Proceedings of the ASME 2011 Pressure Vessels & Piping Division Conference

PVP2011
July 17-21, 2011, Baltimore, Maryland, USA

PVP2011-57331

Cold Stretching of Cryogenic Pressure Vessels from Austenitic Stainless Steels

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
Jinyang Zheng , Abin Guo , Cunjian Miao , Ping Xu* , Jian Yang , Jianjun Ye , Li Ma , Linlin Wu ,
3
Guoyi Yang
(1. Institute of Process Equipment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, P. R. China;
2. Institute of Applied Mechanics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, P. R. China;
3. China Special Equipment Inspection and Research Institute, Beijing 100013, P. R. China)
（*corresponding author, Phone: +86-571-879-53-393; Fax: +86-571-879-53-393; E-mail: pingxu@zju.edu.cn ）

ABSTRACT: Austenitic stainless steel (ASS) exhibits NOMENCLATURE

considerable work-hardening upon deformation while
retaining the characteristics of the material. The high rate
of austenite deformation hardening was utilized by cold
stretching (CS) of cryogenic pressure vessels. A few
percent deformation will give the vessel a considerable
and homogeneous yield strength improvement, and the
wall thickness may be greatly reduced. The authors have
conducted extensive experimental and numerical studies
on CS of cryogenic pressure vessels from ASS. A
summary of our work as well as a brief introduction of
the history, standards, safety, and advantages of CS are
given in this paper. What should be further investigated,
such as fatigue properties of cold stretched ASS
especially under cryogenic temperature, design of cold
stretched transportable cryogenic vessels based on life,
are also presented.
KEYWORDS: cold stretching, austenitic stainless steel,
cryogenic pressure vessels, strengthening stress
Rk — Design stress
INTRODUCTION
With wide use of liquefied nitrogen, liquefied
oxygen, liquefied hydrogen, liquefied argon, and
liquefied natural gas (LNG), more and more cryogenic
pressure vessels (CPV) from Austenitic Stainless Steel
(ASS) are being used in recent years.
According to the Chinese pressure vessels standard
GB150[1], the allowable stress of ASS is dominated by
proof stress (also called yield strength) because of its low
ratio of yield strength to tensile strength and thus results
in thicker wall thickness, which would cause a waste of
materials and make the vessel heavier.
ASS exhibits considerable work-hardening upon
deformation while retaining the characteristics of the
material. A few percent deformation will give the vessel a
considerable and homogeneous yield strength
improvement, and the wall thickness can be greatly
reduced. Plastic deformation of 10% is possible with
steels having an elongation at fracture of at least 35% in
the heat treated condition.

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 [10]
The high rate of austenitic strain hardening can be Cold-Stretching Directions 1991 . In Australia, AS
utilized by cold stretching (CS) of cryogenic pressure 1210-Supplyment2-1999 was promulgated for vessels
[2]
vessels from ASS . In practice the strengthening is using CS in 1999. In 2002, the CS technology were added
performed by pressurizing the finished vessel to a into EN 13458-2 Appendix C and EN 13530-2 Appendix
pressure known to produce the required stress which in C, respectively. Later on, Code Case 2596, ASME Boiler
turn gives the required amount of plastic deformation to and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division1, for
withstand the pressure load. cold stretching of static ASS pressure vessels was issued
The authors have conducted extensive experimental in 2008. Furthermore, ISO 20421-1:2006 and ISO
and numerical studies on CS of cryogenic pressure 21009-1:2008, which are equivalent to the relative EU
vessels from ASS. A summary of our work as well as a standards, were issued. Chinese standard for CS is being
brief introduction of the history, standards, safety, and developed.
advantages of CS are given in this paper. What should be The main advantages of cold stretched ASS CPV can
further investigated, such as fatigue properties of cold be summarized up as follows.
stretched ASS especially under cryogenic temperature, (1) Saving materials
design of cold stretched transportable cryogenic vessels The allowable stress of ASS can be approximately
based on life, are also presented. improved by 83%～130% and the weight of CPV can be
normally reduced by 20%~50% by using CS[11]. Table 1
STANDARDS AND ADVANTAGES OF CS shows the allowable stress of ASS in different standards.
CS technology has been involved in several Several thousand cryogenic pressure vessels
standards such as AS 1210 Supplement 2[3], EN 13458-2 including static vacuum-insulated vessels and
[4] [5]
Appendix C , EN 13530-2 Appendix C , ISO transportable vacuum-insulated vessels have been
20421-1:2006[6], ISO 21009-1:2008[7], and ASME Code constructed by using CS technology in P.R.China. In
[8]
Case 2596 . practice, weight was reduced by 30%~50% in comparison
The Avesta Sheffield company in Sweden began to with conventional vessels. A lot of material has been
investigate CS in 1956. Three years later, the first vessel saved, which makes the products more competitive in the
was manufactured by using CS in 1959. Later in the year market.
of 1969, the Avesta Sheffield company obtained a patent
in the United States (US 3456831A [9]). In 1975, CS was
brought into Swedish pressure vessel standardization, i.e.,
Table 1 Allowable stress of ASS in different standards

