THE EARTH HAS A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD THAT EXERTS A FORCE ON OBJECTS BOTH ON IT

AND AROUND IT

1.1. DEFINE WEIGHT AS THE FORCE ON AN OBJECT DUE TO A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

What is mass  Measure of the inertia (resistance to change in motion) an object exhibits
and its SI unit?  High mass  high inertia  high resistance to change in velocity  high resistance
to acceleration
 Measured in kg
What is weight  The force with which an object is attracted to the Earth, force experienced by an
and its SI unit? object due to a gravitational field.
 Directly related to the strength of the gravitational field at the point where the
object is located, and is equal to the force which the field is exerting on the object.
 Measured in N
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

where W is weight in Newtons, m is mass in kilograms, and g is gravitational field strength in 𝑁/𝑘𝑔

1.2. EXPLAIN THAT A CHANGE IN GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY IS RELATED TO WORK

DONE
What is the work  The work done on an object: force acting on the object over a displacement
done on an  GPE is the potential to do work, and is related to work done.
object? o As the object moves towards the Earth, its GPE will decrease as it is converted
into KE and will thus be negative
 𝑊 = 𝐹∆ 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
o If F is the net force, then the object will accelerate and the velocity changes 
change in KE
What does it  Work causes a change of the kinetic energy of the object
cause? o The work done on an object is
positive when it increases KE,
negative when it decreases KE
 If the displacement is in the same
direction as the force, the work
done on the object is positive, KE
increases
 When an object is moved away
from a gravitational field, it gains
energy. This is because by raising
it up from the field’s origin, work
is done.
o If a 1kg stone was raised
100m, then work done would
be 980J. However, conservation
of energy states that this energy cannot be destroyed.
o The 980J is now 980J of GPE, because if the stone was dropped from 100m then
it would regain 980J in the form of Ek due to the gravitational field.
What is mgh?  𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ − 0
What does it o Difference in potential energy between the surface and a point above
assume? o The amount of work that an external force needs to do on an object to lift or
Is the work done lower it near the surface of the Earth
by an external o Assumes that g is constant and independent of the height above the ground, the
force reference point is always 0
positive/neg and  The work done by an external force to move the object further from the earth/lift it
does it increase/ is positive and increases potential energy= 𝑚𝑔ℎ
reduce Ep?  The work done by an external force to move the object closer to the earth is
negative and reduces potential energy= - 𝑚𝑔ℎ
What happens if  The change in Ep is – 𝑚𝑔ℎ (KE starts as 0 and removes 0)
a mass is slowly  Initial and final kinetic energy=0, Initial potential energy = 𝑚𝑔ℎ, final potential
lowered from a energy is 0
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height but not  If there is a gravitational force downwards but the object doesn’t accelerate, it
allowed to must be a force upwards equal to the weight to make the net force 0
accelerate?  The external force must point up, but the object moves down, thus work is negative

1.3. DEFINE GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY AS THE WORK DONE TO MOVE AN OBJECT
FROM A VERY LARGE DISTANCE AWAY TO A POINT IN A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD:
𝒎 𝒎
𝑬𝒑   𝑮 𝟏 𝟐
𝒓

POTENTIAL ENERGY
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑬𝒑   𝑮 where Ep is potential energy in Joules, m is mass in kilograms, r is distance in metre sand G is
𝒓
𝑁𝑚²
gravitational field strength in . Always negative and approaches 0 as displacement approaches infinity.
𝑘𝑔²

Usually treat large mass as an immoveable central body and the smaller mass as a moveable test mass

 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ is an approximation, as g varies with distance above the ground

What is Ep?  Gravitational potential energy: work done by an external object (gravity) to move
an object of mass m from a very large distance away to a point in a gravitational
field (a distance r from the centre of a very large mass M)
o Energy stored by doing work against the force of gravity

o Does not dependent on the path taken by the masses to get to their final
position, depends only on final separation
 Distance away is equivalent to a point outside the field
 Gravitational fields, like many fields, have no theoretical maximum range and
theoretically exist at an infinite distance away from an object.
o In practice, because gravitational fields obey inverse square law and decrease in
strength rapidly as distance increases, at large distances the field is for all
intents and purposes non-existent.
o Regardless, there is technically no point in the universe outside a gravitational
field, hence a very large distance away is used.
Where is  At an infinite distance from the Earth, the force of gravity is 0
potential energy o When r is less than ∞, 𝐸𝑝 must be less than 0
taken to be 0 in o At 𝑟 = ∞, the force required to move the object = 0  no work is required to
this definition? move an object  potential energy at the reference point is 0
 When an object moves away from the surface of the Earth, the gravitational
potential energy of the object increases from a negative value to 0 at infinity
Why is Ep  Any object at such distance is said to have 0 Ep
negative?  If it was nudged towards Earth it will fall, losing Ep as it gains KE
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 More Ep the object loses, the more negative the value of Ep

What happens to  When the altitude decreases, work is done by the gravitational field and the
the gravitational gravitational potential energy decreases.
field when the o Change in Ep is negative, ∆𝐸𝑝 < 0
altitude changes?  When the altitude increases, work is done against the gravitational field and the Ep
increases.
o Change in Ep is positive, ∆𝐸𝑝 > 0
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 = 𝛥𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔𝛥ℎ = 2
×𝑠 =
𝑟 𝑟
o As above: For Ep to be gained, work must be done. There is a negative
displacement from earth, where W=Fs, therefore Ep gained is negative
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
∴ 𝐸𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = −
𝑟
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
What is the ∆𝐸𝑝 = 𝐸𝑝 − 𝐸𝑝𝑖 = − −−
formula for 𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑖
change in Ep? 1 1
= −𝐺𝑀𝑚 ( − ) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑟𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ + ℎ
𝒓𝒇 𝒓𝒊

Comparison between the two potential energy formulas

Formula 𝑬𝒑  𝒎𝒈𝒉 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑬𝒑   𝑮
𝒓
Definition The work done against the gravitational The work done by an external force in
field in moving a mass from the surface of moving a mass from infinity to a distance
the Earth to a position of height h above r from the centre of the Earth
𝐸𝑝 = 0, reference At the surface of the Earth At infinite distance away from the centre
point of the Earth
As r increases Ep increases to infinity Ep increases to 0
Validity Formula valid near Earth’s surface h≪Re Formula valid for all r > Re. Used for large
so that g is approximately constant height changes or far from Earth’s surface

1.1. PERFORM AN INVESTIGATION AND GATHER INFORMATION TO DETERMINE A VALUE FOR

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY USING PENDULUM MOTION OR COMPUTER ASSISTED
TECHNOLOGY AND IDENTIFY REASON FOR POSSIBLE VARIATIONS FROM THE VALUE 9.8 MS
 Period of the pendulum (time taken to complete a single full back and forth swing) depends on: the
length of the string and acceleration due to gravity
𝐿
 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ , where T= period of the pendulum, L= length of the pendulum, g= acceleration due to
𝑔
gravity

Method:
1. Set up a retort stand, clamp and pendulum on the edge of a desk.
2. Adjust the length of the pendulum to the longest length available (increases reliability as it is a
lower time to measure)
3. Using a ruler, carefully measure and record the length of the pendulum (if L is large, there is a
smaller percentage of error).
4. Set the pendulum swinging gently (10 degrees maximum deviation from the vertical to ensure
validity to minimise errors caused by tension in the string (because the string will lose
tension at angles greater)
5. Use the stopwatch or a data logger with a sensor to time 10 complete back and forth swings
(Accuracy)
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6. Stop the stopwatch at an

extreme of the motion rather
than somewhere in the middle
for reliability and accuracy
7. Repeat two more time
8. Repeat above steps for
decreasing length
9. Plot the results on a
𝑇 2 𝑣𝑠 𝐿 graph
4𝜋2
10. Calculate g using 𝑔 =
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑇2 4𝜋2 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
[𝑚 = = = ]
𝑙 𝑔 𝑟𝑢𝑛

Exam Technique
 Line of best fit:
- Do not fit the line to obvious outliers
- Same amount of data points on each side of the line at each end reduces fluctuating results

 Random error: statistical fluctuations in both directions about the true value
- Reduces reliability solve by taking multiple measurements and averaging, or take a line of
best fit
- Sources of error: uncontrolled unpredicted changes to equipment or environment, own bias,
limits of resolution of measurements (instruments have finite precision)
 The level of accuracy of the measuring instruments used is less than that of
technology where parallax errors are minimised, such as computer-assisted
technology.
- E.g. vibrations and changes in wind cause irregular changes in the period of a pendulum’s
swing; writing down length as x cm, even though it isn’t exactly; starting or stopping the
timer slightly before or after the pendulum completes a swing
 Systematic error: systemically shifts measurements in one direction away from the true value
- Reduces accuracy solve by using differences not absolutes, calibrate instruments
- Sources of error: parallax error, measuring instruments being used incorrectly, instrument
bias (incorrect calibration, scale factor error)
- E.g. ruler has shrunk, metal ruler expands on a hot day; timer is slow or fast; pendulum mass
is held up while measuring length so that string is not taut and thus shorter; string, which
could potentially wear and weaken with each test, affecting the results; tape measure is not
read perpendicularly (parallax)
 The pendulum equation works on the assumption that acceleration due to gravity is a constant.
 However, gravitation acceleration can change with altitude and position on the Earth’s surface (e.g.
greatest at poles, which are flatter and thus have a smaller radius), and the density of the Earth’s
crust and proximity to the Earth’s poles.
- Therefore, the results would be more exact if the distance between the mass carrier and the
ground were constant (i.e. the boss head and clamp were adjusted so as to keep this distant
constant)

 Accuracy: measure of how close the experimental results re to the accepted true value
o Accurate if there is a small difference between experimental results and accepted true value
o Starting and stopping the stopwatch at the extremes of the motion at the extreme, the
pendulum is stationary, so it is easier to judge when a swing is complete, reducing random
timing error
o Measuring 10 periods (oscillations) instead of 1 (reduces errors of the stopwatch by a factor of
10 for the period)
o Calibrate ruler length scale and stopwatch speed→ make sure there is no zero error for the
stopwatch
o Using more sensitive equipment- light gates or a data-logger instead of a stopwatch prevents
errors of inconsistent timing entirely
 Validity: how appropriate the procedure is in achieving the aim of the experiment
o Valid if the methods are carried out appropriately and the control variables are kept constant
o Use heavy bob and light string equation approximates string as massless, using a heavy bob
will mean that string can have a smaller mass relative to the bob, making it more valid
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The amplitude must be restricted to 10 degrees of less equation is only valid when the
o
amplitude is small
o Control: mass, angle
 Reliability: measure of how repeatable the experiment is
o Reliable if you get similar results for every test
o Repeat the experiment
1.2. GATHER SECONDARY INFORMATION TO PREDICT THE VALUE OF ACCELERATION DUE TO
GRAVITY ON OTHER PLANETS
1.3. ANALYSE INFORMATION USING THE EXPRESSION: F=MG TO DETERMINE THE WEIGHT
FORCE FOR A BODY ON EARTH AND FOR THE SAME BODY ON OTHER PLANETS
- 𝐹 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
- 𝑊𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 𝑚𝑔𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
- 𝑊𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑊𝐸 𝑊𝑝
- 𝑚= =
𝑔𝐸 𝑔𝑝

1. An astronaut  𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
𝑊𝑒
=
1500
𝐺𝑒 9.8
weights 1500N 1500
 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝑥 3.75 = 573.9795918
on Earth. What 9.8
would he weigh  𝑊 = 570𝑁(3𝑠𝑓)
on Mars with a
gravitational field
strength of
3.75N/kg?
The moon’s mass Determine how fast an object would accelerate on the moon
and radius are
1 1
80 𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 𝐺(80)𝑀𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 1/80 𝐺𝑀𝑒
and
1
of the 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 2 = = 𝑥
𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 1 1/16 𝑅²𝑒
4 ( 𝑟)2 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
Earth 4
= 1.96ms-¹
respectively.
What would the astronaut of mass 1500N on the earth weigh on the moon?
1500
 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 1.96 = 300𝑁
9.8
The gravity on Note: mass will be constant (i.e. 95kg on Mars)
Mars is 0.4 times
that of Earth. If 𝑊𝑀 = 𝑚𝑔𝑀
an astronaut = 95 × (0.4 × 9.8)
weighs 95kg on = 372.4 𝑁
Earth, what is his
weight on Mars?

THE SOLAR SYSTEM IS HELD TOGETHER BY GRAVITY

3.1. DESCRIBE A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD IN THE REGION SURROUNDING A MASSIVE OBJECT IN
TERMS OF ITS EFFECTS ON OTHER MASSES IN IT
Gravitational  A field within which any mass will experience a gravitational force objects are
field? dragged to the centre of the field
 Derivation:
o 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑔
𝐺𝑀𝑚
o 𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
o 𝑔=
𝑟2
 Gravitational field strength is a numerical value used to indicate the strength of the
gravitational field at a point around a mass
o Can be thought of as acceleration due to gravity (g)
What is  Model used to explain the region of influence within which the gravitational force
gravitational field between any two objects with mass exist.
used to describe? o Provides force on objects within it that drags objects to the centre of the field
What does it  Large masses result in stronger fields
need? o Massive object will have a strong gravitational field that will attract other masses
near it.
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o If these masses have little or no tangential velocity, they will be dragged into the
massive object.
o If they have some degree of tangential velocity, they will be pulled into orbit, or
they will have their trajectory through space altered by the massive object with
the force acting on the object pulling it towards the massive object.
𝑁
o Used to explain gravitational phenomena and measured in
𝑘𝑔
 Mass  Gravitational field (needs mass) Gravitational force of attraction is
experienced by another mass in the field weight and acceleration due to gravity
𝑁
 On Earth’s surface, the gravitational field strength is 9.8
𝑘𝑔
o Thus, every kilogram of mass at the Earth’s surface experiences a force of 9.8N
pulling it towards the Earth’s centre
What was  Galileo discovered that in the absence of other forces (e.g. friction air
Galileo’s resistance atmospheric drag), all falling objects will accelerate towards the Earth
discovery about at the same rate i.e. the effect of gravity is the same on all objects, regardless of
a gravitational the mass of those objects
force? o Realised the difference in acceleration between falling objects of different mass
was not due to their mass or the Earth’s gravitational force.
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
3.2. DEFINE NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION: 𝑭  𝑮 𝒅

LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

𝑮𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭=
𝒅𝟐
where G is the universal gravitational constant, 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 are the masses of any two objects in kg, d is the distance
between the centre of one mass to the centre of the next in m.
usually use the larger mass (sometimes called central body) to find the force, it experiences negligible gravitational
acceleration due to its large size; but either mass can be the test mass

Since the gravitational force of attraction is responsible for the weight of the person:
𝐺𝑚1 𝑀𝐸
𝑚𝑔𝐸 =
𝑟2𝐸

Hence, the gravitational field strength/acceleration due to gravity at a distance r from the centre of the Earth is:
𝑮𝑴𝑬
𝒈𝑬 =
𝒓𝟐 𝑬
where G is the universal gravitational constant, 𝑀𝐸 is the mass of the Earth in kg, r is the radius of the Earth (6378km=
6.378 x 10³ m). This is equal in magnitude to the acceleration due to gravity (ms-²)
acceleration g is the acceleration of the test mass towards the common centre of mass of the whole system of two masses.

