAQ 1

The maximum observed rainfall for two stations x and y are given in the following table (table 3).
Estimate maximum rainfall for durations.
(i) 10 hr (ii) 45 mts (iii) 2 days (iv) 20 hrs

Table 3: Maximum observed rainfall for stations x and y

Durations Rainfall in mm
(mts) Station X Station Y
15 25 40
30 40 60
60 57 85
120 66 102
360 79 205
720 81 244
1440 83 245
SAQ 2
The annual maximum rainfall for 11 years is available in a particular station. Carryout the
intensity-duration-frequency distribution analysis. Table 5 shows the depth of rainfall in mm

Table 5: Maximum Depth of rainfall in mm

Duration
3 hr 6 hr 12 hr 24 hr
Year
1967 102 107 108 139
1968 73 80 112 112
1969 103 111 111 111
1970 54 69 72 73
1971 19 41 61 98
1972 59 103 105 105
1973 68 85 86 86
1974 70 70 70 70
1975 118 118 118 118
1976 85 87 87 87
1977 90 94 105 105

Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)

The probable maximum precipitation is the depth of precipitation which for a given area and
duration can be reached but not exceeded under known meteorological conditions. This varies
over the earth’s surface according to the climatic regions.

Several methods are available to estimate PMP. Use of statistical methods is one approach for
the estimation, and another approach is the studying of storm mechanisms causing heavy
rainfalls. A suitable value is chosen based on the engineering judgment.

c) Infiltration Analysis

Infiltration rate

If a rainfall with a constant intensity begins on a dry soil, the rainfall intensity is less than the
potential infiltration. As the rainfall continues, the wetting front penetrates deeper and deeper.
Thus saturated soil depth increases and the potential infiltration rate reduces. Water will start to
pond on the surface and overland flow is generated when the rainfall intensity is greater than the
infiltration capacity of the soil.

The potential infiltration rate from a surface is the infiltration rate (f) if water is pounded on the
surface at a given time. The infiltration rate is less than the potential infiltration rate when the
rate of supply of water on to the surface is less than the potential infiltration rate. The cumulative
infiltration (F) is the accumulated depth of water infiltrated during a given time period is the
integral of the infiltration rate over the period. Therefore, f(t)=dF(t)/dt. For all soils, the
potential infiltration rate decreases as soil moisture content increases and approaches to a
constant rate as more soil becomes saturated.

Estimation of Infiltration rate : Horton method

Horton method is an empirical method to estimate the infiltration. For a continuous precipitation
where the rainfall intensity is greater than the potential infiltration rate, infiltration rate f(t), after
time t is given by,
 k (t  t )
0
f (t )  f  ( f  f ) e
c o c
where, fc = steady state infiltration rate (mm/hr)
fo = initial infiltration rate at the time that infiltration begins (mm/hr)
k = decay coefficient (1/hr)
to = time at which infiltration begins (hr)
Here, fo, f c and k depend on the soil properties and the amount of moisture present in the soil
prior to the rainfall event of interest and these Horton infiltration parameters need to be given.
These parameters for different soil can be found in literature.

Estimation of infiltration rate: Green – Ampt method

The Green-Ampt method is based on a Darcy’s law and conservation of mass. The infiltration
rate f is related to the total accumulated infiltration F as
 ( S  i ) 
f  KS   1
 F 
where, f = dF/dt = infiltration rate (cm/hr)
Ks = saturated hydraulic conductivity (cm/hr)
ψ= capillary suction (cm)
θs = volumetric moisture content under saturated condition, (= η, Porosity)
θi = volumetric moisture content under initial conditions
F = total accumulated infiltration (cm)

The total infiltration up to time t (hr) can be determined by integrating the above equation,
 F 
F  K S t  ( S  i ) . ln   1
 ( S  i ) 

Table 1.2 Green-Ampt infiltration parameters for various soil classes

Source: Applied Hydrology, Vent e Chow et al.

Soil Class Porosity, η Wetting front Hydraulic

soil suction head conductivity
Ψ(cm) K(cm/h)
Sand 0.437 4.95 11.78
Loamy sand 0.437 6.13 2.99
Sandy loam 0.453 11.01 1.09
Loam 0.463 8.89 0.34
Silt loam 0.501 16.68 0.65
Sandy clay loam 0.398 21.85 0.15
Clay loam 0.464 20.88 0.10
Silty clay loam 0.471 27.30 0.10
Sandy clay 0.430 23.90 0.06
Silty clay 0.479 29.22 0.05
Clay 0.475 31.63 0.03

d) Surface flow analysis

After filling the depression storages on the surface, surface water generated by precipitation
flows downstream first as overland flow. Overland flow concentrates into rill flow, and then rill
flow concentrates into gully flow and into stream flow.

