The Science of Psychology

Chapter 1
Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Lecture Outline
‣ Understanding Science
‣ Scientific Research in Psychology
‣ Science and Common Sense
‣ Science and Clinical Practice

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

It’s Time to Make a Science!

‣ This course lays the foundation for understanding science in
general, and psychological science in particular.
‣ Everyone knows what Science is…

Biology… Chemistry… Physics… but Psychology?

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

 Defining Science
‣ How do we define science?
‣ Science is not a specific discipline, or specific equipment or
techniques, but a way trying to understand the natural world.
‣ It is based on three fundamental Features
‣ Systematic Empiricism
‣ Empirical Questions
‣ Public Knowledge
‣ Psychology is interested in applying this to the study of human
(and animal) behaviour.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Systematic Empiricism
‣ Empiricism forms the basis of modern
science, and is simply defined as
learning by observation.
‣ Systematic Empiricism is the process
of observing the natural world in an
unbiased manner.
‣ To do this requires carefully planning,
making, recording, and analyzing
observations of the world.
Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Two Empirical Components

‣ An idea must be studied under conditions in which it may be
either supported or refuted
‣ The research is done in a way that can be observed, evaluated,
and replicated by others.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

The Goals of Systematic Empiricism
‣ Scientific research has four general goals:
1. Describe behaviour
2. Predict behaviour
3. Determine the causes of behaviour
4. Explain behaviour

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Description of Behaviour
‣ The first goal of science is to describe observed behaviour.
‣ There are several statistical techniques available to help
summarize data, and to describe how events are
systematically related to one another.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Predicting Behaviour
‣ Once we have observed two or more events that are
systematically related to one another, it becomes possible to
make predictions about what will happen next.
‣ Prediction helps us avoid problems, and make better
decisions.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

 Infants are Good Predictors

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Determining Causes
‣ Just because we have been able to describe and predict
behaviour, it does not mean that we know the causes of
behaviour or an event.
‣ When margarine consumption goes up in the New England
states, the number of divorces increases.
‣ Does margarine consumption cause divorces?

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Concluding Causation
‣ To conclude causation, we need to show:
‣ Temporal precedence
‣ Covariation of cause and effect
‣ Elimination of alternative explanations

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

 Temporal Precedence
‣ There is a temporal order of events such that the cause
precedes the event.
‣ Watching an adult hit a toy with a hammer, and then a child showing
signs of aggression.
‣ Putting on sunglasses before exiting a building.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Covariation of Cause & Effect

‣ When the cause is present, the effect occurs.
‣ When the cause in not present, the effect does not occur.
‣ This is not as simple as it sounds, as there is not always a
simple, single cause for any given event.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Alternative Explanations
‣ Nothing other than the causal variable is responsible for the
observed effect.
‣ In other words, there should be no other plausible explanation
for the relationship observed.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

 Explanation of Behaviour
‣ The ultimate goal of science is to explain behaviour; that is,
we seek to understand why the behaviour occurs.
‣ Often, further studies are required to test the theories that are
developed to explain behaviour.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

A Simple Example

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Description

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

 Prediction

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Causation — External Elements

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Causation — Internal Elements

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

 Explanation!
‣ Simple organism that moves towards cold water.
‣ Random fluctuations in path are simply due to currents and
wind.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Empirical Questions
‣ Empirical Questions follow directly from Systematic
Empiricism
‣ These questions attempt to determine how the world actually
is, and can only be answered by systematically observing it.
‣ Do women talk more than men?
‣ There are many questions, however, that cannot be answered
by science.
‣ What is Good? Bad? Beautiful? Ugly? Legal? Illegal?