 If you want to escape the Earth’s gravitational field, you must be at a place where 𝑔𝐸 = 0, 𝐹 = 0, 𝑎 = 0
 Formula is strictly correct for point masses and spheres but works well for non spheres
 Must be modified if one mass penetrates surface of other gravity won’t approach infinity if you burrow
towards centre of Earth
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What does the  The Law of Universal Gravitation states that:

Law of Universal every object in the universe attracts every
Gravitation other object with a force directly proportional
state? to each of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
separating them
 Body with the larger mass will be less
affected, because according to, F = ma if F is
constant and m is large, then acceleration
must be small.
o Gravitational Force of attraction acts on all
objects with mass all masses attract
each other; the larger the mass, the larger
the force
o Inverse square law magnitude of force
decreases with distance
 Variations in g is measured using a gravimeter, or using LEO satellites deviations
in the orbital speed of satellites
o Depends on mass of the planet and planet’s radius, not person/external satellite
What are the two  Two ways of describing the gravitational field around the Earth
ways of o The value of g as an indication of the strength of the field at any point within the
describing the field, accompanied by a direction:
gravitational 𝑁
 Gmoon= 1.62 at the surface of the Moon, towards the centre
𝑘𝑔
field?
o Or by drawing vector diagrams
 Arrows point in the direction of the force
acting on another (usually much smaller)
test mass density represents g,
magnitude of field at the point.
 Run in radial directions from point asses
 Humans will be stronger on the moon as your
𝑁
muscles have become evolved to carry 9.8
𝑘𝑔

More properties  Direction of the force acts along the line joining the centres of two masses and is
of gravitation always attractive
 Resultant force on a mass due to presecene of other masses is vector mass is the
vector sum of the individual forces on the first mass due to each of the other
individual masses

3.3. DISCUSS THE IMPORTANCE OF NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION IN

UNDERSTANDING AND CALCULATING THE MOTION OF SATELLITES
What was  By combining Law of Universal Gravitation with his laws of motion, Newton could
Newton mathematically derive all three of Kepler’s laws and provide support for elliptical orbits of
able to planets around the sun
derive o Using Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, can predict the K in Kepler’s 3rd law
from his
laws?
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o Showed Kepler’s first law follows from inverse square law

 Showed all orbits consist with the Law of

Universal Gravitation and his laws of
Motion are one of 4 types:
o Increasing speed of satellite executing
circular orbit becomes
ellipticalfurther increase speed so it
reaches escape velocity parabolic
increase speed beyond escape
velocity hyperbola
 All these orbits are symmetrical in shape
and size
 Circles and ellipses are called
stable/closed orbits repeat indefinitely
 Can be an open orbit (parabola or hyperbola) depending on the sign of Mechanical Energy
1 𝐺𝑚𝑀
 𝑀𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − (m is mass of satellite, M central mass, r the instantaneous
2 𝑟
distance from central mass
 For a circular orbit, r is constant (=orbital radius) but r varies with time for ellipses
 Three possibilities:
o Orbit is closed (Circle or ellipse), ME<0, orbiting object is gravitational bound, 𝑣 < 𝑣𝑒
(orbital velocity<escape velocity)
o Orbit is a parabola, ME=0. Object is borderline gravitationally unbound. 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒
o Orbit is a hyperbola. ME>0. Object is gravitationally unbound. 𝑣 > 𝑣𝑒
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Orbital  Gravity’s the only force that keep satellites in orbit. To stay in orbit, satellites must have a
velocity? certain velocity, which is affected by the gravitational field force of a planet
 Equation for orbital velocity can also be derived by equating universal gravitation with
centripetal force
𝐺𝑚𝑀 𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= =
𝑟2 𝑟
𝐺𝑀
𝑣= √ for circular orbits
𝑟
 As such, Newton’s law of universal gravitation is extremely important for understanding and
calculating the motion of satellites.


Kepler’s 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹 𝑐
3rd Law
and 𝐺𝑚𝑀 𝑚𝑣 2
Newton’s 𝐹𝑔 = = 𝐹 𝑐 =
𝑅2 𝑅
Law of 2
𝐺𝑀 2𝜋r
𝑣 = , (𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣 = )
Universal 𝑅 𝑇
2 2
Gravitation 4𝜋 𝑅 𝐺𝑀
2
=
𝑇 𝑅
𝑅3 𝐺𝑀
=
𝑇 2 4𝜋 2
(𝑅1 )3 (𝑅2 )3
As a further result, (𝑇 )2 = (𝑇 )2
1 2

3.4. IDENTIFY THAT A SLINGSHOT EFFECT CAN BE PROVIDED BY PLANETS FOR SPACE PROBE
What is the  Manoeuvre in which the spacecraft experiences an overall change in velocity after it
slingshot effect/ enters and leaves a planet’s gravitational field
gravitational o Uses gravitational field and orbital speed to gain extra speed
assist?  Transfer of momentum between the planet and spacecraft.
 If a planet is stationary, then the spacecraft’s exit velocity is the same as its
incoming velocity
What is the  Space probe approaches a planet in the same direction as the planet’s orbital path
principle of the i.e. approaches the planet from behind.
slingshot effect?  When a space probe approaches a planet, it will accelerate due to the force of the
planet’s gravitational field (Newton’s second law and law of Universal Gravitation)
o Its outgoing speed is the same relative to the planet but changed in direction.
 In the planet’s reference frame, the incoming and outgoing speed of the spacecraft
will be the same however, relative to the sun, the speed of the spacecraft will
increase since it will have acquired angular momentum and energy from the planet.
 Can treat it as a perfectly elastic collision planet pulls probe rather than pushing
and collision is gradual, but conservation of momentum still applies
o Gravity conserves mechanical energythere is no friction
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 During the spacecraft’s interaction with a planet, the spacecraft is bound to the
planet’s gravitational field.
o However, the field itself is moving at the same time, because the planet is
moving additional momentum is given to the probe, which is effectively
dragged by planet
o When the probe leaves the gravitational field, the momentum it gained simply by
What is the falling into the field is lost (since it
effect on the is climbing up and out of the
planet? gravitational field).
 It acquires angular momentum and
its velocity relative to the sun
What is the max increases.
speed a o Could also use it to alter its
spacecraft can trajectory away from the sun
attain o Ordinarily this trajectory change
would consume large amounts of
fuel, but the harnessing of the
motion of planets removes this
need, as well as reducing the time
taken for a probe to visit the outer
planets
 The velocity of the space probe
relative to the planet will remain the
same however.
o But the planet experiences a force in the opposite direction and loses a similar
amount of angular momentum and energy (law of conservation of angular
momentum and Newton’s Third Law), slowing down.
 When the spacecraft flies away from the planet, it will no longer be bound to the
planet’s gravitational field but instead be bound to the Sun’s gravitational field
since it’s now orbiting around the sun.
 The expression 𝐯𝐟 = 𝐯𝐢 + 𝟐𝐯𝐢 represents the max speed a spacecraft can attain from
the slingshot effect since it assumes the spacecraft and planet approach each other
head-on. A smaller speed is attained.
What are the  Velocity of spacecraft is increased, spacecraft changes direction without any fuel
advantages and
disadvantages of  May be a problem if the space probe gets too close to the planet and as a result,
the slingshot spirals in and crashes.
effect?  If spacecraft is too far from planet, increase in speed is insignificant  time delay
of journey, wrong direction of travelling and wrong position at final destination
For gravity assist, the
maximum possible
speed increase
occurs for the
(unrealistic) extreme
limit at which the
spacecraft executes a
nearly 180° turn,
parallel to the
planet’s orbital
motion Show that for
this special case, the
change in speed of
the craft in the Sun’s
frame of reference is
twice the orbital
speed of the planet
Vp. You can assume
that in the Sun’s
frame, the probe’s
speed is always
larger thanVp.
 P a g e | 11

3.1. PRESENT INFORMATION AND USE AVAILABLE EVIDENCE TO DISCUSS THE FACTORS
AFFECTING THE STRENGTH OF THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
What are the five  Geographical location of the Earth: ‘g’ values are slightly greater at the poles due to
factors that a smaller radius, smaller at equator
affect o As the Earth spins it bulges at the equator, flattening at the poles. This causes
gravitational the poles to be closer to the centre of the Earth than the equator.
force strength? o According to the formula for gravitational force, the force experienced depends
on the distance from the centre of the field.
o Earth’s gravitational field is stronger at the poles than at the Equator.
 Density of nearby geography
o Places where the lithosphere is thick, or where there are dense mineral deposits
or nearby mountains experience greater gravitational force compared to places
over less dense rock or water
 Variation with Altitude: For the same planet, the value of ‘g’ is decreasing as we
move away from the planet  ‘g’ is inversely proportional to the square of distance
or separation
o Places with greater elevation such as mountain ranges experience less
gravitational force, compared to areas at or below sea level
 Variation with Planetary Bodies: Different planets have different densities, masses
𝐺𝑀
and radii. 𝑔 = 2 → gravitational force/ acceleration is dependent on planet’s mass,
𝑅
+ distance of separation.
 Position of sun and moon exert weak gravitational force on objects at the Earth’s
surface
What has the 𝐺𝑚 𝑚
 𝐹𝑔 = 12 2
𝑟
greatest effect  𝐹𝑔 ∝ 𝑚
on the value of 1
g?  𝐹𝑔 ∝
𝑟2
1
 𝑔∝
𝑟2
𝑟 will have the greatest effect on the value of g as g is inversely proportional
2

 Strength of a gravitational field increases with the object’s mass, and decreases
in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the centre of object
 According to Newton’s 2nd Law, F = ma. Therefore:
𝐺𝑚𝐸 𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 =
𝑟2
𝐺𝑚𝐸
𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑔 = 2
𝑟

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
3.2. SOLVE PROBLEMS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION USING: 𝑭  𝑮 𝒅
Planet A, with a Calculate the field strength at the surface of planet B
diameter d, and - Gravitational field strength at the surface of Planet A equates to 8.0ms-²
mass M, has a 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 4𝐺𝑀
gravitational field
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = = = = 8.0𝑁𝑘𝑔 − ¹
𝑟² 1 𝑟²
strength at its (2 𝑟)²
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 8𝐺𝑀 2𝐺𝑀
surface of 8N/kg. - 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐵 = 𝑟² = (2)² = 4𝑟² = 𝑟² = 4.0𝑁𝑘𝑔 − ¹
Planet B has a
diameter of 4d
and a mass of
8M
 P a g e | 12

A 1000 kg
spacecraft is near
the Earth–Moon
system. The
spacecraft is at the
origin, the Moon on
the positive y-axis,
Earth on the
positive x-axis
Given that the
Earth–spacecraft
and Moon–
spacecraft
distances are 3.82
× 10⁸m and 3.91
× 10⁷m
respectively,
calculate the
resultant
gravitational force
on the spacecraft

MANY FACTORS HAVE TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT TO ACHIEVE A SUCCESSFUL ROCKET

LAUNCH, MAINTAIN A STABLE ORBIT AND RETURN TO EARTH

2.1. DESCRIBE THE TRAJECTORY OF AN OBJECT UNDERGOING PROJECTILE MOTION WITHIN THE
EARTH’S GRAVITATIONAL FIELD IN TERMS OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL COMPONENTS
2.2. DESCRIBE GALILEO’S ANALYSIS OF PROJECTILE MOTION
What do objects  All objects within Earth’s gravitational field will experience a gravitational force of
in the Earth’s attraction or force of gravity
gravity field o Experience a vertically downward force of 9.8N/kg, a vertically downwards
experience? acceleration of 9.8ms-2
What is a  Projectile: any object that is projected (thrown or launched) through the air
projectile? (moving freely under the force of gravity)
 Trajectory (path a projected object follows) of an object in projectile motion is a
parabola
 Ideal parabolic trajectory:
o Air resistance is negligible (Gravity is the only external force) true for low
speed projectiles
o Height and range(horizontal displacement) of the motion are both small enough
that we can ignore the curvature of the Earth
What did Galileo  Galileo was the first to analyse projectile motion mathematically and have his work
do differently? documented.
o Divided the motion into horizontal and vertical components, which added to
create the total motion
 Both components are independent of one another
o Measured motion relative to each observer/frame of reference
What does a  Realised that during projectile motion, only the vertical component would change
trajectory consist (excluding air resistance) while the horizontal component would remain constant.
of? o Constant horizontal velocity motion in a fixed direction (equal to the original
horizontal component at the point of release)
 No horizontal forces, no horizontal acceleration
o Changing vertical component (affected by gravitational field) constant
downwards vertical acceleration of 9.8ms-² gives parabolic shape
 The vertical velocity of a projectile changes by 9.8 m/s each second,
 At any given time, the vertical component is equal to the initial vertical
component at the time of release, minus 9.8 times the time elapsed, where
a negative value is downward motion.
 The change occurs directly towards the centre of the field, and acts in this direction
at 9.8m/s for every second in flight.
 P a g e | 13

 Example: a horse rider dropping a projectile in the rider’s point of view, the
projectile drops vertically and accelerates downwards; from a bystander’s view, the
dropped projectile follows a parabolic trajectory
o Person jumping vertically same horizontal component of velocity as earth’s
surface horizontal velocity of 0

