Review Related Literature

Theories of teaching and learning have long emphasized the important role teachers play in
supporting students’ development in areas beyond their core academic skill. For example, in
their conceptualization of high-quality teaching, Pianta and Hamre (2009) describe a set of
emotional supports and organizational techniques that are equally important to learners as
teachers’ instructional methods. They posit that, by providing “emotional support and a
predictable, consistent, and safe environment” (p. 113), teachers can help students become more
self-reliant, motivated to learn, and willing to take risks. Further, by modeling strong
organizational and management structures, teachers can help build students’ own ability to self-
regulate. Content-specific views of teaching also highlight the importance of teacher behaviors
that develop students’ attitudes and behaviors in ways that may not directly impact test scores. In
mathematics, researchers and professional organizations have advocated for teaching practices
that emphasize critical thinking and problem solving around authentic tasks (Lampert, 2001;
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 1989, 2014). Others have pointed to
teachers’ important role of developing students’ self-efficacy and decreasing their anxiety in
math (Bandura et al., 1996; Usher & Pajares, 2008; Wigfield & Meece, 1988). In recent years,
development and use of observation instruments that capture the quality of teachers’ instruction
have provided a unique opportunity to examine these theories empirically. One instrument in
particular, the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS), is organized around
“meaningful patterns of [teacher] behavior…tied to underlying developmental processes [in
students]” (Pianta & Hamre, 2009, p. 112). Factor analyses of data collected by this instrument
have identified several unique aspects of teachers’ instruction: teachers’ social and emotional
interactions with students, their ability to organize and manage the classroom environment, and
their instructional supports in the delivery of content (Hafen et al., 2015; Hamre et al., 2013). A
number of studies from developers of the CLASS instrument and their colleagues have described
relationships between these dimensions and closely related student attitudes and behaviors. For
example, teachers’ interactions with students predicts students’ social competence, engagement,
and risk-taking; teachers’ classroom organization predicts students’ engagement and behavior in
class (Burchinal et al., 2008; Downer, Rimm-Kaufman, & Pianta, 2007; Hamre, Hatfield, Pianta,
& Jamil, 2014; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Luckner & Pianta, 2011; Mashburn et al., 2008; Pianta,
La Paro, Payne, Cox, & Bradley, 2002). With only a few exceptions (see Downer et al., 2007;
Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Luckner & Pianta, 2011), though, these studies have focused on pre-
kindergarten settings. Additional content-specific observation instruments highlight several other
teaching competencies with links to students’ attitudes and behaviors. For example, in this study
we draw on the Mathematical Quality of Instruction (MQI) to capture math-specific dimensions
of teachers’ classroom practice. Factor analyses of data captured both by this instrument and the
CLASS identified two teaching skills in addition to those described above: the cognitive demand
of math activities that teachers provide to students and the precision with which they deliver this
content (Blazar et al., 2015). Validity evidence for the MQI has focused on the relationship
between these teaching practices and students’ math test score This article explores the current
literature on student characteristics and performance in an accounting course. When planning to
teach or design a course, student characteristics play a role as part of the “situational factors”
(Fink, 2003). Research has widely shown that college graduation rates are associated with
student characteristics (e.g., Astin & Oseguera, 2005; Gold & Albert, 2006). This article focuses
on student characteristics and performance in an accounting course. The following factors are
discussed: math, English, gender, age, and prior accounting course. These factors are chosen, as
they are often available from course enrollment data. The literature shows that some
characteristics (math, prior accounting course) have a positive relationship with performance in
an accounting course, while other characteristics (English, age, gender) have a mixed effect on
performance It is commonly agreed that learning with understanding is more desirable than
learning by rote. Understanding is described in terms of the way information is represented and
structured in the memory. A mathematical idea or procedure or fact is understood if it is a part of
an internal network, and the degree of understanding is determined by the number and the
strength of the connections between ideas. When a student learns a piece of mathematical
knowledge without making connections with items in his or her existing networks of internal
knowledge, he or she is learning without understanding.

