Railway Engineering

3. Permanent Way
• Alignment, Requirements, Selection of Alignment
• Track Section
• Engineering Surveys and Construction of railway lines
• Gauges
• Stresses in Railway Track
• Coning in wheels & Tilting of rails
• High Speed Track
 ALIGNMENT AND ITS IMPORTANCE

 The direction and position given to the centre line of the railway
track on the ground in the horizontal and vertical planes.

 Horizontal alignment means the direction of the railway track in

the plan including the straight path and the curves it follows.

 Vertical alignment means the direction it follows in a vertical

plane including the level track, gradients, and vertical curves.
 IMPORTANCE OF GOOD ALIGNMENT

 Improper alignment may prove to be more costly and may not be

able to fulfil the desired objectives

 Railway line constructions are capital-intensive projects, once

constructed, it is very difficult to change the alignment of a
railway line because of the costly structures involved, difficulty in
getting additional land for the new alignment.
 Basic Requirements of an Ideal Alignment

 Purpose of the New Railway Line

Need: Strategic considerations, political considerations, help in developing

of backward areas, connect new trade centres, and shorten the existing rail
lines

 Integrated Development

Should fit in with the general planning and form a part of the integrated
development of the country

 Economic Considerations

• Shortest route

• Construction and maintenance cost

• Minimum operational expenses

 Basic Requirements/Needs of an Ideal Alignment

 Maximum Safety and Comfort

• Must provides maximum safety and comfort to the travelling public.

• achieved by designing curves with proper transition lengths,

providing vertical curves for gradients

 Aesthetic Considerations

• A journey by rail should be visually pleasing.

• This can be done by avoiding views of borrow pits and passing the
alignment through natural and beautiful surroundings with scenic
beauty
 SELECTION OF A GOOD ALIGNMENT

 Choice of Gauge
• The gauge can be a BG (1676 mm), an MG (1000 mm), or even an NG
(762 mm).
• As per the latest policy of the Government of India, new railway lines
are constructed on BG only
 Obligatory or Controlling Points
• Important cities and towns
• Major bridge sites and river crossings
• Existing passes and saddles in hilly terrain
• Sites for tunnels
 Topography of the Country
• Plane alignment
• Valley alignment
• Cross-country alignment
• Mountain alignment
DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES FOR MOUNTAIN ALIGNMENT
DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES FOR MOUNTAIN ALIGNMENT

ZIG ZAG ALIGNMENT

DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES FOR MOUNTAIN ALIGNMENT
DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES FOR MOUNTAIN ALIGNMENT

SWITCH BACK ALIGNMENT

DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES FOR MOUNTAIN ALIGNMENT

SWITCH BACK ALIGNMENT

DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES FOR MOUNTAIN ALIGNMENT
DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES FOR MOUNTAIN ALIGNMENT

COMPLETE LOOP ALIGNMENT

 SELECTION OF A GOOD ALIGNMENT (Contd..)

 Geometrical Standards
• gradients and curves within permissible limits.
• Transition as well as vertical curves should be used
 Geological Formation
• Alignment should normally run on good and stable soil formation as
far as possible
 Effect of Flood and Climate
• The alignment should normally pass through areas which are not
likely to be flooded
• In hot climate and sandy areas, the alignment should pass by those
sides of sand dunes that face away from the direction of the wind
• Similarly, in cold regions, the alignment should pass by those sides
of hills that face away from the direction of the wind
 SELECTION OF A GOOD ALIGNMENT (Contd..)

 Position of Roads and Road Crossings

• A railway line should cross a road at right angles so as to have a
perpendicular level crossing and avoid accidents
 Proximity of Labour and Material
• availability and proximity of local labour and good and cheap building
material
 Location of Railway Stations and Yards
• Railway stations and yards should be located on level stretches of
land, preferably on the outskirts of a town or village so as to have
enough area for the free flow of traffic
 Religious and Historical Monuments
• should avoid religious and historical monuments
 SELECTION OF A GOOD ALIGNMENT (Contd..)

 Cost Considerations
• The alignment should be such that the cost of construction of the
railway line is as low as possible. Not only the initial cost of
construction but also the maintenance cost should be as low as
possible. For this purpose, the alignment should be as straight as
possible, with least earthwork, and should pass through terrain with
good soil
 Traffic Considerations
• attracts maximum traffic
 Economic Considerations
• the alignment is overall economical
 Political Considerations
• It should not enter foreign soil and should preferably be away from
common border areas
 SURVEYS FOR CONSTRUCTION OF NEW RAILWAY
LINE
 The construction of a new railway line is a capital-intensive
project.
 A new railway line costs in the range of Rs 6 to 10 million per km
depending upon the topography of the area, the standard of
construction.
 A lot of thought is to be given when making a final decision as to
whether a new railway line is at all necessary or not.
 Need for Construction of a New Railway Line:
 Strategic considerations,
 political considerations,
 development of backward areas,
 connecting new trade centres,
 shortening the existing rail lines
 Preliminary Investigations for a New Railway Line

 Preliminary investigations are done by the railway administration

to determine how the proposed line will fit in with the general
scheme of future railway development
 A careful study of the following existing data is made:
• Existing topo sheets and other maps of the area

• Published figures of trade and population of the area to be

served

• Statistical data of existing railway lines in similar terrain in

other areas
 These investigations help in deciding whether or not the new
railway line is required and surveys should then be undertaken to
get more details of the new line being considered
 TYPES OF SURVEYS

 Once a decision has been taken during preliminary investigations

about the general feasibility and desirability of a railway line,
surveys are undertaken before the construction of the new line.