2.3. EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF ESCAPE VELOCITY IN TERMS OF THE: – GRAVITATIONAL

CONSTANT – MASS AND RADIUS OF THE PLANET
2.4. OUTLINE NEWTON’S CONCEPT OF ESCAPE VELOCITY
What is escape  Escape velocity: minimum velocity (at a planet’s surface) needed to escape from
velocity? the gravitational field of a planet without further energy input
o Must have the same amount of KE as the magnitude of GPE at the point of take-
off total mechanical energy (Ek and Ep) remain constant and their sum must
be negative for the derivation to work
 Escaping projectile has just enough positive KE to overcome negative Ep
 when the mechanical energy is less than 0, there is not enough KE to
overcome GPE two masses are said to be gravitational bound
 when ME>0, KE can overcome GPE and the two bodies are no longer
What is it bound together
independent of? o
1
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑖 −
𝐺𝑀𝑒𝑚 1
𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑓 −
𝐺𝑀𝑒𝑚
𝑓
2 𝑟 2 𝑟
 Where ri=re and vi=v esc, rf=0, vf=0
o If v1>v esc, the total energy will be greater than 0 and the object will have
some residual kinetic energy as it 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑟 = ∞
 Independent of the mass of the object projected from Earth (e.g. spacecraft has
same escape velocity as a molecule) but depends on planet’s mass
 Independent of the direction of the velocity, provided the trajectory doesn’t
intersect Earth but dependent on projectile’s starting position r
 Escape velocity on Earth> v esc moon as stronger gravity field
 Newton envisaged a cannon firing a projectile horizontally from the Earth’s surface.
Ignoring air resistance, the projectile would prescribe a parabola, eventually falling
back to Earth.
o As the speed of the projectile is increased, the projectile will take progressively
longer to hit the ground; although gravity is pulling towards the centre of the
field, the Earth’s surface is falling away from the projectile at the same time due
to its horizontal motion.
o Increase speed projectile will be in circular motion, then elliptical, then
hyperbolic, where it has enough velocity to leave Earth’s trajectory
 If an object is projected vertically upward from Earth’s surface, it will slow down
and its potential energy will increase as the object moves upwards
 Gravitational field does negative work on the object and decreases its Ek
V<v esc  The path of the projectile curves faster than the surface of the Earth
 Hence, the projectile’s path will intersect with the Earth’s surface
o If a ball could be pushed forward and it would travel a short distance before
reaching the ground.
V=v esc  Curvature of the path of the projectile = to the curvature of the Earth’s surface, so
the particle would fall continually around the earth and orbit around the Earth
o If ball was pushed harder, it would travel further before touching the ground.
 P a g e | 14

v>vesc  Path of the projectile curves more slowly than the Earth’s surface and the projectile
will spiral away from Earth projectile has a non-zero speed even as it approaches
infinite displacement
o Thought experiment: if a ball is pushed hard enough, it would fall toward the
Earth at a slower rate than the Earth curved away from it.
o Velocity required to achieve it is escape velocity
o
 P a g e | 15

ESCAPE VELOCITY  KE = EP
1 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝐺 (Since the mass of the object is irrelevant to the escape velocity, it can be
2 𝑟
cancelled)
1 2 𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑣 =𝐺
2 𝑟
2𝐺𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
∴𝑣=√
𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
G = Gravitational constant (6.67 x 10–¹¹ Nm²kg–²), mE = mass of the earth (6 x 10²⁴ kg)
o rE = radius of earth (6.38 x 10⁶ m)
 Here, the equation shows that the escape velocity is mathematically dependent on the
universal constant, G, and the mass and radius of the planet
o 𝑣 ∝ √𝑚
1
o 𝑣∝
√𝑟
 𝑀𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑏𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟
o Directly proportional to gravitational constant
o Increases with the square root of the planet’s mass and
o Decreases with the square root of the planet’s radius

Derivation ignores air resistance, which would increase escape velocity. Secondly, in a real rocket,
engines produce an extra force (thrust) that accelerate a craft to a higher altitude where escape
velocity is lower. Also ignores other sources of gravitational fields such as sun, moon, planets

ESCAPE VELOCITY FOR A PROJECTILE UNDER GRAVITATIONAL INFLUENCE OF MORE THAN ONE BODY
𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = √𝑣𝑒1 ² + 𝑣𝑒2 ² + ⋯ where 𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚, 𝑣𝑒1 ², 𝑣𝑒2
2
are escape
velocities from the individual bodies within the system, calculated for the projectile using the same
starting position in space

2.5. IDENTIFY WHY THE TERM ‘G FORCES’ IS USED TO EXPLAIN THE FORCES ACTING ONAN
ASTRONAUT DURING LAUNCH
What is actual  Actual weight (mg): true weight of a person, the gravitational force of attraction to
weight and the Earth
normal force? o e.g. the weight acting down on the person in an elevator
 Normal force (R): the apparent weight of a person acting on the person from the
surface on which they are standing
o Depends on acceleration so can vary, e.g. the force applied to the person by the
lift acting upwards

Acceleration Net force Apparent Weight

A=0 When something is stationary or is ∑𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
moving up or down with uniform 𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 (𝑎 = 0) up is positive
velocity, it has an acceleration of 0. R=mg
Net force is also 0 Apparent weight (R)= true weight (mg)
Weight mg downwardis balanced by
upward normal force N from seat 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑅
G-Force = = =
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑊
𝑚𝑔
=1
𝑚𝑔

A=up When something is accelerating ∑𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

upwards, the object has a net force, ma, 𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎 (𝑎 > 0) 𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
acting upwards on it 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑎
 P a g e | 16

Apparent weight ®> true weight (mg)

feel heavier than usual
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑎+𝑚𝑔 𝑎+𝑔
G-Force = = =
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔

A=down If something is accelerating downwards, ∑𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

there is a net force, ma, acting 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎 (𝑎 > 0) 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
downwards on the object. 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑎
Contact with floor lessens Apparent weight <True weight (mg) 
feel lighter
If in free fall, R=0
o G-Force = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 0 = 0
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑔

What is  Weightlessness: occurs when there is no force of support on your body, when
weightlessness? apparent weight is 0 [normal force=0 (perpendicular to surface) no contact with
the floor]
 Sensation of apparent weight comes from the support that you feel from the floor,
from a chair, etc
The astronauts in  The astronauts and the satellite are in free fall under the influence of the
the ISS, which gravitational field- they accelerate at the acceleration due to gravity.
orbits the Earth, o Hence the astronauts do not press down on the floor of the space station.
have no  Whilst there is a gravitational force acting on them, there is no upward reaction
apparent weight. force from the ISS acting on the astronaut-no contact with the floor means reaction
Explain force provided by a stationary platform underneath- seat of the chair, floor of a
room, ground itself.
 This creates a normal force of 0, apparent weight of the astronaut is then 0, and
the astronaut is ‘weightless’
o Instead of pushing back, the floor of the space station falls just as fast as the
astronaut does towards the Earth.
 Cannot say ISS experiences no gravity, or that the gravity is weak-> force
of gravity is the centripetal force that holds the ISS and astronauts in orbit
around the Earth
What are the  Various body circulations, such as blood circulation, do not take place efficiently in
effects of a weightless state as they have currently worked in an environment where we have
weightlessness apparent weight. The need for muscles diminish, the digestive system has been
on humans? adversely affected.
Link to  Future satellites and other spacecraft designed for long journeys may be set in
centripetal force? rotation so that the centripetal force causes astronauts to press against the cabin
sides, which will then press back (Action-reaction force) and so bring about a
situation corresponding to that on the Earth’s surface
 Space stations often rotate about its axis to produce artificial gravity, if a certain
part IS rotating, it provides a centripetal force (acceleration towards the centre).
o The astronaut reacts against this force-> everything is thrown outwards, and
you make contact with the floor.
o Reaction force is produced.
o Apparent weight is not equal to 0

G FORCE
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑎
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = = =1+
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑔 𝑔

G force is a ratio of force and has no units, must be expressed as the “The astronauts experiences a
g-force of 3” or “3 g-forces”
 P a g e | 17

What is G-force?  G force: way to express the contact force on an astronaut in multiples of the force
normally experienced on Earth (i.e. in multiples of their true weight)
o force experienced by an astronaut in terms of the Earth’s gravitational field
strength at the Earth’s surface
o Acceleration of 5g-> 5 multiplied by 9.8ms-2
How does it vary  At take-off, acceleration of the rocket is 0 before take-off, g force is equal to 1.
through a flight? Thrust matches gravitational force
o If g-force is 0, the rocket is in free-fall
o End of primary fuel tank, there is no thrust, free fall, 9.8ms-2
o Secondary fuel tank
initiated, thrust and
acceleration.

In respect to the  At beginning of launch,

graph, analyse stationary rocket is
the g-force? fully loaded with fuel
 mass is at ma.
Astronaut experiences
normal load of 1g as
there is no
acceleration, and this
will not change until
thrust force exceeds
weight of the rocket,
at lift-off.
 Mass of rocket
decreases as fuel is
consumed while thrust
is constant. Thus, the
rocket (and
astronaut’s)
acceleration increases.
o As a increases, forces also increase multistage rocket can throttle back liquid
fuel engines, hence reducing acceleration and excessive g-force peaks.
 Multistage rockets deliver a heavier payload (space cargo) and when the
propellant in each stage is finished, the stage can be jettisoned (falling into
the ocean), reducing rocket mass and allowing for greater payload mass
 The g-force experienced by the astronaut rises between time zero and 1000
o Combustion of first-stage fuel engines produces a thrust force greater than
rocket’s weight force, rocket accelerates upwards. Fuel burns, mass decreases, ,
a increases and hence g-force as the first stage is jettisoned, this further lowers
the rocket’s mass
 G force drops at 175 seconds, as all the fuel in the first stage has been used, a in
the rocket in -9.8ms-2. Thrust =0. The rocket is in free fall under the influence of
the gravitational field.
o Before the second stage is fired, there is a moment of weightlessness but the
rocket continues moving upwards due to its inertia.
o There is no reaction force from the rocket acting on the astronaut.
o Astronaut’s apparent weight=0. G-force experienced by astronaut is 0.
 When the second stage rockets ignite, there will be thrust and acceleration. As
acceleration increases, g-force increases.
o At the end of the second stage, the acceleration and velocity is at its maximum.
 Once in orbit, rockets stop firing. The only force acting now is weight (providing the
centripetal force of orbit), so the rocket and astronaut are both in free-fall and
effectively weightless. Astronaut experiences a 0 g-fotce

What changes  Astronauts are launched in the lateral (reclining) position.

will better cope o Change body orientation to perpendicular to the acceleration of the rocket
with the large o In this position, the change of blood pressure to the brain during lift off is
forces associated minimised
with a rocket  Multiple stage rocket to reduce the peak of acceleration
launch?  Pressure suit to apply restrictions or blood flow to the lower half of the body
 P a g e | 18

 Lie down in a moulded fibreglass couch specific to their body shape (to evenly apply
load across the body)
 Undergo special training to learn a specific breathing technique to allow for an
abundant supply of oxygen to the muscles and organs during moments of high g-
forces.
 The deceleration of a re-entering spacecraft also produces g-forces, typically
greater than those experienced during launch (up to 20g)
 G-forces can be minimised by extending the re-entry and slowing rate of descent.
o This strategy is employed by the space shuttle, which carries out sharp s-bank
turns to control its descent

2.6. DISCUSS THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH‘S

ORBITAL MOTION AND ITS ROTATIONAL MOTION ON
THE LAUNCH OF A ROCKET

Why is a rocket  The orbital motion of the Earth and the rotational motion of the Earth both have
launched as it is? related effects, the orbital motion affecting interplanetary travel and rotational
motion affecting satellites orbiting the Earth.
o The effect arises because when a rocket is launched, its velocity is not simply
that provided by the rocket motor, but also the velocity it has because of the
Earth’s movement through space.
 In terms of orbital motion, space probes launched in the same direction as the
Earth’s orbit carry its orbital velocity, again reducing fuel requirements, resulting in
greater payloads or cheaper missions.
 To take advantage of the Earth’s rotational motion, a rocket is launched near the
equator where the velocity of the ground (v is proportional to r) is the highest
 In the direction of the Earth’s rotation-towards the east as the velocity of the rocket
relative to the centre of the earth is increased
o Earth rotates constantly in an anticlockwise direction as viewed from above the
North Pole.
o Rockets launched in an easterly direction therefore carry extra momentum with
them, giving them around an additional 0.5km/s towards their velocity. This
means that to achieve orbit, the rocket only needs to accelerate 7.5km/s, with
the additional 0.5km/s resulting from the motion of the Earth. This means that
less fuel is required, and/or a greater payload can be carried.
 𝑉(𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ′ 𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒) = 𝑉(𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙. 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑) + 𝑉(𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ′ 𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒)
 Using the Earth’s rotational motion, a smaller rocket can be used and less fuel is
required as the velocity gained from the Earth’s rotation is “Free”
o Less energy is needed to attain the orbital velocity and hence less fuel needed
and therefore reducing the cost
o Thus, most launching sites are located close to the equator where Earth’s
rotational velocity is at maximum (e.g. Florida, France, New Guinea)
 On the other hand, the orbital and rotational motion makes it hard to launch
rockets in a direction against the motion.
o For example, to launch a rocket in a westerly direction into orbit would take an
acceleration of 8.5km/s, significantly greater.
o Likewise, to launch a space probe against the motion of the Earth would result in
far greater fuel requirements to achieve the same trajectory.
What is a launch  Launch windows: favoured periods of time to launch rockets
window?  Launch rockets in the same direction as Earth’s orbital motion around the Sun
 P a g e | 19

