Chapter 54: Motor Functions of the Spinal Cord

Motor Responses:
Simple→Spinal Cord
More Complicated→brain stem
Most Complicated→Cerebrum
I. Organization of the Spinal Cord For Motor Functions:
*Cord Gray matter is integrative area for cord reflexes.

Figure 54-1 Connections of peripheral sensory fibers and corticospinal fibers with the
interneurons and anterior motor neurons of the spinal cord.
 Sensory signals enter through sensory roots (posterior)
 Travel to 2 separate destinations:
1. Gray Matter of the cord causing local segmental ( parts of the spinal cord) effects and
other local effects as well.
2. Higher levels of the cord, or the brain stem, or cerebral cortex
In addition to sensory relay neurons in the gray matter, there are 2 other types of neurons:
 Anterior motor neurons:
*50 -100% larger than the other neurons.
*Located in anterior horns of the cord gray matter.
*Give rise to nerve fibers that leave via anterior roots and directly innervate skeletal muscle.
*Two types of anterior motor neurons:
1. Alpha motor neurons-give rise to LARGE (extrafusal) type Aα motor nerve fibers
which innervate Large muscle fibers. Stimulation of 1 alpha nerve fiber excites many
muscle fibers. This group of muscle fibers are called a Motor Unit.
2. Gamma motor neurons-located in spinal cord anterior horns. Smaller than alpha
neurons and much less than alpha neurons.Impulses are transmitted through smaller type
 Aγ(gamma) motor fibers. They innervate small muscle fibers called Intrafusal Fibers
(see figures below)

54-2 Peripheral sensory fibers and anterior motor neurons innervating skeletal muscle

54-3 Muscle Spindle

These Gamma fibers make up the muscle spindle which controls muscle tone.
 Interneurons- located in all areas of the gray matter. The Dorsal and anterior horns, and
all the areas between them (fig 54-1). More numerous (about 30xs as much) than
anterior motor neurons. They are small in size and highly excitable, have many
interconnections, and may synapse directly with anterior motor neurons, these particular
interconnections(bet anterior and interneuron) are directly responsible for integrative
functions of the spinal cord.
 Different types of neuronal circuits in spinal cord
1. Converging
2. Diverging
 3. Repetitive discharge(reverberating)
(see chap 46 for explanation)
These circuits all play a role in different reflex acts of the spinal cord.
 Most sensory neurons and brain signals are transmitted through an interneuron as
opposed to terminating on an anterior motor neuron.
Interneurons process the signal being transmitted.
(see fig 54-1 where cortico-spinal tract terminates on an interneuron in spinal cord) It is
at the interneuron where signals from this tract and others, including spinal nerves, will
combine and then converge on an anterior motor neuron that will in turn control muscle
function.
 Renshaw Cells Transmit Inhibitory Signals to Surrounding Motor Neurons
located in anterior horns (ventral horns) of the spinal cord (Renshaw Cells) numerous
small neurons in close contact with motor neurons. They are inhibitory cells responsible
for lateral inhibition. Side branches (collaterals) of the axons of anterior motor neurons
pass neighboring Renshaw Cells which receive input from the motor neuron, and, when
stimulated, (renshaw cells) transmit inhibitory signals which negatively feed- back on the
motor neuron. Therefore, stimulation of a motor neuron will result in inhibition of
surrounding motor neurons. This is the concept of Lateral Inhibition. This response is
necessary in the motor response for purposes of focus and sharpening of motor responses.

II. Muscle Sensory Receptors--muscle Spindles and Golgi Tendon Organs—and Their
Roles in Muscle Control.
 Muscle function is dependent on sensory information that travel from special sensory
receptors in the muscle as well as the motor responses that it receives from the anterior
motor neurons in the spinal cord. These sensory receptors provide the motor neurons
with information of the conditions of the muscle (length, tension etc).
 Two types of sensory receptors in muscle
1. Muscle Spindles-(54-2) informs nervous system about changes in muscle length and rate
of change of length
2. Golgi Tendon Organs-(54-2 and 54-8)