 The following types of surveys are normally conducted

 Reconnaissance survey- determine the technical feasibility

of the proposal as well as the rough cost of one or more
alternatives to the new line

 Traffic survey & Preliminary survey- the railway

administration decides whether or not to construct the
proposed railway line

 Final location survey- to prepare working details and make

accurate cost estimates
 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

 Rapid and rough investigation of the area with a view to

determine the technical feasibility of the proposal as well as the
rough cost of one or more alternatives to the new line.

 The general topography of the country is studied by the survey

team and then field data are collected

 Survey Instruments: Prismatic compass, Aneroid barometer,

Abney level or hand level or clinometer, Binocular, Pedometer

 Modern Surveying Instruments and Techniques: Electromagnetic

Distance Measurement (EDM) Instruments, Computers, Lasers
 Binocular
Abney level

Aneroid
barometer

Prismatic
compass
 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

Field Data:
 General topography of the country
 Approximate heights of the different points falling on the
alignment
 Positions of rivers, streams, and some hydrological details of
the same
 Positions of roads and highways
 Nature of soil at different places
 Rough location of various station sites
 Controlling points on the alignment, through which the railway
line must pass
 Facilities for construction

 A report should be prepared clearly stating from the financial

point of view whether or not to undertake further investigations
for the line surveyed
 TRAFFIC SURVEY

Traffic survey includes a detailed study of the traffic conditions in

the area with a view to determine the

 most promising route for the railway in the area,

 possible traffic the railway line will carry

 standard of railway line to be followed.

 Traffic surveys are carried along with reconnaissance or

preliminary engineering surveys so that the technical feasibility
and relative costs of alternative proposals can be formulated.

 The survey team should visit all trade centres in the area and
consult local bodies, state governments, and prominent citizens
regarding trade and industry and propose the most suitable
alignment for the new line.
 TRAFFIC SURVEY

 Traffic survey consists of an economic study of the area.

 Details to be collected

• Human resources

• Agricultural and mineral resources

• Pattern of trade and commerce

• Industries located and projected

• Prospects of tourist traffic

• Existing transport facilities

• Locations of important government and private offices

• Planning for economic development of the area

 PRELIMINARY SURVEY

 The preliminary survey consists of a detailed surveying of the

route to be selected in order to estimate the cost of the proposed
railway line
 Instruments

• Theodolite for traversing and pegging the centre line

• Tacheometer for plotting the main features

• Dumpy level for taking the longitudinal and cross levels

• Plane table for getting details of various features

• Prismatic compass for getting magnetic bearings of

alignment line
 PRELIMINARY SURVEY

Field Survey

 An open traverse is run along the centre line of the proposed

alignment with the help of a theodolite, tacheometer, or a
compass.

 Longitudinal and cross levelling on the proposed route for a

width of 200 m on either side in order to make an accurate
contour map.

 Plane tabling of the entire area to obtain various geographical

details.

 Special survey of station sites, level crossings, and bridges using

the plane table.
 PRELIMINARY SURVEY (Data to be Collected)

• Geological information such as type of soil strata and the nature

of rocks.
• Source of availability of construction materials such as sand,
aggregate, bricks, cement, and timber.
• Facilities for construction such as the availability of labour and
drinking water.
• Full details of the land and buildings to be acquired.
• Details of existing bridges and culverts along with information
about proximity of tanks, bunds, etc., which may affect the design
of bridges.
• Details of road crossings along with the angles of crossing and
the traffic expected on the level crossings.
• High flood level and low water level of all the rivers and streams
falling on the alignment.
• Full details of station sites along with the facilities required.
 FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

Once a decision has been taken for a particular railway line to be

constructed, a final location survey is done.

The principal differences between the preliminary survey and the

final survey are :

• In the final location survey, the alignment is fully marked with the
help of a theodolite, whereas it is not obligatory to do so in the
case of preliminary survey.

• In the final location survey, a more detailed project report is

prepared and submitted.

• All working drawings are prepared in the final location survey

 FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

The following tasks are carried out in the final location survey.

• The centre line is fully marked by pegs at 20 m. At each 100 m, a

large peg should be used.

• Masonry pillars are built at tangent points of curves and along the
centre line at intervals of 500 m.

• Longitudinal and cross levelling is done to ascertain the final

gradient of the alignment. All gradients are compensated for
curves.

• The sites for station yards are fully distinguished.