 Spacecrafts are launched eastward in the morning (only does ¾ of an orbit) to

minimise the energy required to reach its orbital velocity around the Earth)
When the  Higher resultant velocity relative to the sun The rocket’s velocity relative to the
spacecraft is Sun is increased and the rocket moves faster than the Earth around the Sun𝑉𝑅𝑆 =
headed in the 𝑉𝑅𝐸 + 𝑉𝐸𝑆 > 𝑉𝑅𝐸
same direction  The rocket moves in an elliptical path towards the outer planets  moving too fast
as Earth’s orbital to be in circular orbit.
motion around 𝑚𝑣 2
o Fg is less than the required Fc ( ) so it follows a trajectory that takes it away
the sun, the 𝑟
from the Sun. according to Kepler’s law it will be in elliptical orbit.
rocket was fired
 Total energy (GPE and KE) does not change through the elliptical orbit and it moves
to escape from
faster when closer to the Sun.
the Earth’s orbit
 Once a spacecraft breaks away from Earth orbit, it now orbits the Sun in an
elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the two foci.
 In an elliptical orbit, the spacecraft’s velocity is greater than it is closer to the Sun
and slower when it is further away from the Sun (Kepler’s Second law)
o Since the spacecraft moves further from the Sun than the Earth, its velocity
relative to the sun must decrease.
o When the spacecraft transitions to orbiting the Sun, the Sun must be at the
focus closer to the spacecraft.
Launch rocket in  The rocket's velocity relative to the Sun is decreased and the rocket moves
the opposite slower than the Earth
direction to o 𝑉𝑅𝑆 = 𝑉𝐸𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅𝐸 < 𝑉𝑅𝐸
Earth’s orbital  Moves in elliptical orbit towards the inner planets
motion around o Spacecraft is moving too slowly to be in circular object. Fg is too strong and
the Sun draws spacecraft towards sun
 Once the spacecraft breaks away from earth orbit, it now orbits the sun in an
elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the two foci.
o As the spacecraft moves towards the inner planets it will move closer to the sun
and its speed relative to the sun will increase.
o When the spacecraft transitions to orbiting the sun, the sun must be at the focus
further away from the spacecraft

2.7. ANALYSE THE CHANGING ACCELERATION OF A ROCKET DURING LAUNCH IN TERMS OF THE:
– LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM – FORCES EXPERIENCED BY ASTRONAUTS

What is an action  When a spacecraft is launched, the conservation of momentum and Newton’s 3rd
and reaction law help it take off.
force?  Action force: the force that the rocket exerts on the as particles (engines shoot
exhaust gases downward at high speed put the back of the space rocket) internal
forces, which cannot change the net momentum of the system
 Reaction force: Gas particles exert an upward force on the rocket, which cause it to
accelerate and propel the rocket forward.
o Equal in magnitude but opposite in direction
What are the  During a rocket launch, rockets are subjected to three forces:
three forces a o Weight, mg, downward gravitational force acting on the rocket
rocket is o Air resistance: frictional force acting in the opposite direction to the motion of
subjected to? the rocket
o Thrust force, T: upward reaction force exerted by gas particles on the rocket if
thrust is greater than weight forces, it must go up
∆𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑚𝑒
o 𝐹𝑇 = 𝑣𝑒 ∆𝑡
, whereis the mass of exhaust gas lost per unit time.
∆𝑡
o Increasing exhaust speed 𝑣𝑒 is important as it increases thrust. Even if thrust is a
constant, as the mass of the rocket reduces, the accelerating increases during
launch,
o ∑𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
 𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑇−𝑚𝑔
 𝑎=
𝑚
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How do rockets  The Law of Conservation of Momentum states that in a closed system, the sum of
correspond with the moment before a change is equal to the sum of momenta after the change.
the Conservation o Change is the release of the exhaust gas momentum of exhaust gas is equal
of Momentum? and opp to rocket’s momentum (travel in opp direction)
 But because the momentum of the exhaust is constant rocket’s velocity must rise
to balance the equation.
o When the burn is completed, the rocket is travelling faster than if the rocket had
maintained a constant mass (because vrocket is now larger as mrocket
decreased while procket and pexhaust remained constant).
o Implies that the acceleration of the rocket has increased during the burn in order
to fulfil conservation of energy.
 As the mass of the rocket decreases due to the burn-up of fuel, acceleration of the
rocket rises exponentially during take-off.
o The acceleration of the astronaut also increases exponentially  same as in
rocket.
o 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑥 𝑎 → 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
 Because the rocket motor provides constant thrust, F is a constant.
o So as the rocket lifts off, its thrust needs to be progressively reduced to protect
its occupants.
o Mass is inversely proportional to acceleration, thrust force of boosters is constant
o The earth’s gravitational field slightly decreases as the rocket’s distance of
separation from the Earth increases.
o Main contributing factor is rapid reduction in mass, not the reduction in gravity.
 In a liquid fuelled rocket (used bc it can be controlled and provide greater thrust),
the reacting substances are mixed and ignited in a combustion chamber.
o The resulting exhaust gases escape at high speed through a steerable nozzle.
o The energy of the rocket and its exhaust comes from the chemical energy of the
fuel, which is converted into kinetic energy
 Rocket propulsion is a gradual process, with the fuel burned and ejected as exhaust
gases at a certain rate rather in one lump, so part of the momentum of the exhaust
is wasted in pushing forward unburned rocket.
 According to the law of Conservation of Momentum
o 𝑀𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑈𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 + 𝑀𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑈𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑀𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 + 𝑀𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠
 For a rocket with no external forces, mu(rocket) + mu(GasA)=0
 Forward change in momentum of the rocket is exactly equal in magnitude to the
backward change in momentum of the exhaust gases.
𝑚(𝑔𝑎𝑠)𝑣(𝑔𝑎𝑠)
o 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 =
𝑀𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
 Comparatively, the downward velocity of the ejected gases is much larger than the
rocket’s upward velocity because the rocket’s mass is much larger than the mass of
the gases being ejected
 The limiting factors of the maximum velocity of the rocket is the exit velocity, and
the mass of the gas particles (final momentum of the gas particles)
Mass of rocket decreases as time increases.
2.8. ANALYSE THE FORCES INVOLVED IN UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION FOR A RANGE OF
OBJECTS, INCLUDING SATELLITES ORBITING THE EARTH
What are the  An object travelling in a circle at constant speed is said to be undergoing uniform
qualities of an circular motion. In uniform circular motion,
object in uniform o Speed is constant
circular motion? o Linear velocity is not constant since direction is constantly changing
o Period of rotation is constant
o Angular velocity is constant
o Acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle
 As direction is continuously changing, velocity is changing, thus acceleration
changes  force must be acting on the object for it to continually accelerate
 MAIN FORCE IS CENTRIPETAL FORCE: centre-seeking force that always acts in a
direction towards the centre of the circle in uniform circular motion.
 Forces for uniform circular motion may be sourced differently, but all are centripetal
in nature and follow this formula
o True of satellites in orbit around the Earth, cars as they turn, and a charged
particle in a magnetic field.
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How does the  The centripetal force can vary depending on the situation, for a satellite orbiting a
centripetal force planet, the centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force
vary? o Car around a cornerfriction
o Ball around a string tension
 If the centripetal force and details of the motion do not satisfy the equation, then
the object will not execute uniform circular motion. It will not follow a circular path
and instead follow a different trajectory.
 Often use revolutions per minute (rpm) for circular motion, however it needs to be
converted into the SI unit, by multiplying by 2π for radians, and dividing by 60 for
seconds
𝑣2
 Centripetal acceleration: 𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
o Result of a net force
mv2
 Centripetal force: Fc =
r
Provides the net force in keeping an object in circular motion.
o
In cars, the friction between the car’s tyres and the road provides the centripetal
o
force to keep the car travelling in uniform circular motion.
 The circular motion of a satellite in orbit can be said to have 2 components:
o Constant tangential speed
o Free fall with constant acceleration due to gravity.
2𝜋𝑟
 Tangential speed:𝑉𝑇 =
𝑇
o Radius of rotation:𝑅 = 𝑟𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒

Definition Unit Formulas

Period T Time taken to complete one Seconds 1
𝑇=
revolution 𝑓
Frequency F The number of revolutions Hertz 1
𝐹=
completed by an object in one 𝑇
second
Angular displacement The position of the object around the Radian 
 circle, measured as an angle
Angular velocity 𝜔 The rate of change of angular Rad/s ∆
𝜔=
displacement. It measures how fast ∆𝑡
or slow and object undergoes a
change in angular displacement
Linear velocity The rate of change of linear ms-¹ ∆l
𝑣=
displacement. It measures how fast ∆𝑡
or slow the linear displacement is 𝑟∆
𝑣=
changing with respect to time ∆𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑟𝑤
Centripetal An acceleration acting towards the ms-² 𝑣²
𝑎𝑐 =
acceleration centre of rotation on an object 𝑟
moving in a circle
Centripetal force A resultant force acting towards the N 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
centre of rotation on an object 𝐹 𝑚𝑣²
𝑐=
moving in a circle 𝑟

2.9. COMPARE QUALITATIVELY LOW EARTH AND GEO-STATIONARY ORBITS

What is a  Satellite: object that moves around a larger object, like the Earth or another planet
satellite?  Two types: natural (e.g. Moon) and artificial
 When a satellite is launched, it is placed in orbit around the Earth. The Earth’s
gravitational field holds the satellite in a certain path as it goes around the Earth
and that place is called an orbit
 In a stable orbit, the radius of the orbit remains constant. The gravitational force of
attraction between Earth and the satellite acts as the centripetal force required to
execute uniform circular motion around the Earth.
 P a g e | 22

𝐺𝑚𝑠 𝑀𝐸
𝐹=
𝑟²
 For calculating the orbital speed of an orbit, you must equate gravitational force of
attraction and centripetal force.
How can you
equate 𝐺𝑚𝑠 𝑀𝐸 𝑚𝑠 𝑣²
=
gravitational 𝑟² 𝑟
force of 𝐺𝑚𝑠 𝑀𝐸
attraction and = 𝑣²
𝑟
centripetal force?
𝐺𝑚𝑠 𝑀𝐸 𝐺𝑚𝑠 𝑀𝐸
𝑣=√ =√
𝑟 𝑟𝐸 + ℎ

Type LEO GEO

Description  Low Earth orbit, most as polar
orbits
Altitude  160-1000km
Time in line of sight  15 mins
Orbital velocity  8km/s.
Function  Remote sensing
 Military activity
 Telecommunications
 Specialised satellites
Advantages  Relatively cheap to build and
deploy LEO
 Repair work can be carried out
whilst in orbit
 Can capture detailed images of
the Earth’s surface due to its
low altitude
 Does not require a powerful
amplifier for successful
transmission
Disadvantages  Small amounts of atmospheric
drag acts on the satellite.
o As a result, over time, LEO
satellites slow down and
their orbits slowly decrease
orbital decay). Therefore
they are usually not less
than 300k in altitude bc of
the large atmospheric drag
below 300km.
 Time in line of sight is very
short. A constellation of
satellites is required to provide
 Geostationary Earth orbit, the
velocity of the satellite relative to
the ground is 0
 Must be placed above the equator
in the equatorial plane as it needs
the earth’s centre of mass at the
centre of its orbit and the altitude
of the orbit to always be the same.
 The earth’s rotational plane is
parallel to the satellites’ orbital
plane, rotating in the same
direction
 35651km~
 24hrs
 3km/s
 Communications
 Weather forecasting
 Always remains in the same
position with respect to the
rotating Earth
 No tracking is required from the
ground since the satellite appears
at a fixed position in the sky
 The satellite can also provide
continuous operation in the area
of visibility of the satellite
 Many communication satellites
travel in geostationary orbits,
including those that relay TV
signals into our homes
 Expensive to build and deploy GEO
satellites
 Repair work cannot be carried out
 Cannot provide full coverage for
high latitude regions e.g. Russia
 P a g e | 23

continuous coverage to be used

for communication purposes
 Coverage is narrow, the orbital
speed means a satellite is only
overhead and in range for a
short duration.
Examples  Hubble space telescope  Intercontinental communication
 ISS satellites
What is elliptical  Elliptical orbit: follows an oval shaped path. One path of the orbit is closest to the
orbit? centre of the Earth ([perigee_ and another part s farthest away (apogee)
o A satellite in this type of orbit generally has an inclination angle of 64 degrees
and takes 12 hrs to circle the planet.
o Covers regions of high latitude for a large fraction of its orbital period.
What is a  Geosynchronous: an orbit in which the satellite competes one circuit around the
geosynchronous earth in one day and then appears in the same position above the Earth’s surface
orbit? o A satellite in geosynchronous orbit goes around the Earth once a day before
returning to its original position any orbit with a period of 24 hrs
o The duration of one orbit of the geosynchronous satellite is the same as the
Earth’s rotational period.
o The orbital inclination of a geosynchronous satellite is not always 0 and the
shape of the orbit may be elliptical.
What is a  A geostationary orbit is thus a geosynchronous orbit with orbital inclination of 0 and
geostationary circular shape must be equatorial, travelling directly above the equator.
satellite and why o A polar orbit may be geo-synchronous, but it cannot be geo-stationary.
can’t it be  Geostationary satellites cannot be placed directly above Sydney, as the plane of all
directly over satellite orbits passes through the centre of the Earth.
Sydney? o To be directly over Sydney at any time, the plane of the orbit must be titled
relative to the orbital plane of the Earth.
o If the satellite is over Sydney at a particular time then 12 hrs later, it would
have rotated about ½ a rotation, placing the satellite over the northern
hemisphere/
 Masses released from geostationary orbits will be in geostationary orbit and will not
fall when released. It will not move relative to tower B.

2.10. ACCOUNT FOR THE ORBITAL DECAY OF SATELLITES IN LOW EARTH ORBIT
What type of  All LEO satellites are subjected to some degree of friction, called atmospheric drag.
satellites The amount of atmospheric drag acting on a satellite depends on the
experience drag? o Density of air (density decreases with increasing altitude)
o Speed of the satellite (atmospheric drag increases as speed increase)
o Shape and size of satellite
 LEOs continually lose orbital speed and require periodic rocket boosts in order to
stay in orbit, preventing them from crashing.
Explain the  When a satellite’s orbit decays to a lower altitude, it places it into a denser
process of orbital atmosphere, which causes the satellite to further lose altitude.
decay o The trend continues with the satellite continuing to lose energy and plunging to
ever increasing atmospheric densities. This process is known as orbital decay.
 Earth’s atmosphere extends far into space boundary between atmosphere and
vacuum of space isn’t clearly defined still air particles high above the Earth’s
surface as LEOs collide with these particles, they lose orbital velocity via friction
 Air friction slow satellite Loss of altitude density of the atmosphere
increasesatmospheric drag increase, which opposes motion KE and GPE are
converted to heat satellite loses energy velocity decreases (loss of KE) loss of
altitude (loss of potential energy)
o Rate of decay increases, which can be minimised by building small rocket
boosters in the satellite so that it can be lifted periodically.