Fig 54-8 Golgi Tendon Organ

Located in muscle tendons, relay info about tendon tension and rate of tendon tension.
*Both these receptors work at a subconscious level providing sensory info to not only the spinal
cord, but cerebellum, and cerebral cortex as well, thus, in turn helping nervous system to control
muscle contractions.
 Receptor Function of the Muscle Spindle
1. Structure and motor innervation of the muscle spindle
 Organization of muscle spindle (see 54-3)
 Spindle is 3-10 mm long
 Built around 3-12 small intrafusal fibers that are pointed at the ends
 Ends are attached to glycocalyx of large extrafusal fibers.
 Center of intrafusal fibers contain little or no actin and myosin so they hardly contract,
but act as a sensory receptor
 End portions do contract and are excited by Gamma Motor Nerve Fibers which come
from the small type Aγ motor neurons which are found in anterior horns of the spinal
cord.
 Gamma Nerve Fibers are also known as Gamma Efferent fibers which innervate
intrafusal muscle fibers, as opposed to Alpha Efferent Fibers which innervate extrafusal
muscle fibers.
2. Sensory Innervation of the muscle spindle

Figure 54-4
Details of nerve connections from the nuclear bag and nuclear chain muscle spindle fibers.
 Receptor portion of muscle spindle is in center where there’s little or no contractile
elements.
 Sensory fibers originate from this area (center of spindle)
 Stimulated in response to stretch of center of spindle.
Two Ways to Excite Muscle Spindle Receptor:
A-When the length of the whole muscle increases, the mid-portion of the spindle is stretched
resulting in excitement
B-Even if the whole muscle is NOT contracting, if the long ends of the intrafusal fibers cause the
midportion to stretch, the receptor will get excited.
3. Sensory Endings:
2 types of sensory endings found in central receptor area of spindle—Primary Ending &
Secondary Ending
A- Primary Ending:
Type Ia fiber, high velocity (quick)also called annulospiral ending. Large sensory nerve fiber
that encircles each intrafusal fiber.
B-Secondary Ending: Type II fibers, innervate receptor region on 1 or both sides of primary
ending (54-3, 54-4). Can surround intrafusal fibers very much like Ia, but is mostly branched out.
4. Division of the Intrafusal Fibers into nuclear bag and Nuclear Chain Fibers—Dynamic
and Static Responses of the Muscle Spindle
2 types of muscle intrafusal fibers:
A-Nuclear Bag muscle Fibers ~1-3 per spindle
Nuclei are gathered in a “baglike” structure (see 54-4)
B-Nuclear Chain Fibers ~3-9 per spindle
Smaller in diameter and length as opposed to bag fibers. Nuclei are assembled in a line
throughout the fiber (54-4 bottom fiber)
*Primary endings are excited by BOTH fibers, whereas, secondary fibers are mostly excited by
chain fibers ONLY.
5. Response of both the primary and secondary endings to the length of the receptor
—“static response”
When spindle receptor is stretched SLOWLY impulses transmitted form primary and secondary
impulses will increase in direct proportion to the amount of stretching and continues for several
minutes as long as spindle receptor remains stretched. (# impulses transmitted=degree of stretch).
This is called the Static Response of the Spindle Receptor.
6. Response of Primary Ending ONLY to the rate of change of receptor length—“Dynamic
Response”
Sudden increase in length of spindle receptor strongly stimulates the primary ending ONLY.
This type of strong stimulus of the primary ending is called the “dynamic Response” which
simply means that the ending is reacting to a sudden (rapid) change in the spindle length. Even a
small sudden change in length causes this dynamic response. Remember this response only
occurs as length of receptor is actually INCREASING in length. Once it stops the dynamic
response will end and change over to a lighter static response.
When receptor length SHORTENS the primary endings send signals to spinal cord to inform it
about the change in length of the spindle receptor.
7. Control of Intensity of the Static and Dynamic Responses by the Gamma Motor Nerves
Two types of Gamma Motor nerves that innervate muscle spindle
A-Gamma Dynamic(gamma-d)
Mostly excites nuclear bag intrafusal fibers. Elicits a dynamic response.
B-Gamma Static(gamma-s)
Mostly excites nuclear chain intrafusal fibers. Elicits a static response.
8. Continuous discharge of the muscle spindle under normal conditions
Muscle spindle is always under some degree of gamma nerve excitation (under normal
conditions). An increase in spindle length (stretch) will send positive signals to the spinal cord
whereas a decrease in length (unstretched) will send negative signals to the spinal cord.
  Muscle Stretch Reflex
Simplest action the muscle spindle fiber.
Stretched muscle excites spindle fibers which result in reflex contraction of the large muscle
fibers and surrounding synergistic (the combined action of two muscles is greater than the sum
of their effects individually)muscles.
1.Neuronal Circuitry of the Stretch Reflex