GB150 EN13458-2 Appendix C ASME BPVC VIII-I Code Case 2596

Materials Allowable stress Allowable Rate of increase Allowable stress Rate of increase
1)
/MPa stress /MPa /% /MPa /%

S304082) 137 273 99.3 270 97.1

S30403 120 267 122.5 247 105.8

S30453 137 313 128.5 -- --

S32168 137 267 94.9 -- --

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 S34778 137 267 94.9 -- --

S30458 160 313 95.6 293 83.1

S31658 160 -- -- 293 83.1

S31608 137 -- -- 270 97.1

S31603 120 -- -- 247 105.8

S31653 137 -- -- 270 97.1

1）It is calculated by Rk/ns, ns=1.5; 2) The material name references to GB 24511-2009[12].

(2) Energy conservation and emission reduction
Due to the reduction of wall thickness, energy
consumption can be reduced in the welding and forming.
According to the statistical report of the International
[13]
Aluminum Association , about 60% fuel is used to
carry the weight of automobile itself. It also indicates that
fuel can be reduced by 10% to 15% if the weight of
automobiles cuts by 10%. For transportable ASS CPV, it
means that less fuel is consumed and less carbon dioxide
exhaust during operation by using CS.
(3) Increasing the ratio of weight to volume
The ratio of weight to volume is an important index
of energy efficiency for transportable pressure vessels.
Volume of ASS CPV can be increased by 2% to 10% due
to plastic deformation during CS. The ratio of weight to
volume is reduced approximately by 50% caused by
increase in volume and decrease in weight.
SAFETY ANALYSIS OF COLD STRETCHED ASS
CPV
MECHANICAL PROPERITES
Based on extensive experimental and numerical
studies on material specimens and prototype vessels, a
large amount of data from tensile test, bending test and
impact test, have been obtained. Meanwhile, strain
[14]
hardening rate, deformation-induced α’-martensite
flow stress and mechanical properties of ASS with
[15, 16]
various degrees of CS are studied . In order to understand the safety margins of ASS
Owing to high ductility and excellent properties at
cryogenic temperature, ASS after CS still has favorable
mechanical properties. It is found that, for welded test
plate of ASS with no less than 40% elongation after
fracture, the elongation at ambient temperature is still
more than 25%, and the Charpy V-notch impact energy at
-196℃ can still satisfy the requirement of 31J if plastic
deformation is within 9%.
DESIGN STRESS
The design stress is the maximum allowable stress at
CS pressure, which is used to determine allowable stress.
Proof stress of ASS can be increased by CS. The larger
the plastic deformation takes place, the higher is the proof
stress. However, excessively high proof stress may lessen
safety margins. So how to determine the design stress
(also called strengthening stress) is a key factor for the
application of the CS.
There are two methods for determining the design
stress.
(1) The design stress is proof stress plus 200MPa,
which is used in EN13458-2, EN 13530-2.
(2) Considering the increment of proof stress by CS,
dissipated strain energy, the strain energy function-based
method was developed to determine the design stress [17],
which is strongly related to the nonlinearity of
stress-strain curve of the material.
,
SAFETY MARGINS
CPV constructed by using CS, burst tests were

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 conducted[18]. Six such vessels were pressurized to burst pressure was measured under room temperature. The
at room temperature. Then the ratio of the collapse actual tensile strength of ASS at -196℃ is at least twice
pressure to the design pressure, which is shown in Table 2, that at room temperature[19]. So the actual strength
is used as safety margins. margins will reach to 4.18-4.98, which indicates the
It shows that the safety margins of cold stretched safety of cold stretched ASS CPV can be guaranteed.
vessels under room temperature are between 2.09 and
2.49. But it should be remembered that the collapse
Table 2 Safety margins of pressure vessels under different codes
GB150 EN13530-2 Appendix C
Thickness Diameter Plastic collapse
No. material Design pressure Strength Design pressure Strength
/mm /mm pressure/MPa
/MPa margins /MPa margins