2.11. DEFINE THE TERM ORBITAL VELOCITY AND THE QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORBITAL VELOCITY, THE GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT, MASS OF
 P a g e | 24

THE CENTRAL BODY, MASS OF THE SATELLITE AND THE RADIUS OF THE ORBIT USING
KEPLER’S LAW OF PERIODS
 Orbital velocity: speed at which a satellite is travelling, calculated by dividing the
distance it travels in its orbit (which is the circumference of the circle in a circular
orbit) by its orbital period.
o Orbital velocity is linked to the gravitational constant, the mass of the central
body and the radius of the orbit according to Keepler’s Third Law
𝐺𝑀𝑐 𝑟3 2𝜋𝑟
 of the orbit according to the formulae = and 𝑉 =
4𝜋² 𝑇² 𝑇
 Essentially, orbital velocity increases when the mass of the central body increases,
and decreases when the radius of the orbit is increased.
o No relationship between the mass of the satellite and orbital velocity, providing
the satellite is significantly lighter than the central body (as otherwise more
complicated effects would come into play).

What are  Planets move around the Sun in an elliptical orbit which has the Sun in one of its
Kepler’s Three two foci
Laws?  A line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the
planet orbits
 The radius of the orbit cubed divided by period of the orbit squared is the same for
all the planets in the Solar System.
𝑟³
 𝐾= 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡 where K=1 if the units are kept as AU and years, r is the average
𝑇²
distance of the planet from the Sun (or satellite from a planet), T is the period of
orbit
 By combining Newton’s Law of Gravitation with his laws of motion, Newton could
mathematically derive all three of Kepler’s Laws and provide support for elliptical
orbits of the planets around the Sun.
 An object with a larger mass provides the force that keeps the object with the
smaller mass moving in orbit.
o The sun provides the force in our solar system for smaller planets. Once the
distance of a planet is known, then its orbital period and velocity can be
determined.
o If orbiting around Earth, use Earth’s mass as the central mass.

KEPLER’S THIRD LAW

𝐺𝑚𝑀𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑚𝑣²
=
𝑟² 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑠𝑢𝑛
= 𝑣2
𝑟
2𝜋𝑟
Note 𝑣 =
𝑇
𝐺𝑀𝑠𝑢𝑛 2𝜋𝑟 2
=( )
𝑟 𝑇
𝐺𝑀𝑠𝑢𝑛 4𝜋²𝑟²
=
𝑟 𝑇²
4𝜋²𝑟³
𝐺𝑀𝑠𝑢𝑛 =
𝑇²

𝐺𝑀𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑟 3
= = 𝐾 (𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑙𝑦 3.4 𝑥 1018 𝑚3 𝑠−2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑛)
4𝜋² 𝑇²

Where G is the universal gravitational constant, M is the mass of the central body around which the
objects are orbiting. This formula is independent of the mass of the planets and is constant for all
objects orbiting around a central mass M.
 P a g e | 25

2.12. DISCUSS ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH SAFE REENTRY INTO THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE AND
LANDING ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE
2.13. IDENTIFY THAT THERE IS AN OPTIMUM ANGLE FOR SAFE RE-ENTRY FOR A MANNED
SPACECRAFT INTO THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF FAILING TO
ACHIEVE THIS ANGLE
What is re-entry?  Re-entry: the return journey of a spacecraft from space as it enters the
atmosphere
o At this point the frictional and shock heating that occurs as the spacecraft moves
through the atmosphere converts KE into heat energy.
o The spacecraft therefore slowly rapidly on entering the atmosphere until it
reaches a speed and altitude at which retro-rockets or parachutes can be
deployed successfully.
 For safe re-entry:
o Heat needs to be dissipated quick enough to prevent spacecraft from burning up
o G-forces need to be kept to safe limits for humans
o The craft needs to be landed in the right place
What is the  The re-entry angle is specific to the velocity of the spacecraft involved.
optimal re-entry o It also affects the spacecraft’s heat build-up and ionisation black-out period.
angle and  If the spacecraft enters too steeply, the descent rate will be too fast, and vehiclewill
consequences of encounter the higher density atmosphere closer to the Earth’s surface while it
not achieving it? retains too much of its velocity.
o Higher density air provides more drag, which therefore decelerates the vehicle
faster and leads to higher temperatures.
o This will result in at the very minimum excess g-forces for the crew, and at
worst, the extra heating could destroy the entire vehicle.
 Too shallow an angle, the spacecraft will retain too much of its velocity, bounce off
the atmosphere and be out in space.
 5.5-7.5 degrees is roughly optimal angle
Discuss the  The decay of an orbit means that a satellite or spacecraft is losing energy and
change in energy falling to orbit of lower altitude.
in orbital decay? o The loss of altitude leads to a loss in GPE and gain in KE.
o The KE converts to heat because of friction and this heat builds up frictional
and shock
How can we  To manage this frictional heat, ceramic heat tiles or carbon based shielding are
manage heat? used in rockets, as they are heat resistant and have high heat capacity
 For shock, a blunt nose cone is used, as it produces a shockwave of compressed air
head of itself which absorbs most of the heat generated and minimises the heat
build up of the spacecraft
o The space shuttle has wings so that pilot can control the altitude of the space
shuttle and direct its descent
 During the period of maximum deceleration, its nose is held up at an angle of 40°,
which slows its progress and presents the underbelly as a protected blunt surface
have spacecraft descend belly-first, which ensures majority of the vehicle is
shielded.
 A spacecraft is typically in a LEO before initiating a re-entry, and is in high speed in
a stable orbit.
o The spacecraft will fire retrograde rockets in the direction of spacecraft travel
which causes the spacecraft to decrease its orbital velocity.
o The spacecraft’s tangential speed and orbital velocity is too low to maintain a
stable orbit and so its altitude starts to decrease.
o The downward velocity increases from acceleration due to gravity, and it falls
towards atmosphere with increasing speed.
What happens  Once it encounters the atmosphere at high speed, due to air resistance, the
when a spacecraft experiences atmospheric drag.
spacecraft o The spacecraft experiences large acceleration opposite to the direction of
encounters the motion.
atmosphere?  The spacecraft experiences a g-force the g force experienced by the astronaut is
large and in the opposite direction to the motion
 During lift-off, the spacecraft can control its acceleration and can accelerate from
when it leaves the ground to which it reaches the altitude of the orbit.
 P a g e | 26

 During re-entry, the spacecraft relies on atmospheric drag to slow it down and
hence can only slow down over the 100km distance over which the atmosphere’s
density is sufficiently high.
o The distance is shorter than the altitude of the orbit so the spacecraft must
decelerate over a short distance, which requires a large acceleration an larger
force than at lift off.
 Deceleration: as in launch, astronauts’ seats during re-entry are oriented
perpendicular to, and facing the direction of acceleration (look backwards as a is
opposite to velocity)
Ionisation or re-  During re-entry, there is a short period where radio communication is lost between
entry blackouts? the shuttle and the ground
 As the heat accumulates, atoms in the air around the spacecraft become ionised
(charged particles)
o These ions form a layer around the spacecraft that present the passage of radio
signals to and from the spacecraft.
o The radio signals cannot penetrate the ionisation layer and therefore a
communication blackout takes place.
 Ionisation blackout usually occurs at 25 minutes before touchdown and last
approximately 13 minutes (ie, communication is restored 12 minutes before
touchdown)
 Safety issue if contact is needed between the spacecraft and earth at this phase of
the flight.
o Cannot be overcome but minimised by planning the mission carefully such that
the astronauts are self-sufficient during the ionisation blackout
What is the  Although the spacecraft has been slowed during re-entry, the velocity of the
consequences spacecraft is still too high to allow it to strike the ground.
during landing? o The impact would be too severe for its occupants to survive at this velocity.
 The solutions which have been developed and adopted are:
o Employment of parachute through the lower atmosphere
o Landing of the capsule into the ocean.
 The space shuttle uses wings to generate lift, enabling it to glide to a gentle landing
 For planets with thinner atmospheres, retrorockets are fired to slow the spacecraft
down
o Air bags are used to cushion the impact on landing
o Parachutes can be used in a thin atmosphere at higher speed but will be less
effective compared to on earth and completely ineffective is there is no
atmosphere
 Accurate targeting of the landing site can be done using the shuttle’s aeroplane like
flight control structures, which allow adjustment of the landing path

Planning and Scheduling

Launch window - Minimises duration of the journey
- Minimises time spent in orbit
- Reduces travel time between planets
- Reduces amount of resources required
Launch
Launch vertically - Increase its altitude as quickly as possible to escape
the denser lower atmosphere and minimise the fuel
used for overcoming atmospheric drag as air
resistance is proportionally to density (higher
altitude has a lower density)
- Minimise time spent in dense atmosphere
- Saves fuel
- Reduces energy lost as heat from friction
Launch from equator - Pick up the largest tangential velocity from axial
rotation (spinning) of Earth around its own axis
Direct rocket eastward utilise tangential velocity from Earth’s rotation to help it get
into eastward orbit around the Earth
 P a g e | 27

Interplanetary Space travel

Transition from Earth orbit into solar orbit when travelling in: a) Increase speed of spacecraft around Sun to travel to
The same direction as Earth around sun outer planets
Opposite direction as Earth around sun a. 𝑉𝑅𝑆 = 𝑉𝐸𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅𝐸 < 𝑉𝐸𝑆
b) decrease speed of spacecraft around Sun to travel to
inner planets
a. 𝑉𝑅𝑆 = 𝑉𝐸𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅𝐸 < 𝑉𝐸𝑆

Slingshot - Spacecraft can take momentum from a planet

orbiting the sun
- Conservation of momentum and energy of (planet
and rocket) system
- Elastic collision of rocket with planet
- Large speed boost and/or change in direction,
reducing fuel for such a manoeuvre
Re-entry
Correct angle of re-entry - Too shallow: bounce off atmosphere (Elastic collision
with atmosphere)
- Too steep: rate of descent too high and heat build up
too quick, destroying craft
Minimise deceleration to prevent disintegration by controlling - Control heat dissipation using ceramic heat shields
rate of descent -
- Control heat dissipation using a blunt nose cone
(move shock away from surface of craft)
- Control g-forces on spacecraft
Maximise loss of speed - Reduce velocity at low altitude enough to use
parachutes
- Touch down in water or land on a runway
During launch, an 80kg astronaut is seated  Outline the forces acting on an astronaut
upright and parallel to acceleration. A rocket with during launch
engine thrust of 2.0 x 10⁶N and a total mass of o Upwards reaction force exerts on astronaut
30,000kg is to be launched vertically. (normal)
o Weight (mg) downwards due to
gravitational attraction
 What is the acceleration of the rocket?
𝑇−𝑚𝑔
o 𝑎=
𝑚
2.0 ×106 −(30,000×9.8)
o 𝑎= = 58.8666666 = 60𝑚𝑠 −
30,000
²(1𝑠𝑓)
 What g force will the astronaut experience
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 60
o 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = = 1+ =
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 9.8
6.80 𝑔 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
 How many times the normal weight will the
apparent weight of the astronaut be
o 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 6.8 𝑥 𝑚𝑔
o = 6.80 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡.
 Find the force the seat exerts on the
astronaut
o 6.8 𝑥 𝑚𝑔 = 6.8 × 80 × 9.8 = 5331.2𝑁

In stable orbit
Acceleration g-force Explanation
Constant acceleration g-force=0  The gravitational force of
towards the centre of the attraction to the centre of the
earth with magnitude 𝑔 = earth provide the required
𝐺𝑀𝑒
centripetal force that allows the
𝑟²
spacecraft to maintain stable
circular orbit.
o This is the net force acting on
the spacecraft, meaning that it
 P a g e | 28

falls towards the earth at the

same rate as the acceleration
due to gravity (only under the
influence of gravitational force)
and therefore is in constant
free-fall
 No g forces exist since the
acceleration of the spacecraft is
the same as the acceleration due
to gravity and 𝑔 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 1 +
𝑎
(𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = −𝑔)
𝑔
 No reaction force exerted on the
spacecraft as it is not producing
any thrust nor is it in contact with
any surface

Re-entry begins

Acceleration g-force Explanation

 To slow down, retrograde rockets
Constant acceleration g-force Is greater than 0 are fired in the direction of
towards the centre of the but less than 1 spacecraft travel
earth with magnitude 𝑔 = o This causes the spacecraft to
𝐺𝑀𝑒
𝑟²
decrease its orbital velocity
since the momentum of the
fired rocket is equal to the
momentum of the spacecraft in
the opposite direction (laws of
conservation of momentum
and energy)
 It will experience a net force in a
direction opposite to its motion
and thus it will decelerate
(Newton’s second law)
𝐺𝑀
 The velocity 𝑣 < 𝑒 is now too low
𝑟²
to maintain a stable orbit and the
spacecraft will begin to spiral into
a lower altitude. T
o he spacecraft will be in free fall
(g-force =0) from when the
retro-rockets cease firing to
when it enters the atmosphere
 As the spacecraft begins to
encounter atmospheric resistance,
reducing the free fall acceleration
of the rocket, the g-force will
increase

3. During re-entry

Acceleration g-force Explanation

Acceleration upwards g-force are greater than 1.
Higher peak of g-force on
re-entry compared to lift
off
 The atmospheric density
increases with decreasing
attitude.
 During re-entry the spacecraft
experiences increasing drag and
slows
 P a g e | 29

2.1. SOLVE PROBLEMS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION TO CALCULATE THE ACTUAL VELOCITY OF
A PROJECTILE FROM ITS HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL COMPONENTS USING: VX 2  UX 2 V 
U  AT VY 2  UY 2  2AYY X  UX T Y  UY T  1 2 AY T 2

Vector Addition:

 Vertical:
o 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin Ө
o 𝑎 = 𝑔 = −9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2 (down)
o At maximum height 𝑣𝑣 = 0 horizontally symmetrical around max height
o When a ball is in the air, the only external force acting on the ball is gravity acting
downwards, so there is a constant vertical acceleration
 Horizontal:
o 𝑢ℎ = 𝑢 cos Ө
o Given constant... 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 , i.e. there is no horizontal acceleration; air resistance is
ignored)
o If launched horizontally 𝑢𝑣 = 0
o Independent of initial velocity, all objects projected horizontally from same height have
same flight time as one dropped from rest from same height 0 initial vertical velocity
 If ball hits vertical barrier eg wall time of flight is determined by horizontal component
 Ball hit ground time of flight determined by vertical
 Time of flight is calculated using the vertical components and 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑣 𝑡
1
 Maximum height is calculated using vertical components and 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
 Vertical displacement is calculated using 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 or 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
2

-For projectiles

 The projectile position at a given time is calculated by: 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑦 + 𝑠𝑥 (vector addition)

 The projectile velocity at a given time is calculated by 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑣𝑥 (vector addition)

-Three possible conditions for projectiles

- Object is rolled horizontally/dropped from rest from a height of h above the ground with an
initial velocity of u.
o Velocity in horizontal stays same
o Uy=0, vy= increases as object falls
- Projectile is fired from level ground at an angle of theta with an initial velocity of u
o Time up = time down
- A projectile fired from a height of h above the ground at an angle of theta with an initial velocity
of u
1
o tup is not equal to tdown 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 and get two answers one neg and other pos,
2
pos must be greater than neg

A projectile is fired at an angle of 50 degrees to the horizontal and travels for 42.4m. The total time of
flight was 2.70 seconds. Calculate the below:

Maximum Range: 42.4m, Time of flight: 2.70 seconds, = 50°

INITIAL HORIZONTAL ∆𝑥 = 42.4𝑚, 𝑡 = 2.70 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠, 𝑢𝑥 =?