Learning with understanding has progressively been elevated to one of the most important goals
for all learners in all subjects. However, the realisation of this goal has been problematic,
especially in the domain of mathematics where there are marked difficulties in learning and
understanding. The experience of working with learners who do not do well in mathematics
suggests that much of the problem is that learners are required to spend so much time in
mathematics lessons engaged in tasks which seek to give them competence in mathematical
procedures. This leaves inadequate time for gaining understanding or seeking how the
procedures can be applied in life.

Much of the satisfaction inherent in learning is that of understanding: making connections,

relating the symbols of mathematics to real situations, seeing how things fit together, and
articulating the patterns and relationships which are fundamental to our number system and
number operations. Other factors include attitudes towards mathematics, working memory
capacity, extent of field dependency, curriculum approaches, the classroom climate and
assessment. In this study, attitudes, working memory capacity and extent of field dependency
will be considered. The work will be underpinned by an information processing model for
learning.

A mathematics curriculum framework released by the US National Council of Teachers of

Mathematics (NCTM, 2000) offers a research-based description of what is involved for students
to learn mathematics with understanding. The approach is based on “how learners learn, not on
“how to teach”, and it should enable mathematics teachers to see mathematics from the
standpoint of the learner as he progresses through the various stages of cognitive development.

The focus in the present study is to try to find out what aspects of the process of teaching and
learning seem to be important in enabling students to grow, develop and achieve. The attention
here is on the learner and the nature of the learning process.

What is known about learning and memory is reviewed while the literature on specific areas of
difficulty in learning mathematics is summarised. Some likely explanations for these difficulties
are discussed. Attitudes and how they are measured are then discussed and there is a brief section
of learner characteristics, with special emphasis on field dependency as this characteristic seems
to be of importance in learning mathematics. The study is set in schools in Nigeria and England
but the aim is not to make comparisons.

Several types of measurement are made with students: working memory capacity and extent of
field dependency are measured using well-established tests (digit span backward test and the
hidden figure test). Performance in mathematics is obtained from tests and examinations used in
the various schools, standardised as appropriate. Surveys and interviews are also used to probe
perceptions, attitudes and aspects of difficulties. Throughout, large samples were employed in
the data collection with the overall aim of obtaining a clear picture about the nature and the
influence of attitudes, working memory capacity and extent of field dependency in relation to
learning, and to see how this was related to mathematics achievement as measured by formal
examination.

The study starts by focussing on gaining an overview of the nature of the problems and relating
these to student perception and attitudes as well as working memory capacity. At that stage, the
focus moves more towards extent of field dependency, seen as one way by which the fixed and
limited working memory capacity can be used more efficiently. Data analysis was in form of
comparison and correlation although there are also much descriptive data.

Some very clear patterns and trends were observable. Students are consistently positive towards
the more cognitive elements of attitude to mathematics (mathematics is important; lessons are
essential). However, they are more negative towards the more affective elements like enjoyment,
satisfaction and interest. Thus, they are very realistic about the value of mathematics but find
their experiences of learning it much more daunting. Attitudes towards the learning of
mathematics change with age. As students grow older, the belief that mathematics is interesting
and relevant to them is weakened, although many still think positively about the importance of
mathematics.

Loss of interest in mathematics may well be related to an inability to grasp what is required and
the oft-stated problem that it is difficult trying to take in too much information and selecting
what is important. These and other features probably relate to working memory overload, with
field dependency skills area being important. The study identified clearly the topics which were
perceived as most difficult at various ages. These topics involved ideas and concepts where
many things had to be handled cognitively at the same time, thus placing high demands on the
limited working memory capacity.

As expected, working memory capacity and mathematics achievement relate strongly while
extent of field dependency also relates strongly to performance. Performance in mathematics is
best for those who are more field-independent. It was found that extent of field dependency grew
with age. Thus, as students grow older (at least between 12 and about 17), they tend to become
more field-independent. It was also found that girls tend to be more field-independent than boys,
perhaps reflecting maturity or their greater commitment and attention to details to undertake their
work with care during the years of adolescence.