1 6.5 500 16.2 3.52 4.60 7.01 2.31

2 6.5 500 14.8 3.52 4.20 7.01 2.11

3 12.6 500 28 6.74 4.15 13.42 2.09

1.4301
4 12.8 500 29 6.84 4.24 13.63 2.13

5 6.1 600 11.1 2.79 3.98 4.5 2.49

6 11.3 600 19.3 5.16 3.74 8.2 2.37

So far, thousands of cold stretched ASS CPV have is verified by test results [17].
been manufactured according to the CS standards such as PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CS
AS 1210 Supplement 2, EN 13458-2, EN 13530-2 and It is shown that pressurizing rate and CS pressure
ASME Code Case 2596 and there have no related have significant effects on plastic deformation during
accidents reported. It has been demonstrated that the CS[20]. In order to accurately control pressurizing rate and
security of the CS CPV can be guaranteed as long as they CS pressure, a unique pressure control system for CS has
are under normal use. been developed by the authors. It consists of four
NONLINEAR SIMULATION sub-system, i.e., multi-task control subsystem, on-line
In contrast with static CPV with small volume, automatic parameters (including pressure, circumference,
transportable CPV, and static CPV with large volume etc.) measuring subsystem, automatic water filling
always have some structural attachments such as subsystem, and automatic de-loading system. The system
openings, stiffening rings, anti-wave boards, subplates, has the following functions:
etc, which would cause local structural discontinuity, and (1) Cold stretch several ASS CPV in parallel.
thus stress concentration under pressure. It is crucial to (2) Automatically measure the change in
ensure that plastic deformation in those areas be within circumference and volume.
9%. (3) Automatically fill water, pressurize, and
Nonlinear finite element analysis model has been de-pressurize.
developed by considering material nonlinearity, (4) Production procedure record contains at least
geometrical nonlinearity, and contact nonlinearity, which the following information: pressurizing sequence,

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 changes in circumference and volume, strain rate Design, fabrication, inspection and testing[S].
calculated from circumference measurements. [7] ISO 21009-1:2008. Cryogenic vessels-Static
vacuum-insulated vessels-Part 1: Design, fabrication,
(5) Data management.
inspection and tests[S].
[8] ASME BPVC VIII-I Code Case 2596: 2008, [S].
CONCLUDING COMMENTS [9] Cold-Stretching Directions 1991. Swedish Pressure
Although CS technology has been successfully used Vessel Standardization[S].
all over the world, the following future investigations [10] Johan Ingvar, Johansson. Austenitic Stainless Steel
should be conducted. Pressure Vessels [P]. US 3456831 A, 1969.
(1) There is no fatigue design curve for cold stretched [11] ZHENG Jinyang, MIAO Cunjian, SHOU Binan.
Light-weight: A Trend in the Development of
ASS. The effect of plastic deformation achieved by
Pressure Vessels [J]. Pressure Vessels Technology,
CS on fatigue properties of ASS should be studied
2009, 26(9):42-48.
both at room temperature and -196℃. [12] GB 24511-2009, Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet and
(2) Stress due to dynamic load on the road may cause Strips for Pressure Equipment[S]. (in Chinese)
fatigue of cold stretched transportable cryogenic [13] CAI Qigang. The Application and Trends of
vessels. Method for calculating such stress, which is Aluminium Alloy for Automobile Body [J]. Guangxi
Journal of Light Industry, 2009, 25(1):28-29.
the basis for fatigue prediction, should be developed
[14] Cunjian Miao, Yaxian Li, Jinyang Zheng. Effect of
by considering the effect of structure-fluid
Strain Rate on the Deformation-Induced Martensitic
interaction.
Transformation and Mechanical Behavior of
Austenitic Stainless Steels for Cold Stretched
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Pressure Vessels[C]. Washington: 2010 ASME
This research is supported by National High Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference.
Technology Research and Development Program of [15] ZHOU Gaobin. Strain Hardening of Cryogenic
China (863 Program) (Number: 2009AA044801). Vessels form Austenitic Stainless Steels [D].
Hangzhou, P.R.China, Dissertation Submitted to
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