VELOCITY ∆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡
42.4 = 2.7𝑢𝑥
42.4
𝑢𝑥 =
2.70
𝑢𝑥 = 15.70370370370 … 𝑚𝑠−1
𝑢𝑥 = 16𝑚𝑠−1 (2𝑠𝑓)𝑖𝑛 𝑎 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
INITIAL VERTICAL 2.70
𝑡 𝑎𝑡 max ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = = 1.35 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 , 𝑣𝑦 = 0𝑚𝑠−1 ; 𝑎 = −9.8𝑚𝑠−2 , 𝑢𝑦 =?
VELOCITY 2
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
0 = 𝑢𝑦 − 9.8 (1.35)
 P a g e | 30

𝑢𝑦 = 13.23𝑚𝑠−1
𝑢𝑦 = 13𝑚𝑠−1 (2𝑠𝑓)𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
INITIAL VELOCITY 𝑢𝑦 = 13𝑚𝑠−1 , =50°, u=?
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛50° = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑢
13
𝑠𝑖𝑛50° =
𝑢
13
𝑢= = 16.97029476 …ms-¹
𝑠𝑖𝑛50°
𝑢 = 17 𝑚𝑠 − ¹ (2𝑠𝑓) 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 50 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
MAXIMUM HEIGHT 𝑎𝑦 = −9.8𝑚𝑠 − ², 𝑢𝑦 = 13𝑚𝑠−1 , 𝑣𝑦 = 0, ∆𝑦 =?
𝑣𝑦 ² = 𝑢𝑦 ² + 2𝑎𝑦 ∆𝑦
0 = (13)² + (2 × −9.8 × ∆𝑦)
0 = (169)-19.6∆𝑦
169
∆𝑦 =
19.6
∆𝑦 = 8.62244898
∆𝑦 = 8.6𝑚 (2𝑠𝑓)

You throw a ball into the air You release the ball 1.50m above the ground, with a speed of 15.0 ms-¹, 30.0° above horizontal. The
ball eventually hits the ground. Answer the following questions, assuming air resistance is negligible.

a. For how long is the ball in the air before it hits the ground (time of flight)?
a.1. 𝑣𝑦 ² = 𝑢𝑦 ² + 2𝑎𝑦 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑦 = −1.50𝑚 and find vy, 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 find time
1
a.2. ∆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
b. What is the ball’s maximum height?
b.1. 𝑣𝑦 ² = 𝑢𝑦 ² + 2𝑎𝑦 ∆𝑦, and add 2.87 for height above the ground
1
b.2. 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡, find t when vy=0, ∆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 find vertical displacement
2
c. What is the ball’s horizontal range?
c.1. ∆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 time from part a
d. With what velocity does the ball hit the ground?
d.1. Vy from part a, vx is the same.

Suppose you kick a ball at 22.0 ms-¹,, 20.0° above the horizontal, towards a wall 21.0m away. Ignore air resistance and the ball’s
radius

a) What is the ball’s time of flight (before hitting the wall)?

a. ∆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡
b) At what height does the ball hit the wall?
1
a. ∆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
c) Is that the greatest height reached by the ball?
a. 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 find t, which is less than time of flight, ball reaches max height before hitting the wall, final
height is not max height

2.2. PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION, GATHER INFORMATION AND ANALYSE DATA TO

CALCULATE INITIAL AND FINAL VELOCITY, MAXIMUM HEIGHT REACHED, RANGE AND TIME
OF FLIGHT OF A PROJECTILE FOR A RANGE OF SITUATIONS BY USING SIMULATIONS, DATA
LOGGERS AND COMPUTER ANALYSIS
 In this experiment, we placed a grid against a wall and then threw a ball in a parabola in front
of the grid.
o A video camera recorded the experiment so that we could see the ball travelling in front
of the grid. Using the grid, we were able to calculate the position of the ball.
o Times were calculated based on each video frame representing 1/25th of a second.
 By analysing the movement of the ball between frames, we were able to use the standard
motion equations in the X and Y axes to calculate the initial and final velocities, as well as the
maximum height reached and the range of the projectiles, in this case, a tennis ball.
 There would have been errors caused by the ball not travelling in a straight line (i.e. It did not
travel only vertically and horizontally, but laterally too) resulting in erroneous readings, and it is
 P a g e | 31

likely that the camera did not record frames at exactly 1/25th of a second intervals, producing
further errors

Angle of projection Initial velocity Time of flight (s) Maximum height Range (m)
(degrees) (m/s) (m)
30 50 5.10 31.9 22.1
45 50 7.21 63.8 25.5
60 50 8.83 95.7 22.1
Angle of projection Initial velocity Time of flight (s) Maximum height Range (m)
(degrees) (m/s) (m)
30 100 10.2 128 883
45 100 14.4 255 102 e +3m
60 100 17.7 383 884

2.3. IDENTIFY DATA SOURCES, GATHER, ANALYSE AND PRESENT INFORMATION ON THE
CONTRIBUTION OF ONE OF THE FOLLOWING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPACE
EXPLORATION: TSIOLKOVSKY, OBERTH, GODDARD, ESNAULT-PELTERIE, O’NEILL OR VON
BRAUN

Wernher von Braun, a German aerospace engineer, made many significant contributions to space
exploration, regarding liquid-fuelled propelled rockets, the Jupiter C, Saturn 5 and V2 rocket.

Working with Oberth, von Braun designed liquid-fuel propelled rockets, which can be combined with
greater efficiency and greater power than solid-fuel engines. His work controlled the g-forces
experienced by astronauts and varied thrust produced by the rocket, with these liquid fuels now used
in modern satellites and in his own Saturn V thrust rocket that powered the Apollo missions.

After defecting, he developed advanced rockets for space exploration, including the Jupiter-C, a
modified Redstone ballistic missile that launched the US’s first satellite, Explorer 1, into orbit. Shaping
new research and knowledge of space travel, his contributions enhanced rocketry design, later leading
the construction of the Saturn 5 Rocket as NASA’s Marshall space flight centre’s director. The only
space launch vehicle to launch missions that carried humans beyond low Earth orbit, his project also
was the booster that launched Apollo 11 into space and the moon, ultimately developing rocket design,
fabrication and space travel operation.

However, his role as the director of the V2 rocket, the first intercontinental ballistic missile, had a
controversial effect on space exploration. Demonstrating the use of gyroscopes to stabilise large
rockets, the V2’s liquid ethanol-oxygen propellent and bullet structure was structured to attack London
during World War II, a detriment to rocketry, but was later mimicked in the rocket models of the US
and Soviet space exploration to launch their space programs and rocketry.

2.4. SOLVE PROBLEMS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION TO CALCULATE THE CENTRIPETAL FORCE
ACTING ON A SATELLITE UNDERGOING UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION ABOUT THE EARTH
USING: F  MV 2 R
Calculate the size Use displacement on time formula to find velocity: v = s/t
of the centripetal = 2r/T (circumference of circle/period)
force acting on a = (2 x 6680000m)/(24x60x60)
satellite of mass = 485.8ms-1
2000kg moving Now find force: F = mv2/r
in a circle of = 2000 x 485.82/6680000
radius 6680km = 70.7
with a period of
24hrs.

2.5. SOLVE PROBLEMS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION USING: R 3 T 2  GM 4 2

 P a g e | 32

Calculate the  Radius of the Earth’s orbit=1.0 AU, Period of the Earth’s orbit= 1.0 Earth year, period of Jupiter’s orbit=
radius 11.86 Earth Years
𝑟3 𝑟3
 ( 2) 𝐽𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ( 2) 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑇 𝑇
𝑟3 13
 =
11.862 12
 𝑟 3 = 11.862
 𝑟 = 5.200636017 𝐴𝑈
 𝑟 = 5.2 𝐴𝑈 (2𝑠𝑓)

The mean Mean distance from Period of revolution

distance and the Jupiter (x 10³km) (days)
period of
revolution of Europa 674 3.6
Jupiter’s 4
largest moons Io 422 1.8
are written
below. Ganymede 1070 7.2

Callisto 1883

Show that Europa, Io and Ganymede obey Kepler’s third law

𝑟3 (674 𝑥 10³)³
- ( 2) 𝐸𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎 = = 2.36251567 𝑥 10¹⁶
𝑇 3.6²
𝑟3 (422 𝑥 10³)³
- ( 2) 𝐼𝑜 = = 2.31489136 𝑥 10¹⁶
𝑇 1.8²
𝑟3 (1070 𝑥 10³)³
- ( 2) 𝐺𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑒 = = 2.35004911 𝑥 10¹⁶
𝑇 7.22²

Thus, it is consistent and has the same constant

Determine the period of orbit of Callisto

Take an average of the constant

𝑟3
- ( 2) 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜 = 2.34401796 … 𝑥 1016
𝑇
3
𝑟3 (1883 𝑥 103 )
- ( 2) 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜 = = 2.34401796 … 𝑥 1016
𝑇 𝑇2
2
- 𝑇 = 284.8328177
- 𝑇 = 16.876999078 … . = 17 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 (2𝑠𝑓)

Note: if it is just comparing values, the units only have to be consistent, not
necessarily SI

Altitudes> not equal to the radius, r represents the radius of the orbit, h represents the
altitude, altitude = radius of the orbit – radius of the planet

A geostationary T=24 hrs

Earth orbit has
𝐺𝑀 𝑟3
an orbital period - =
4𝜋² 𝑇²
equal to the 6.67×10−¹¹×6.0×10²⁴ 𝑟3
period of rotation - =
4𝜋² (24×60×60)²
of the Earth. - 𝑟 3 = 7.567367623 × 1021
Calculate the - 𝑟 = 4.229752587 × 107 𝑚 = 4.23 × 107 𝑚 (3𝑠𝑓)
radius of the
orbit Hence, calculate the altitude of the GEO

- ℎ = 𝑟 − 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
- ℎ = (4.23 × 107 ) − (6, 378,000) = 3.5922 × 107
- ℎ = 3.60 × 107 (3𝑠𝑓)

Calculate the orbital velocity of the geostationary satellite

𝐺𝑀𝑒
- 𝑣=√
𝑟
 P a g e | 33

6.67×10−¹¹×6.0×10²⁴
- 𝑣=√ = 3075.872707𝑚𝑠 − ¹
4.23 ×107

3. Pluto is in orbit around the sun so the astronaut would experience apparent weightless as both pluto and the astronaut
accelerate towards the sun at the same rate-> INCORRECT: pluto and the asontruat both orbit the sun and experience
weightlessness relative to the sun’s gravity. There will still be a gravitational interaction between astronaut and Pluto

CURRENT AND EMERGING UNDERSTANDING ABOUT TIME AND SPACE HAS BEEN DEPENDENT
UPON EARLIER MODELS OF THE TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT

4.1. OUTLINE THE FEATURES OF THE AETHER MODEL FOR THE TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT
What did they  In 1801, Thomas Young performed his Double Slit experiment which showed that
discover about light rays can interfere with each other to produce patterns
light? o Diffraction and interference are unique properties exhibited by a wave-light is a
wave
 All forms of waves at the time required a medium to travel through
What are the  Physicists knew light travelled at 3 × 10⁸ms-¹ and proposed an aether model
features of the o Light travelled through space in a medium called the ‘luminiferous aether’
aether model? o The aether formed an absolute frame of reference in the universe and light
waves have fixed velocity relative to the aether (they travel at 3 × 10⁸ms-¹
relative to the aether
 Absolute motion of all objects in the universe could be measured relative to
the aether.
What are the  Fill space: light travelled everywhere
properties of the  Be stationary in space: light travelled in straight lines. If the aether was in motion,
aether its movement would change the path of light travelling through it
 Be transparent: we cannot see the aether
 Existed without mass
 Permeate all matter: since light travels everywhere, the aether must be present
everywhere to facilitate the propagation of light waves
 Have an extremely low density: the aether does not affect the motion of objects
through it
 Have greater elasticity: transfer of energy over long distances requires the medium
transmitting the wave to be highly elastic otherwise significant amounts of energy
will be lost to the particles of the medium.