 PROJECT REPORT (Based on Location Survey)

 Introduction

 Object of investigation and background

 Programme and methodology of investigation

 Special features of investigation

 Characteristics of the Project Areas

 The topographical outline of the areas

 The geographical features of the country

 Climatic and rainfall characteristics

 Environmental characteristics
 PROJECT REPORT (Based on Location Survey)

 Standard of Construction
 Gauge
 Category of line- the maximum speed potential of the line, the
maximum axle load.
 Curves- The sharpest degree of curvature adopted
 Ruling gradient
 Permanent way- the type and density of sleepers provided,
welding, bolting
 Ballast- The type and depth of ballast cushion provided
 Stations- Spacing of stations
 Signalling and telecommunication- standard
 Traction- type of traction proposed
 Other details- Road crossings, station machinery, residential
accommodation, service and maintenance facilities,
 PROJECT REPORT (Based on Location Survey)

 Route Selection- various alternative routes examined

 Project Engineering- to understand the scope and extent of the
project and to formulate the strategy for the execution and
management of the project
 Estimation of Cost and Construction Schedule- a cost estimate of
preliminary expenses, land, formation, bridges, permanent way,
station building and residential quarters, road crossings, station
equipment, signalling and interlocking, rolling stock
 Project Organization- the organizational structure for the
execution of the project, the proposed headquarters of the project
manager and other construction officers
 Tabulated Details- tabulated details of curve abstract, gradient
abstract, bridge abstract, important bridges, stations, machinery,
stations, and station sites
TRACK or PERMANENT WAY
 TRACK AND TRACK SECTION

 The track or permanent way is the railroad on which trains run.

 Consists two parallel rails fastened to sleepers with a specified
distance between them.
 The sleepers are embedded in a layer of ballast of specified
thickness spread over level ground known as formation.
 The track consists of the rails, sleepers, fittings and fastenings,
the ballast, and the formation.
 Rails

Sleepers

Ballast Fittings

VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF TRACK

VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF TRACK

Sleepers

Rail

Fittings

Fish Plate

Ballast

Bolts
COMPONENTS OF TRACK AND FUNCTIONS

act as girders to transmit the

RAILS
wheel load to the sleepers

FISH PLATES AND BOLTS Joins rails in series

FITTINGS Fastens the rails to sleepers

hold the rails in their proper

SLEEPERS positions, provide a correct, and
transfer the load to the ballast

Ballast hold sleepers in position

BALLAST at specified distance, provides a
uniform level surface and
drainage, and transfers the load
to a larger area of the formation

takes the total load of the track

FORMATION
and the trains moving on it
 CONSTRUCTION OF NEW LINES

The main work involved in the construction of a new line is the

following.

• Land acquisition

• Earthwork and bridges

• Station building, staff quarters, and other allied facilities,

including platforms and sheds

• Plate laying, including ballasting of track

• Opening to traffic
 CONSTRUCTION OF NEW LINES

• Land acquisition

 Land acquisition should start well in advance

 Land to be acquired should be adequate for the formation

and borrow pits

• Earthwork and bridges

 The formation may be in an embankment or a cutting
depending upon the rail level and general contour of the
area. A formation in an embankment is normally preferred
from the point of view of good drainage.
 Bridges should be designed for the heaviest locomotive
likely to pass that section
 CONSTRUCTION OF NEW LINES

• Station building, staff quarters, and other allied facilities,

including platforms and sheds
 Service buildings- station master’s office, telegraph office,
etc., required for providing services for running the trains.
 Staff quarters and other passenger amenity works such as
platforms, foot over bridges, waiting halls, and retiring rooms
are also provided at stations.
 Facilities such as water supply, drainage, telephone lines,
and electricity are also made available.

All these constructions are simultaneously taken up by civil

engineers, electrical engineers, and signal engineers so that they
can progress together.
 CONSTRUCTION OF NEW LINES

Plate laying, including ballasting of track

 Once the formation is ready, plate laying or track linking is

required. It consists of laying rails, sleepers, and fastenings

 Tram Line Method - In this method, a temporary line known as the

‘tram line’ is laid by the side of the proposed track for taking track
materials to the site. This method is useful in flat terrain.

 Side method- This method is used where track and bridge

material is carried to the site on trucks on a service road parallel
to the track. The material is then unloaded near the work site.
 CONSTRUCTION OF NEW LINES

Plate laying, including ballasting of track

 Telescopic Method
 Widely used on Indian Railways.
 In this method, the rails, sleepers, and other fittings are taken to the
base depot and unloaded.
 The track material is then taken to the rail head and the track is linked
and packed. The rail head is then advanced up to the extent of laid
track.
 The track material is then taken up to the advanced rail head with the
help of a dip lorry and the track is again linked and packed.
 In this way, the rail head goes on advancing till the full track is linked
 Main Operations involved are
 Unloading of materials
 Track linking
 Track packing
 Ballasting of track
 Track Material
to Base Depot

Alignment and
laying of sleepers

Dip Lorry

Placing and
fitting rails to
sleepers

Ballasting

Opening to
Traffic