The outcomes of the findings are interpreted in terms of an information processing model. It is
argued that curriculum design, teaching approaches and assessment which are consistent with the
known limitations of the working memory must be considered during the learning process. There
is also discussion of the importance of learning for understanding and the problem of seeking to
achieve this while gaining mastery in procedural skills in the light of limited working memory
capacity. It is also argued that positive attitudes towards the learning in mathematics must not
only be related to the problem of limited working memory capacity but also to ways to develop
increased field independence as well as seeing mathematics as a subject to be understood and
capable of being applied usefully.
STUDENT MOTIVATION

In mathematics education there has not been done much work on people’s motivation to date
(Evans & Wedege, 2004; Hannula, 2006). Only a few researchers have distinguished between
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in mathematics (Good child, 2001; Holden, 2003; Middleton &
Spanias, 1999), or between task orientation and ego orientation (Nicholls, Cobb, Wood, Yackel,
& Patashnick, 1990; Yates, 2000). Some mathematics educators have discussed students’
motivation under the terms of motivational beliefs (Kloosterman, 1996; Op't Eynde, De Corte, &
Verschaffel, 2002) and interest (Köller, Baumert, & Schnabel, 2001; Schiefele &
Csikszentmihalyi, 1995). Evans and Wedege (2004; , 2006) consider people’s motivation and
resistance to learn mathematics as interrelated phenomena. Hannula (2006) points out that many
of the above approaches fail to describe the quality of the individual’s motivation for learning
mathematics in sufficient detail. He suggests that the reason for this is that the authors’
approaches aim to measure predefined aspects of motivation, not to describe it (p. 166). Hannula
developed a theoretical foundation of motivation as a structure of needs and goals, and his study
shows that the students’ goals vary a lot from person to person. The aim of this article is to
present (develop) a theoretical framework for analysing the students’ motivation for learning
mathematics, in terms of needs and goals. The article reports on a particular aspect of a study
where the focus is the development of Norwegian upper secondary school students’ motivation
for learning mathematics when they experience an inquiry mathematics teaching approach. The
study followed a design research approach in that it involved both instructional design and
classroom based WORKING GROUP 1 Proceedings of CERME 6, January 28th-February 1st
2009, Lyon France © INRP 2010 84 research (Cobb, 2001). I collected a large and varied pool of
data (participant observation, semi-structured interviews, videotapes of students working,
conversations with the teacher, students’ diaries, collection of material, assessment) on seven of
the students. The focus of this article is the development of theory. Some findings from the study
will be presented, mainly to illustrate the usefulness of the theoretical framework. Due to space
constraint, the original data and analyses cannot be included. The interested reader should return
to original papers.
TEACHER MOTIVATION

The teachers, being the focal figure in education, must be competent and knowledgeable in order
to impart the knowledge they could give to their students. Good teaching is a very personal
manner. Effective teaching is concerned with the student as a person and with his general
development. The teacher must recognize individual differences among his/her students and
adjust instructions that best suit to the learners. It is always a fact that as educators, we play
varied and vital roles in the classroom. Teachers are considered the light in the classroom. We
are entrusted with so many responsibilities that range from the very simple to most complex and
very challenging jobs. Every day we encounter them as part of the work or mission that we are
in. It is very necessary that we need to understand the need to be motivated in doing our work
well, so as to have motivated learners in the classroom. When students are motivated, then
learning will easily take place. However, motivating students to learn requires a very challenging
role on the part of the teacher. It requires a variety of teaching styles or techniques just to capture
students' interests. Above all, the teacher must himself come into possession of adequate
knowledge of the objectives and standards of the curriculum, skills in teaching, interests,
appreciation and ideals. He needs to exert effort to lead children or students into a life that is
large, full, stimulating and satisfying. Some students seem naturally enthusiastic about learning,
but many need or expect their instructors or teachers to inspire, challenge or stimulate them.
"Effective learning in the classroom depends on the teacher's ability to maintain the interest that
brought students to the course in the first place (Erickson, 1978). Not all students are motivated
by the same values, needs, desires and wants. Some students are motivated by the approval of
others or by overcoming challenges.

Teachers must recognize the diversity and complexity in the classroom, be it the ethnicity,
gender, culture, language abilities and interests. Getting students to work and learn in class is
largely influenced in all these areas. Classroom diversity exists not only among students and
their peers but may be also exacerbated by language and cultural differences between teachers
and students.