4.2. DESCRIBE AND EVALUATE THE MICHELSONMORLEY ATTEMPT TO MEASURE THE RELATIVE
VELOCITY OF THE EARTH THROUGH THE AETHER
 P a g e | 34

4.1. GATHER AND PROCESS INFORMATION TO INTERPRET THE RESULTS OF THE

MICHELSONMORLEY EXPERIMENT
What was  If the aether existed, then the Earth should be moving through it as it orbits the
predicted by the Sun. This results in a relative velocity of the Earth through the aether of about
aether 30kms-¹ (orbital speed of the Earth around the Sun)
 The relative velocity would present itself as a small difference in the speed of light
as measured relative to the Earth
o Assumed the speed of light relative to the Earth would differ from c, by the
velocity of the Earth through the aether
Aim of the  To determine the velocity of the Earth through the aether
Michelson-Morley o A direct method for detecting this is to measure its influence on the speed of
experiment light relative to a frame of reference on Earth
o A measurement of the speed through the aether would provide evidence for the
existence of the aether
Details of the  The experimental tool used in the Michelson interferometer
experiment o One of the arms of the interferometer is aligned along the direction of the
motion of the Earth through space (through aether)
o The motion of the Earth is in the opposite direction to the aether wind
o Apparatus was mounted on a granite block suspended upon mercury for a
stable, rotatable platform.
 Experiment was set up so that the beams interfered
1) Light from a source was split into two beams which were at right angles to each
other by a half-silvered mirror (known as a beam splitter).
o It splits the beam by allowing half of it through and reflecting the other half
o Light travelling towards mirror 2 was travelling perpendicular to the motion of
Earth around the Sun
o Light travelling towards mirror 1 was in the direction of the Earth’s motion in its
orbit
2) The two beams recombined at the half-silvered mirror into one beam, which
entered the interferometer. This produced an interference pattern made by the
overlapping of wave crests and troughs which would:
- Be in sync and thus not produce an interference pattern (if the aether wind did
not exist)
- Be out of sync and thus produce an interference pattern (if the aether wind did
exist)
3) Interference patterns were observed on an interferometer
4) The entire apparatus was then rotated 90 degrees and variations in interference
patterns were observed. This experiment was repeated many times.
o Interferometer was rotated should have changed the speed in light in each
arm, thus the relative phase of the beams would change and interfere differently
If the aether  Light would travel at different speeds in each arm, and there would be a difference
wind did exist, in arrival time for the light to reach the detector
what would you  If the entire interferometer rotates, the light would travel at different angles
expect to happen relative to the aether in each arm, and hence at different speeds in each arm
to the beams of o Therefore, the arrival time for light in each arm would change
light? o Therefore, the difference in arrival time would change, so the interference
pattern would change as the interferometer rotates
 The maximum change would occur over a 90-degree rotation
o The amount by which the fringes shift would indicate the change in the relative
speed of light in each arm of the interferometer, and hence, indicate the speed
of the aether
 Therefore, Michelson and Morley hypothesised that when the interferometer
rotates, the fringes will shift
Results of the  NULL result: The result of the Michelson-Morley experiment indicated there was no
experiment change in the interference pattern regardless of the 900 apparatus rotation, the use
of sensitive equipment or performing at different times of the year.
 The rotation of the interferometer through an angle of 90 degrees (cause) should
change the speed of the aether wind along the direction of the arms of the
interferometer (Effect)
o Different arrival time, rotate to cause speeds to change, arrival time changes
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o This rotation should have caused the fringe pattern to shift slightly but
measurably
o The measurements failed to show any change in the interference pattern
 Repeated under various conditions and at different locations, but the results were
always the same: no fringe shift of the magnitude required was ever observed
 However, could be taken in two ways- that the Earth wasn’t moving through the
 aether, or that the aether model was flawed.
o Since the Earth was known to move, the Michelson- Morley experiment provided
the final evidence that debunked the aether model for light transmission.
Conclusion of the  The speed of the aether through the Earth was less than predicted and consistent
experiment with 0 NULL RESULT that failed to support the aether model for the propagation
of light
o Allowed Einstein to provide a different interpretation to their results
 It provided that the Earth was not in as fast relative motion with aether as
expected
 Didn’t actually prove that light does not travel through aether but instead that the
speed of the aether wind, if any, was small
o Unexpected result, made it more difficult for the aether model to be accepted as
correct
 Some claimed that the Earth drags the aether around as it orbits the sun
What did Einstein  Light did not need the aether to propagate
propose? o Idea of having aether in which these waves could travel became unnecessary
 Light travelled at the same speed for all observers formed special theory of
relativity.

4.3. DISCUSS THE ROLE OF THE MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENTS IN MAKING

DETERMINATIONS ABOUT COMPETING THEORIES
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 The Michelson-Morley experiment produced startling results that disproved the

aether model for transmission of light and instead supported Einstein’s model of
light.
 At the time of the experiment there were two competing theories- the aether model
in which light propagated through a stationary aether through which the Earth
moved, and Einstein’s model, part of which specifying that light travelled at a
constant speed under all circumstances.
 The Michelson-Morley experiment showed that light travelled at a constant speed in
all directions, and challenged the aether theory by showing that there was no
aether wind.
o Provided pivotal evidence that determined the survival of competing theories as
to the transmission of light
 Created a change in scientific belief as to whether the aether did exist and
questioned the validity of the aether model.
o Later served as experimental evidence to support the theory of relativity, in
conjunction with other evidence.
 It has been an important experiment in helping others to decide between the
competing theories, along with the comparative success of relativity experiments.
 P a g e | 37

o Did not sway scientific belief at the time. Aether supporters saw the null result
only as an indication that their model needed improvement, believing that
relativity was too controversial.
 Theory of relativity produced its own set of predictions, not all of which were
testable at that time. As technology improved, predictions were tested to be
correct. Providing experimental evidence, scientists can choose to:
o Continue to follow a theory where none of its predictions were proved true
(aether)
o To follow a new and alternative theory for which predictions were proved true
(relativity).
 This is a paradigm shift – a radical change in thinking in light of new evidence or
new conceptual model
4.4. OUTLINE THE NATURE OF INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE
4.1. PERFORM AN INVESTIGATION TO HELP DISTINGUISH BETWEEN NON-INERTIAL AND
INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE
What is inertial  Frame of reference – a rigid framework or coordinate system used to measure
frame of velocity or displacement and observe motion absolute frame of reference
reference?  An inertial frame of reference is a non-accelerating frame of reference
How do you tell if o In an inertial frame, the laws of physics (newton’s law and laws of conservation)
you’re in one? apply and give identical results to experiments
 Observer experiences no net force and moves with constant velocity or is at rest
 You must not experience acceleration
 Experiments will give same results as if you are at rest
 No mechanical experiment or observation from within the frame can reveal if the
frame is moving with constant velocity or at rest.
What is a non-  A non-inertial frame of reference refers to an accelerating frame of reference
inertial frame of  Experience acceleration and a net external force
reference? o The laws of physics take on different forms and depend on the accelerating of
the form
How to  A plumb bob is attached to the ceiling of a carriage
distinguish o Plumb bob is used as an accelerometer measures acceleration and determines
between inertial magnitude and direction of acceleration
and non-inertial  Can deduce the acceleration of the vehicle from the direction in which the plumb
frame of bob hangs
reference  If the carriage moves to the right with constant velocity, it is an inertial frame of
reference
o Plumb bob: stationary, vertical down, 0 net force only thing acting on the
plumb bob is gravity vertically down, balanced by tension vertically up
 will only hang directly down in an inertial or non-accelerated frame of
reference
o Will hang in other directions in non-inertial frames of reference
 If it accelerates to the right, the plumb bomb will move to the left and
experiences a change in velocity
 If a bus accelerates to the right
o The people inside it will lean backwards
o The acceleration of the frame to the right appears to the observer inside
the carriage as a fictitious force to the left
o Gravitational force and this fictitious force vector add to give a net force
in the same direction that the plumb bob is hanging
o The direction of net force results in an acceleration which determines
the motion of projectiles inside the non-inertial frame
 A pulley with a string attached to a spring balance, holding a 100g weight.
 We took the apparatus as being an inertial reference frame when stationary- at that
point the spring balance registered 100g.
 When we pulled the rope to cause the balance and weight to rise at a constant
velocity, the spring balance still indicated 100g, showing that the constant-velocity
frame was inertial.
 However, when we pulled the rope increasingly faster to cause the spring to
accelerate upwards, it registered more than 100g, because according to F = ma, it
was exerting extra force on the weight to cause it to accelerate upwards.
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 Because this accelerating frame indicated a different value from the stationary
100g, we identified it as a non-inertial frame where the laws of physics do not
directly hold true (in this case, because the 100g weight was indicated as weighing
more by the spring balance while accelerating).
4.5. DISCUSS THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY
How to distinguish  Classical principle of relativity was first explored by Galileo, then developed by
between inertial Newton
and non-inertial  The mechanical laws of physics are the same for every observer moving
frame of reference uniformly with constant speed in a straight line  inertial frame
 No physical way to differentiate between a body moving at constant speed and a
body at rest
o Possible to determine that one body is moving relative to the other, but
impossible to determine which of them is moving and which is at rest unless
you take measurements involving observations outside the frame
 As the laws of physics are identical in all inertial frames of reference, the results
of any physical experiment are the same
o Cannot conduct any physical experiment capable of indicating if the body is at
rest or in motion
 Effectively, this means that all inertial frames of reference are equal and equally
correct- there is no such thing as an absolute rest frame against which all motion
can be measured since all inertial reference frames are equal
Is constant  Without an external reference point, constant motion is not detectable
motion/acceleration  When accelerating, can tell that motion is changing because he experiences from
detectable? a net external force
o Acceleration is detectable
When does the  Principle of relativity holds true for any frame of reference that is not accelerating
principle of e.g. for inertial frames of reference.
relativity hold true? o All steady motion is relative and cannot be detected without reference to an
outside point
o Any detected motion of an object is thus relative to some frame all inertial
motion is relative
 No absolute velocity, no special absolutely stationery inertial frame
 This implies that it is impossible to do an experiment within an inertial frame of
reference that indicates whether you are at rest or moving at constant velocity
 Can feel acceleration of a non-inertial reference frame
 From a non-inertial frame, Newton’s laws appear to be violated
o Objects can appear to change velocity without a true net external force one
experience fictitious forces
A Christmas  Only two true external forces act on the decoration: tension and weight
decoration is o Because there is an angle between them, they aren’t ‘equal and opposite’, so
hanging obliquely the decoration experiences a net real force and acceleration sideways (in this
inside your car, 5° case centripetal).
from vertical and o The net force and acceleration point towards the right side of the car, so the
pointing towards accelerometer (and the car) is steering towards the right.
the car’s left side.  The ‘centrifugal force’ perceived by the occupants of the car to be pulling the
Describe decoration toward the left side of the car is fictitious. The magnitude of the
quantitatively the 𝐹𝑐
centripetal acceleration is: 𝑎𝑐 = = 𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛5° = 9.8 × 0.0875 = 0.86𝑚𝑠 − ²
𝑚
car’s motion (no
skidding!).

4.6. DESCRIBE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF EINSTEIN’S ASSUMPTION OF THE CONSTANCY OF THE

SPEED OF LIGHT
4.7. IDENTIFY THAT IF C IS CONSTANT THEN SPACE AND TIME BECOME RELATIVE
Einstein’s First  Sitting in a train travelling at the speed of light mirror in front of you, will you see
Thought your reflection
Experiment  NO:
No o If the train is travelling at the speed of light, light from his face would not reach
the mirror to be reflected back
 P a g e | 39

o Since he cannot see his reflection in the mirror, he would know that the train
was travelling at the speed of light without having to refer to an external point
o This violates the principle of relativity, as in this case, the observer can detect
Yes the motion despite being in an inertial frame of reference
 Yes: as he was in an inertial frame
o This means that light would travel at its normal speed relative to the train: this
does not violate the principle of relativity
o The light inside the train should be travelling at twice its usual speed relative to
What was the a stationary observer outside the train (addition of velocities)
conclusion?  Einstein concluded that the principle of relativity can never be violated, therefore,
the answer is YES he would see his reflection
o However, from experiments, the speed of any beam of light is the same for any
observer upheld this as a basic law of physics
 Since Speed of light= distance travelled/time, the stationary observer and the
moving observer must perceive distance and time differently
Second thought  Person A is on the ground and turns on a search light. At the same moment, person
experiment B takes off in a spacecraft at a speed of 250,000km/s. They both measure the
speed of the light waves from the searchlight using identical instruments
 According to classical physics, the speed of the light should be 300,000km/s for A,
and 50,000km/s (300,000-250,000km/s )for B
How can A and B o According to special relativity, the speed of light is 300,000km/s for all observers
measure the  B observes a longer period and a longer wavelength
same speed for  In order for the speed of light to be the same value, the measurements of space
the light? and time are not absolute but depend on the motion of the observer
 Both these experiments showed that with conventional models such as vector
addition, it would be possible for a stationary observer looking to the train to see
light travelling faster than c.
 However, this ran against his principle of the speed of light being constant
What are the two  The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference (Galilean
main postulates principle of relativity)
of the special o All inertial frames are equal and cannot be distinguished from another- there is
theory of no absolute rest frame
relativity?  The speed of light in vacuum has the same value, c, for all observers, regardless of
their state of motion or the state of motion of the source
o Based on the principle that there was no notion of absolute motion, combined
with the experimental evidence that the speed of light was always the same and
light appeared not to need an aether to travel through
o Space and time must change to keep the speed of any beam of light the same in
all inertial frames of reference especially when using Newtonian vector addition

4.8. DISCUSS THE CONCEPT THAT LENGTH STANDARDS ARE DEFINED IN TERMS OF TIME IN
CONTRAST TO THE ORIGINAL METRE STANDARD
 When SI units was first introduced, the metre was defined to be one ten millionth
of the distance between the equator and North Pole, along the meridian travelling
through Paris
o Marked on a piece of platinum-iridium alloy bar “standard metre”
 Current definition of one metre: the length of the path travelled by light in a
1
vacuum during the time interval of of a second
𝑐
 This means that distance is calculated based on time- a unit of distance is
measured in terms of how much distance light travels in a period of time.
o Light-year is also a distance measured by time distance light travels in a year

4.9. EXPLAIN QUALITATIVELY AND QUANTITATIVELY THE CONSEQUENCE OF SPECIAL

RELATIVITY IN RELATION TO: – THE RELATIVITY OF SIMULTANEITY – THE EQUIVALENCE
BETWEEN MASS AND ENERGY – LENGTH CONTRACTION – TIME DILATION – MASS DILATION
4.1. ANALYSE AND INTERPRET SOME OF EINSTEIN’S THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS INVOLVING
MIRRORS AND TRAINS AND DISCUSS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THOUGHT AND REALITY
 P a g e | 40