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Public Knowledge
‣ Creating the world’s best study through systematic observations
means absolutely nothing if the results are kept secret.
‣ One of the key roles of scientists is to publish and present their
work.
‣ Scientists collaborate with one another, share their findings, and
correct the record when necessary… 

this is how science progresses.
‣ One of the more exciting developments in recent years is the
Many Lab Replication Project
Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019
 Science vs. Pseudoscience
‣ We must be careful to make a distinction between Science
and Pseudoscience…
‣ Science follows the systematic empiricism approach. It asks
questions that are falsifiable. That is, scientific claims must
be testable, and evidence can either support or refute the
claims.
‣ Pseudoscience may look like science, but it lacks at least one
of the three features of science.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Phrenology
‣ One classic example of a
pseudoscientific approach in
Psychology was
Phrenology.
‣ Although it had many
proponents (and fancy
machines!) it violated the
notion of systematic
empiricism

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Lecture Outline
‣ Understanding Science
‣ Scientific Research in Psychology
‣ Science and Common Sense
‣ Science and Clinical Practice

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

 Chapter 1 Operationalizing Independent & Dependent Variables

A Model of Scientific
The Research in Psychology
Science Cycle
‣ Science 1.is aStart
Cyclic
with a Process
Theory
1. Start with a Theorya Research Question to 

2. Develop Theory
test the Theory
2. Develop a Research Question to Research
test the
3. Theory
State a Specific Hypothesis 
 Revise Question
based on
3. State a specific Researchbased
Hypothesis Question
on your Research Question
4. Carry out the Experiment
Data Hypothesis
4. Carry out the Experiment
5. Collect and Analyze the Data
5. Collect and Analyze the data
6. Revise the Theory According to 

6. Revise thetheTheory according
Observed Data to Experiment
the observed Data
7. Repeat!
Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Defining a Research Question

‣ Start with a Theory based on Previous Research/Observations
- Intelligence and Memory are related
‣ Define your Hypothesis by making the Theory more concrete
- “Academic” Intelligence is associated with Recall Memory
‣ Define a testable hypothesis by operationalizing your variables
- Intelligence as measured by IQ is associated with the number of
nouns recalled.

(In)Attention &SCORES.”
Driving
“Ps with high IQ SCORES will RECALL MORE NOUNS than those
with low IQ

‣ Pursuit tracking task: keep cursor on moving

target Dr. D. Medler & Dr. V. Gonzales Psyc 300B (2018) !22

‣ Target flashed either red (push a button) or

green (ignore)
‣ Conditions:
‣ Single task: tracking alone
‣ Dual task: tracking task while
‣ Listening to radio broadcast
‣ Talking on cell phone
Strayer & Johnston (2001)
Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Who Conducts Research?

‣ Research in Psychology is typically conducted by individuals
with a PhD or a Master’s degree in Psychology or a related
discipline.
‣ Research is conducted in many different sectors, including
Universities, Government Agencies, Private Sector, Health
Authorities, Non-Profit Organizations.
‣ In Psychology, most research is conducted by Experimental
Psychologists (e.g., cognitive, developmental, social), but
Clinical Psychologists also conduct research.
Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019
The Broader Purposes of Scientific Research
‣ Research is typically classified into either basic or applied
‣ Basic Research is concerned with discovering a more
detailed and accurate understanding of human behaviour
‣ There may not be any immediate practical problem being solved
‣ Applied Research is concerned with solving a practical
problem, such as the effects of cell phones on driving

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Basic Research Examples

‣ Addresses fundamental questions about the nature of
behaviour.
‣ Often tests theories regarding:
‣ Cognition ‣ Psychobiology
‣ Emotion ‣ Personality
‣ Motivation ‣ Social Behaviour
‣ Learning ‣ Sensation

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Basic vs. Applied Research

‣ Both basic and applied research are necessary for science to
advance.
‣ It is tempting to focus on applied research (current funding is
mainly focused on applied research).
‣ Basic research is required to lay the foundation for future
applied research.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

 Lecture Outline
‣ Understanding Science
‣ Scientific Research in Psychology
‣ Science and Common Sense
‣ Science and Clinical Practice