Fig 54-5 Neuronal Circuit of stretch reflex

Type Ia Proprioreceptor originates in muscle spindle →dorsal root in the spinal cord→anterior
horn of gray matter→synapse w/ anterior motor neurons→motor nerve fibers→muscle where
muscle spindle origated from (see above image it’s a good one)
This is called a monosynaptic pathway. The monosynaptic pathway allows for a “quick as
possible” response following excitation of the muscle spindle.
Type II fibers terminate on interneurons in the cord gray matter. They transmit delay signals.
2. Dynamic Stretch Reflex and Static Stretch Reflexes:
Stretch reflex is divided into 2 components
A- The Dynamic Stretch Reflex-
The dynamic component of the stretch reflex (which can be very powerful) lasts for only a
moment and is in response to the initial sudden increase or decrease in muscle length. The reflex
works to OPPOSE sudden changes in muscle length and responds accordingly.
B- Static Stretch Reflex-
The static component of the stretch reflex persists as long as the muscle is being stretched.
Therefore, the Static Stretch Reflex maintains a constant muscle contraction (it is slight but it is
there).

3. Damping Function of the Dynamic and Static Stretch Reflexes

Important in preventing oscillation or jerkiness of body movements.
4. Damping Mechanism in smoothing muscle contraction(signal averaging of the muscle
spindle reflex)

Figure 54-6 Muscle contraction caused by a spinal cord signal under two conditions: curve
A, in a normal muscle, and curve B, in a muscle whose muscle spindles were denervated by
section of the posterior roots of the cord 82 days previously. Note the smoothing effect of
the muscle spindle reflex in curve A.
Signals that move from spinal cord to muscle are usually “unsmooth”.Curve A depicts a muscle
spindle reflex which is intact (working correctly) B-depicts a muscle whose muscle spindle
sensory nerves are removed therefore, making damping or smoothing of the reflex impossible.
5. Role of the spindle in voluntary motor activity
31% of motor nerve fibers to muscle are of the small type A Gamma efferent fibers as opposed
to large type A alpha motor fibers.
Coactivation- Simultaneous stimulation of Alpha and Gamma efferent fibers causing bothe
extra and intrafusal fibers to contract at the same time.
Why is this important?
 Maintains length of receptor portion of muscle spindle during muscle contraction
preventing opposition of the contraction
 Maintains damping functions of the muscle spindle despite changes in muscle length.
6.Brain areas for control of the Gamma Motor System
Gamma efferents are excited by signals from the bulboreticular facilatory region of the brain
stem, and signals transmitted to the BF from the cerebellum, basal ganglia, cerebral cortex.
7. Muscle Spindle Stabilizes Body Position During Tense Action
 Clinical Applications of the Stretch Reflex
Clinician performs series of tests to determine how much tone the brain is sending to the spinal
cord.
 Knee jerks and other jerks are used to asses sensitivity of stretch reflexes (patellar tendon
is struck w/ a reflex hammer)
 Elicits a dynamic stretch reflex causing the leg to kick forward.
  Sudden stretch of muscle spindles are all that are necessary for eliciting a dynamic stretch
reflex.