Surface water flow is driven by gravity as a free surface flow against ground undulations,
vegetations, soil surface roughness, pebbles, debris, etc. Accurate hydraulic analysis of surface
flow by the application of conservation laws is not practical owing to the complexities of
different scales involved in the surface flow process. Therefore, surface flow analysis is carried
out under varying assumptions in catchment modeling. At one end of the range of analysis,
outflow from the catchment is directly related to excess rainfall by statistical/empirical means
with no attention given to hydraulics of flow. At the other end, physically based approaches by
the application of fundamental laws of conservation of mass and momentum are applied to route
flow through the catchment. Physically based approaches in surface water flow modeling have
become increasing used with the advancement of computational hydraulics. However, various
assumptions, such as overland flow as sheet flow, flow as uniform flow, etc. are common to
simplify the hydraulic analysis.

In most cases the direct analysis of adequate stream flow data is better than the use of rainfall
based techniques for the estimation of various stream flow characteristics. However, because
rainfall data are generally more widely available than stream flow data, the concept of using
rainfall data to estimate stream flow characteristics is well established.
A simple catchment model relates the discharge hydrograph to the mean catchment rainfall
hyetograph also as a function of time.

1.4.2 Catchment modeling concepts

Catchment models are simplified representations of hydrological processes in the catchment part
of the hydrologic cycle to simulate catchment response to precipitation. Catchment models
provide changes in catchment water storages, outflows due to a given precipitation. There are
different types of catchment models developed at various complexities. They can be event based
or continuous precipitation-runoff type models. Event based models are applied for discrete
storm events where as the continuous precipitation-runoff models are applied to time series data
of precipitation of long period.

For urban drainage design problems, the engineer is most interested in finding the peak
discharges resulted from a given rainfall event for sizing the drainage facilities. The event based
models are best suited for this purpose. In some cases, the urban drainage water management in a
urban drainage systems with canal networks and water retaining and detaining structures,
infiltration structures is of interest. Water stored are released, flows are regulated for various
purposes such as for the use in irrigation, power generation or to maintain environmental flows.
In these cases, the understanding of catchment responses together with the existing systems are
of interest and the application of continuous precipitation-run off type models over a longer
period is necessary. This type of models are also important in the estimation of flood inundation
under repeated rainfall events in wet weather periods and water table variations in dry weather
periods.

a) Stochastic and deterministic models

Stochastic models are based on data. Statistical concepts are used to link input (for instance
rainfall) to the model output (for instance runoff). Commonly used techniques are regression,
neural networks , etc.

Whereas, deterministic models do not consider randomness. The model determines an output for
a given input based on certain formulation. Deterministic models are commonly used for runoff
modeling that is useful for storm water drainage and hence only types of deterministic models
are discussed below.
b) Lumped vs. Distributed Models

Lumped models do not explicitly take into account the spatial variability of inputs, outputs, or
parameters. They are usually structured to utilize average values of the catchment characteristics
to determine runoff at the outlet of the catchment. Lumped models ignore the internal spatial
variations flow and provide the stream flow only at the outlet of the catchment.
Distributed models, can account for spatial variations in input parameters and state variables
within the catchment. In these models, catchment is divided into elements (by a grid) and
precipitation, infiltration, evaporation and other catchment processes are modeled and overland
flow, soil moisture is computed at element level.

c) Conceptual vs. physically based models

In conceptual models, the catchment is conceptualized as having homogenous soil properties,

receiving uniform rainfall, under one type of management, etc. Conceptual lumped models use
an integrated description of parameters representing an average value over the entire catchment.
They remain non-physically based, however, as they use synthetic methods of transforming
rainfall to runoff. Examples of lumped conceptual models are the Rational Method, and the
NRCS (SCS) curve number model. A large catchment can be divided into a number of sub-
catchments to apply different hydrologic parameters to different sub-catchment. Then conceptual
model can be considered as conceptual distributed models.

Physically based models, incorporate physical formulations of the different hydrologic processes
and often include numerical solutions to partial differential equations. They attempt to represent
the physical processes observed in the real world. Physically based models are usually
distributed models and have the advantage of simulating complex hydrologic systems and
utilizing distributed field hydrologic data. These models require more distributed data on rainfall
and catchment properties. Flow is routed over the land and along streams by the application of
conservation laws with some approximations. Detail spatial and temporal distribution of
responses is available. Example of physically based catchment models of this type include:
MIKE SHE (Refsgaard and Storm, 1995), Stanford Watershed Model (SWM), Storm Water
Management Model (SWMM)), Hydrological Simulation Program – FORTRAN (HSPF) .

References
1. Tucci, C. E. M. and Porto, R. L. (2001). Storm hydrology and urban drainage. In Urban
Drainage in Humid Tropics,
2. Haestad Methods (2003 ), Stormwater Conveyance Modelling and Design , Bentley Institute
Press, USA
3. Haestad Methods (2003 ), Wastewater Collection System Modelling and Design , Bentley
Institute Press, USA
4. Ven Te Chow, David R.Maidment and Larry W.Mays (1988), Applied Hydrology,
McGraw-Hill , NewYork, USA
5. Ivan Andjelkovic (2001), Guidelines on Non-Structural Measures in Urban Flood
Management, International Hydrological Programme, IHP-V, Technical Documents in
Hydrology , No. 50, UNESCO, Paris, 2001
6. American Society of Civil Engineers (1996), Hydrology Handbook-Manual No.28, 2nd
Edition