Relativity of  In special relativity, two events may not happen at the same time for different
simultaneity observers
 Simultaneity: refers to whether events are simultaneous or not depends on when
each event occurred depends on time, which is not absolute, thus depends on
observer
Thought  Consider a carriage of a train. The doors on either end of the carriage are light-
experiment operated. The light bulb is in the middle of the carriage.
 John stands in the middle of the carriage moving with the train, while there is a
stationary observer outside the train. When John is about to pass the outside
observer, the light bulb turns on
 To John, the observer, in the carriage, the doors activate at the same time
o Distance light travels to reach the doors is the same
o Take the same time of the light beam tor each both doors, hence, they will open
at the same time (simultaneous)
 The outside observer, sees one beam travel a shorter distance and open before
not simultaneous
 Both are correct because the Principle of relativity states there is no preferred
inertial frame of reference
o Simultaneity is not an absolute concept, but rather a relative one. It depends on
the state of motion of the observer

Equivalence  Equivalence arises from the constant speed of light, proposed by special theory of
between mass relativity.
and energy o i.e. the ratio of energy to mass = a constant value = c2
o The value of c2 is important to the equation because a small amount of mass is
equivalent to a massively large amount of energy (9 x 10 16)
 The rest mass of an object is equivalent to a certain quantity of energy. Mass can
be converted into energy under extraordinary circumstances and, conversely,
energy can be converted into mass.
o For example, part of the mass is converted into energy in nuclear fission
reactions. When a particle and its antiparticle collide, the entire mass is
converted into energy.
 Like length and time, mass varies with an object’s speed changes little until 90%
of the speed of light has been reached then increases quickly
o Mass increase prevents any object from exceeding the speed of light needs
greater force(Second Law)
o As mass approaches infinity, force required for acceleration also increases to ∞
Multiply relativistic mass by c², you get 𝑚𝑣 𝑐²
 P a g e | 41

 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑘 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝐸𝑘 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
 Where E= total energy, 𝐸𝑘 =kinetic energy, 𝑚𝑜 = rest mass, m= relativiisitc mass,
c= speed of light
 Tiny mass=large amount of energy, since c² is so large

Quick summary  Length contraction means that as observed velocity increases, length appears to
contract in the direction of movement
 Time dilation means moving clocks appear to run slower as observed velocity
increases
 Mass appears to increase as observed velocity
 increases according to
 All of these observations are true only when the frame being observed and the
frame of observation are both inertial reference frames
o These changes are actual changes in the properties of space-time.
 Moving clocks appear to run slower because in the moving frame, time is
actually elapsing at a different rate to time in the frame from which the
observation is being made.
Length  Length of an object measured in a reference from in which the object is moving is
contraction always less than the proper length contraction
 Proper length: the length of the object measured in the reference frame in which
the object is at rest
 Thought experiment: light clock is arranged so that its pulse travels the length of
the train. The light bulb and sensor are located on the back wall and the mirror on
the front wall
o Event 1. The light clock emits a light pulse which travels to the front wall
o Event 2. The light is reflected by the mirror and returns to the sensor
o Length of the train seen by observer on train: (2𝐿0 = 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑐 × ∆𝑡0
2𝐿
 ∆𝑡0 = 0
𝑐
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o Length seen by observer outside train: sees the forward path of the light beam.
 As the train is moving at the same time as the light beam, the forward part
of the journey is lengthened
 But the return path of the light beam’s journey is shortened
 If an observer at rest with respect to an object measures its length to be𝐿0 , an
observer with relative speed v with respect to the object will find it to be shorter
than its rest length/ proper length
Time dilation  Event: happens at some time in some point in space
o Determined by 4 coordinates: three spatial coordinates (three space
coordinates; x, y and z) and a time coordinate t
o Sometimes called space-time events
 According to a stationary observer, a moving clock runs slower than an identical
stationary clock time dilation
 Proper time: time interval measured in the frae where two events happen at the
same place (∆𝑡0 )
𝑣²
o √1 − decreases from 1 to 0, as velocity increased
𝑐²
1
o always bigger thn 1 Dilated time is always larger than proper time (factor
√1−𝑣²
𝑐²
is called Lorentz factor)
 How to do a typical time dilation question:
o Identify which observer measures proper time and which observer measures
dilated time
o Identify the data provided in the question as the proper or dilated time
o Use time dilation equation
 E.g. "A man in a spaceship moving at 0.8c waves to an observer on Earth for 3
seconds in his frame of reference. How long does the observer on Earth see him
wave for?
 Time slows down for someone when they are moving (relative to you),
lengths contract, and masses increase.
o Therefore, when someone is moving relative to you, an event (e.g. a man's
wave) takes less time in their frame of reference than in your frame (since time
was slower for them, so 1 second for them is MORE time for you).
o So you know that in the given example, your answer should be GREATER than 3
seconds, hence you DIVDE 3 seconds

by (since , and dividing by something

between 0 and 1 makes the thing bigger )


 P a g e | 43

Time dilation
though  Consider a train
experiment moving to the right at
a speed of c
 A mirror is fixed
to the ceiling and a
person at rest in this
system holds a laser
at a distance d below
the mirror.
o At some instant
the laser emits a
pulse of light directed
towards the mirror
and at some time after reflecting from the mirror, the pulse arrives back at the
laser
 The observer in the train will see the beam going straight up and down
o Using a clock, the time it takes for the pulse to travel from train observer to the
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝑑
mirror and back is: ∆𝑡0 = =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑐
 According to an outside observer, the mirror and laser are moving to the right with
a speed of c
o By the time the light pulse reaches the mirror, the mirror has already moved
o Thus, if the light is to hit the mirror, it must leave the laser at an angle with
respect to the vertical direction light beam will travel diagonally forward-
upward and then diagonally forward-downward.
 Light must travel further for the outside observer than for the observer in the train
o Speed of light is constant
o Time the outside observer measures for the light to travel to the ceiling and back
will be longer than the time measured by the traveller.
 Time measured in stationary frame is longer than the time interval in
moving frame
 Thus, the moving clock of the train observer runs slow according to outside
observer
o The two events occur in the same place for train observer, so they can measure
the time between them with one clock
o Outside observer observes the two events at different positions must use 2
synchronised clocks located at different places in their reference frame
Mass dilation  The limiting speed of any object having mass is c
o If you keep doing work on it at low speeds you would increase Ek by
accelerating it, but near the speed of light, because no object with mass can
travel at c, any excess energy is put into the system so as to resist further
acceleration energy goes towards increasing mass and inertia of object
 Any object in motion will have a greater mass than when it is stationary
o No matter how small the rest mass 𝑚0 𝑖𝑠, as the velocity of the rest mass
approaches c, its relativistic mass 𝑚𝑣 approaches infinity
Twin paradox  When two people pass by quickly, observing each other, they both think the other’s
clock is running slower principle of relativity say both are right
 Bill goes for an intergalactic cruise travelling at close to the speed of light (in
Earth’s frame), while Phil stays on Earth
o During the flight, they both correctly conclude that the other twin’s frame is
moving, and so he is ageing more slowly.
What happens  Observations in the same frame should agree but Bill is younger than Phil.
when Bill comes
back home?
Does this violate  No Bill turned around (accelerated) to come home; situation is no longer
the principle that symmetrical.
all inertial frames  Need to use general relativity to explain Bill’s viewpoint from an accelerating frame
of reference are Non-accelerating Phil point of view:
equivalent? o By turning around and coming back, Bill left his original inertial frame and re-
entered Phil’s frame, so he should agree with Phil.
 P a g e | 44

o Phil remained in his inertial frame all along, so his conclusions (that Bill was
moving and so is younger) have been consistent with special relativity
throughout and, in his frame, correct.
 If Phil had hopped into another craft and caught up with Bill’s inertial frame, then
Bill’s original conclusion would be correct  Phil would have been younger.
 Prediction has been confirmed using precise, twin atomic clocks and an aeroplane.
Discuss  Thought experiments investigate situations which could not be tested using current
relationship technologies
between thought  Very easy to misinterpret thought experiments, either through flawed logic or
and reality failing to take account of other factors, possibly unknown to science that would
affect an experiment.
o Physicists’ biases do come into play.
 While these experiments do not lack logic, they deviate from reality since:
o Trains cannot move at relativistic speeds
o It is impossible for an outside observer to observe anything and make any
accurate measurements for the events happening in the train if it is travelling at
relativistic speeds.
 Despite this, thought experiments are crucial as sometimes they are the only way
important scientific theories can be deduced
 Useful tools, but need to be used carefully when drawing conclusions.

4.10. DISCUSS THE

IMPLICATIONS OF MASS INCREASE, TIME DILATION AND LENGTH CONTRACTION FOR SPACE
TRAVEL
 Greatest obstacle to reaching relativistic speed is the energy cost of the required
acceleration
o Accumulation of mass at relativistic speeds means that the force and energy
requirements of even small sustained accelerations become greater and greater
 Remember- Conventional spacecraft can never travel at the speed of light,
astronauts will age more slowly, and trips will appear to cover less distance from
within the spacecraft.
Time dilation  Astronauts travelling in spaceships at relativistic speeds will age slower than
(advantageous) people on Earth live longer compared to a stationary observer
 Travel to distant stars will take significantly less time for human astronauts,
allowing for travel to stars which are far away within the length of a human
lifetime
 Astronauts who return from prolonged space flight to earth may realise their
children and grandchildren to be older than them because more years have passed
on Earth than experienced onboard the space ship.
Length  The apparent distance from the spaceship to its destination will be measured by
contraction astronauts to be less than the measurement made by the people on earth.
(Advantageous) o Journey length is contracted and thus, a smaller distance must be covered to
reach the destination less fuel required
Mass dilation  As an object approaches the speed of light, more energy is converted into mass.
(disadvantageous) o i.e. the work/ energy from combustion of rocket fuel that would otherwise
increase the speed would go towards creating more mass.
o Speed increases are much less as it accelerates.
 Acceleration never gets to 0 but because mass increases a spacecraft can never
travel at the speed of light
 Take more energy and money to accelerate the particle due to its larger mass.
 P a g e | 45

o The fuel needed would further prohibit the spacecraft due to the relativistic
mass effects that would escalate the amount needed dramatically.
 Key problem in achieving relativistic speeds, which cannot be overcome in the
near future.
 Reason why achieving c is impossible.
o Collisions with obstacles in space will be escalated by dilation factor! →
Catastrophic
o Communication is slow (4.3 yrs from Alpha Centauri) and Doppler effect
→ Maximises attenuation of signals
Other  Hydrogen scoop engines: funnel atoms of hydrogen in space into nuclear engines
considerations  Huge sails which use light pressure or the solar wind


4.2. ANALYSE INFORMATION TO DISCUSS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEORY AND THE
EVIDENCE SUPPORTING IT, USING EINSTEIN’S PREDICTIONS BASED ON RELATIVITY THAT
WERE MADE MANY YEARS BEFORE EVIDENCE WAS AVAILABLE TO SUPPORT IT
 A theory is validated if:
o It agrees with past observations of nature
o It is consistent with the results of controlled, scientific experiments needs
evidence confirming hypothesis is correct
o It can make predictions
 Even though Einstein’s special theory of relativity made many predictions, they
could not be tested until a few decades due to the equipment required.
o only became theory later after evidence confirmed his ideas.
Hafele-Keating  An atomic clock was placed in an aeroplane and sent off to fly at a high speed for a
experiment: The period, while another one is left on Earth.
flying of atomic  When the plane returns after circumnavigating the world, the time of the 2 clocks is
clocks to compared and it was found that they are no longer synchronised
determine the o Clocks showed less time had passed than the clocks on the ground, with
existence of time differences of ~ 50 nanoseconds in an easterly direction; ~ 270 nanoseconds in
dilation a westerly direction  almost exactly matched up with Einstein’s prediction
 The time of the clock placed in the aeroplane ran slower so time has dilated.
o Can do this bc of technological advanced provided precise time measurement
to detect small time dilation
 Need large relative v from advanced jets
The presence of  Muons are subatomic particles found in the upper atmosphere with a half-life of 2
muons on the milliseconds.
Earth’s surface. o Though they travel at very high velocities, it should be impossible for them to
reach the surface of Earth, as they would have decayed before travelling this
distance.
 Stationary: half life of 2 microseconds; in relativistic motion: 60 microseconds
 Muons have been detected on the surface of Earth and this can be explained by the
special theory of relativity; since they are travelling at relativistic speeds, their
extremely short half life will be significantly lengthened, long enough for them to
reach Earth’s surface.
 Frame of reference:
o Muon
 Time taken for the muon to fall: proper time
 Length of the fall: contracted length
o Observer on Earth
 Time taken for the muon to fall: dilated time
 Length of the fall: proper length
Other  The energy yield from converted mass in nuclear reactors.
experiments  The observed increase in the mass of particles accelerated to near-light speeds in
particle accelerators

4.3. SOLVE PROBLEMS AND ANALYSE INFORMATION USING

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Calculate the velocity of the muons as they leave the accelerator

The high-speed
muons produced to
tv =
for an 2
√1 − v2
experiment by c
the Fermilab
2.2 x 10−6
accelerator are 5 x 10−6 =
2
measured to √1 − v2
have a life time c
of 5.0 v = 0.9c
microseconds.
= 2.7 x 108 ms −1
When these
muons are
brought to rest,
their lifetime is
measured to be
2.2
microseconds..
A mass is
moving in an Calculate the value of v in 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
inertial frame of mo
mv =
reference at 2
√1 − v2
velocity v c
mo
relative to a 1.0037mo =
stationary √1 − v2
2

observer. The c
observer v = 0.085c
measures an = 2.6 x 107 ms −1
apparent mass
increase of
0.37%.
The nearest a) In your frame of reference, what is the distance between Earth and the Large
galaxy to ours is Magellanic Cloud?
the Large
v2
Magellanic Cloud, lv = lo √1 −
with its centre c2
located lv = 1.70 x 105 √1 − 0.999992
1.70 𝑥 105 light = 760 light years
years from
Earth. Assume b) In your frame of reference, how long will it take you to travel from the Earth to the
you are in a Large Magellanic Cloud?
spacecraft
travelling at a s
t=
speed of v
0.99999c toward 760 c years
=
the Large 0.99999c
= 760.27 years
Magellanic Cloud.