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

The Scientific Approach

‣ How do we (naively) approach science?
‣ It has been suggested that humans are intuitive psychological
scientists:
‣ We develop hypotheses and try to predict the behaviour of others
(Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2003)
‣ We often defer to “authority” when we don’t know:
‣ e.g., Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Common Sense
‣ Some have argued that we can rely on our common sense to solve
problems.
‣ Our intuitive beliefs about people’s beliefs, thoughts, and feelings
have been termed Folk Psychology
‣ Although some of our Folk Psychology beliefs may be reasonably accurate,
many times they are not!
‣ It’s just common sense that people wouldn’t make false confessions,
that catharsis is good for you, and that no one would ever torture
someone just because they were instructed to by someone in higher
authority (they do, it’s not, and it happens all the time).
Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019
 Problematic Approaches
‣ Tenacity - a method of acquiring knowledge based on
superstition or habit.
‣ Intuition - an approach to acquiring knowledge that is not
base on reasoning or inferring.
‣ Authority - a basis for acceptance of information because it
is acquired from a highly respected source.
‣ Rationalism - the acquisition of knowledge through
reasoning.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Intuition & Authority

‣ Problem: biases affect our perceptions and may lead to
erroneous conclusions
‣ How do we know if our intuitions are correct or incorrect
(e.g., illusory correlations)?
‣ How do we know if an authority’s conclusions are correct or
incorrect?

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Well… that was wrong!

‣ Why do we make errors in our intuitive thinking and
reasoning?
‣ Part of the problem is that the amount of information that we
would need to observe and analyze far exceeds our capacity,
especially when decisions need to be made quickly.
‣ Consequently, people rely on heuristics… mental shortcuts to
make life easier.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

 Confirmation Bias
‣ Unfortunately, these heuristics are often subject to
confirmation bias, and therefore are difficult to change.
‣ We tend to focus on information that confirms our beliefs and ignore
information that doesn’t
‣ This has become an issue in today’s “information bubbles”
where people only pay attention to the news stories that
confirm what they already believe.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Science & Skepticism

‣ Science requires a healthy dose of skepticism.
‣ The scientific method is based on empiricism:
‣ Knowledge is based on (objective) observation!
‣ But, keep in mind that our observations can be biased or distorted!
‣ There is a need to be skeptical, not cynical
‣ There is a need to be open, but not gullible

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Tolerance for Uncertainty

‣ Finally, a good scientist needs to cultivate a tolerance for
uncertainty.
‣ We do not know everything, so sometimes we need to
withhold judgment about the veracity of a claim when there is
not enough evidence to decide one way or another.
‣ This requires a scientist to show a level of humility
‣ Involves awareness that mistakes are possible, that we don’t know
everything, and that we are willing to be surprised

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

 Be a Good Scientist!
‣ Use intuition and authority as guides and ideas for research.
‣ Some beliefs cannot be tested; thus, they are beyond the
realm of science.
‣ Be aware of vague or improbable evidence.
‣ Question authority!

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Lecture Outline
‣ Understanding Science
‣ Scientific Research in Psychology
‣ Science and Common Sense
‣ Science and Clinical Practice

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Treatments
‣ Although Psychology is a science, and follows good scientific
practices, it is also the application of scientific research to
“help people, organizations, and communities function better”
(American Psychological Association, 2011)
‣ The most widely known application is the clinical practice of
Psychology
‣ This includes Clinical Psychology, Counselling Psychology, School
Psychologists, Therapists, and licensed clinical Social Workers

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

The Study of Psychological Disorders
‣ Psychological disorders and behavioural problems are part of
the natural world.
‣ Therefore, we can scientifically study the clinical aspects of
Psychology, including the nature, cause, and consequences of
disorders and behavioural problems.
‣ As before, we can’t rely on our intuitions, but need to base
our decisions on empirical evidence.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Empirically Supported Therapies

‣ To be considered effective, any form of therapy must be
empirically supported
‣ It must be studied scientifically and be shown to result in
greater improvement than no treatment, a placebo, or some
alternative treatment.
‣ Psychotherapies can also be tested against standard drug
therapies, and many have shown to be just as effective, or
more effective than drug therapies

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Examples of Psychotherapies
‣ Cognitive behavioural therapy. For depression, panic disorder,
bulimia nervosa, and posttraumatic stress disorder.
‣ Exposure therapy. For posttraumatic stress disorder.
‣ Behavioural therapy. For depression.
‣ Behavioural couples therapy. For alcoholism and substance abuse.
‣ Exposure therapy with response prevention. For obsessive-
compulsive disorder.
‣ Family therapy. For schizophrenia.

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019