 Golgi tendon Reflex

1. Golgi tendon organ helps control muscle tension
(see fig 54-8 golgi tendon)
 Encapsulated receptor through which muscle TENDON fibers pass.
 10-15 muscle fibers attach to GT
 Tensing of the muscle fiber bundle results from contacting or stretching of muscle
 Excitation of golgi tendon is from detection of muscle tension (golgi tendon is excited
from changes in length remember??)
 Also has a dynamic and static response
 ‫ ؞‬Golgi tendon keeps nervous system updated about tension conditions in each small
segment of the skeletal muscle
2. Transmission of impulses from the tendon organ into the CNS
 Signal is transmitted through large Ib fibers from GT to spinal cord (dorsal horn of the
cord) then onto other pathways such as the spinocerebellar tracts (to cerebellum) then on
to cerebral cortex.
 Response: Local cord signal excites inhibitory interneuron→inhibits anterior motor
neuron→inhibits the individual muscle w/o affecting the nearby muscles.
 The Golgi tendon reflex in the INVERSE/OPPOSITE of the muscle spindle reflex where
it causes relaxation of the muscle.
3. Inhibitory Nature of the Tendon Reflex and Its Importance
Negative feedback mechanism that prevents too much tension from building up in the muscles.
Lengthening reaction-Extreme tension on muscle and then tendon elicit an extreme inhibitory
reaction and relaxation of the entire muscle. This is a protective mechanism to prevent tearing of
the muscle or tendon.
4. Possible Role of the Tendon reflex to Equalize Contractile Force among the Muscle
Fibers
Golgi tendon is involved in equalizing contractile forces in separate muscle fibers.
Therefore overexcited fibers will become inhibited, whereas underexcited fibers will become
excited because of lack of inhibition.
5.Aside from spinal cord motor function, higher levels of the brain are also informed by the
golgi tendon and muscle spindles of muscle conditions.

III.Flexor reflex and Withdrawl Reflexes

 Elicited by stimulation of pain endings by pinprick, heat, a wound etc.
 Called pain or nociceptive reflex
 Flexor reflexes are basically reflexes that involve the act of pulling away a limb from a
painful stimulus.
  other parts of the body that is pulled away from a painful stimulus is called withdrawal
reflex
1. neuronal mechanism of the flexor reflex

Figure 54-9 Flexor reflex, crossed extensor reflex, and reciprocal inhibition.
Travels from dorsal root-dorsal gray matter and synapse twice. Synapses are unique where one
will stimulate a contraction of a specific muscle. One branch is synapsing w/ an excitatory
interneuron that will then synapse w/ a motor neuron. This results in a motor neuron coming out
the ventral horn of gray matter then out the ventral root to the muscle and cause it to contract and
flex removing the limb from the unfavorable stimulus.
Three basic circuits are involved in this reflex:
A-diverging circuits—so that reflex reaches necessary muscles for withdrawl
B-reciprocal inhibition circuits (Inhibits antagonistic muscles)
C-Circuits that create an after discharge which lasts a bit after stimulus is over.
IV.Reflexes of posture and locomotion
 Postural and Locomotive reflexes of the cord
A- Positive supportive reaction-complex circuit in interneurons. Pressure on the foot pad will
determine the direction in which the limb will extend. This is known as the magnet reaction.
B-Cord righting reflexes-animal makes uncoordinated movements to sit upright.

V. Scratch Reflex-initiated by itch or tickle sensation. Involves 2 functions:

A-Position sense-to pinpoint itchy area
B-Scratching-to and fro motion (ahhh yeah right there,mmmm that feels good)

VI. Spinal Cord Reflexes that cause muscle Spasm

Spasm is caused by localized pain.
  Muscle spasm resulting from a broken bone: local spasm due to bone edges cut into
muscle causing it to spasm. Very painful. Area contracts tonically.
 Abdominal muscle spasm in peritonitis
Local spasm caused by cord reflexes due to irritation in parietal peritoneum.
 Muscle Cramps
Local spasm due to metabolic abnormality, severe cold, lack of blood flow, or overexercise.
Positive feedback mechanism ensues resulting in a muscle cramp.

VII. Spinal Cord Transection and Spinal Shock

Transaction of spinal cord in the upper neck causes all cord functions, including reflexes to stop,
this is called spinal shock. This silence happens because the neurons in the cord depend on the
higher regions in the brain to stimulate them. After a certain amount of time, the spinal neurons
are able to get back their excitability (how Spinal got her groove back). Most neurons, when
they lose their facilitatory impulse source, can find other way to re-excite themselves.

 Spinal functions affected during and after spinal shock:

1.instant and drastic fall of arterial pressure. Sympathetic nervous system is obviously blocked,
pressure returns to normal within a few days.
2.Skeletal muscle reflexes integrated in spinal cord become blocked. May return to normal in
humans between 2 weeks to several months. Stretch reflexes are first to return, followed by
flexor reflexes, postural antigravity reflex, and some stepping reflexes.
3. sacral reflexes that control the bladder and colon (so u don’t poop or pee yourself) become
suppressed.

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