Cismaru Vlad Description of meteorological phenomena

Chapter III
The description of meteorological and oceanographically phenomena
which influence the safety of the ship’s maneuvering
3.1 Strong winds
The unequal distribution of temperature around the planet, and also their variation in time,
determine permanently ample oscillations of the air’s pressure from troposphere. The variation of
the atmospheric pressure is also causing continuous moving of the air masses knew also as aerial
currents.
The air masses can move in vertical direction, ascendant or descendant moves of the
atmospheric air, as well as in horizontal direction, parallel to the surface of the earth. The horizontal
moves are produced when between two zones exists difference of atmospheric pressure. The air
mass horizontal displace direction travels always from high pressure to low pressure (Fig 3.1), and
the moving speed is as big as the distance unit is characterized by bigger values. This kind of
horizontal displace of air masses are called winds.

Figure 3.1 “Displace of air masses caused by the differences in atmospheric pressure” (Source:
Meteorologie maritimă, Liviu Neguţ)

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Cismaru Vlad Description of meteorological phenomena

As it was previously stated, the wind represents the horizontal move of an air mass from an
area with high pressure to another area with low pressure, under the influence of horizontal baric
gradient.
Monsoon
The monsoons are periodic winds, which appear because of the seasoning alteration in the
atmospheric pressure repartition between shore and sea. Their action area is based on the north and
south part of Indian Ocean, South China Sea, Arafura Sea, Timor Sea, Carpentaria Bay in north of
Australia, and in a more reduced manner on the West Africa Coast.
The strongest monsoons are represented by the one present in the North Indian Ocean.
During the summer, on the Asiatic continent, in the north of Himalaya Mountains, a huge lowland
takes place, around 1 000 mbar. These type of monsoons are called summer monsoons and are
active between months June and October, proceeding from sea to shore, from SW direction to NE
direction .
During the winter, a reverse process takes place. On top of the center and north-easterly aria
of Asia, an extended zone consisting in high pressures takes birth, with the center localized in
Mongolia.
The monsoons blowing force is determined generally between 5-6 force on Beaufort Scale,
with the mention that during the first 10 days from the beginning of the month, in the regions
situated approximately 250 Nm from South of Socotra Island, the force of the summer monsoon can
reach even 8 force on Beaufort Scale.

Figure 3.2 “Summer Monsoon on the South Coast of India”(Source:

http://www.nauticexpo.com/prod/ulstein)
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Cismaru Vlad Description of meteorological phenomena

Thunderstorm
Thunderstorms are wind strokes with a relatively small duration of action. The wind starts to
burst suddenly and blows with a speed situated between 40 and 60 knots. During his action, the
atmospheric pressure suddenly increases with at least 4 mbars, the temperature decreases with 10
degrees Celsius and the air’s relative humidity goes up slowly. On the other side, the wind starts up
violently, it’s general orientation being anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in
the southern hemisphere.
The appearance of thunderstorm can be spotted by observation of an massive accumulation
of cumulunomimbus clouds also knew as storm clouds, having a powerful dark grey color.
Thunderstorms usually travel on distances bigger than 500 Nm with an average speed of 50 knots.
Depending on its particulars we can distinguish different types of thunderstorms: the black
thunderstorm, characterized by clouds developed on vertical direction, which darken the sky; the
weak thunderstorm, characterized by reduced winds and precipitations and the white thunderstorm
which is characterized by the absence of precipitations.
Thunderstorms are present in different zones of the world and the most common are:
 West Africa and NW coast of Australia seas. The tornado in northern hemisphere, on the
Occidental African Coast and the Cock-eye-bob in the southern hemisphere, on the Australia
NW coasts, both presenting the same way of manifestation.
 Mediterranean Sea. The thunderstorm named Gharra is present in Sirta Gulf, on the Libyan
Coast approaches. It usually appears between months January and March and blows from
NE direction, being associated with reach rains and electrical phenomena. Yarik Kaya has its
origins in Iskenderun Gulf on the Turkey’s south-east coast. It blows from SE direction and
can reach even force 12 on Beaufort Scale. Raggiature is present on the east coast of Corsica
Island, between Cap Corse and Bastia, representing a violent west thunderstorm.
 Red Sea. Haboob blows on top of the Red Sea, on the Sudan Coast. It’s directions are SE or
W, in May-September period. When it blows from W, the visibility is apparently reduce by
the amount of dust and sand present in the air. Usually it reach force 5 on B/S.
 In Persian Gulf are present two violent types of thunderstorms which can reduce the
visibility until 1 cable because of the big amount of sand transported. The forts one is called
Uhaimir, and blows in the vicinity of Ormuz Strait and the second one is called Guttras,
being present on the Tigris River approaches.

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Cismaru Vlad Description of meteorological phenomena

3.2 Fog

The fog represents the condensability phenomena of the water vapors from air localized in
the vicinity of the sea surface or during the lowering of a Stratus Cloud until the water or ground
level. The condition for producing and persisting for a longer period of the fog phenomena is it
necessary that the air humidity which is present near the water or ground surface, to grow until the
saturation level, situation met when the air temperature from the inferior layer decreases in a short
period of time until the dew point.

Due to the condensation process, the fog can be produced also in positive temperatures as in
negative ones, water droplets which are in suspension having smaller dimensions as the temperature
decreases. In the cases where the temperature drops below -8 ̊C, the air’s relative humidity from the
inferior layer can be lower than 100%, because in this kind of situations it appears the saturation
state with direct reference to ice. Fog can be met until -40 ̊C temperature, temperature where the fog
is composed from ice microcrystals and from water droplets being in suprafusion state.

Figure 3.3 “Two ships near port terminal, in dense fog” (Source: www.nautica.com)

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Cismaru Vlad Description of meteorological phenomena

Depending on the mode in which the fog was been formed, we can distinguish different
types of fog, which are also mentioned in the sailing books or in the meteorological warnings.

 Radiation fog or land fog. It is the type of fog characteristic to the continental areas, and
which takes place usually after twilight, due to the decreasing air temperature below the dew
point temperature. More often, the fog disappears before the sun starts to rise. Under the
breeze influence, the fog can also be met at distances of more than 10 Nm from the coast.
When the wind’s speed exceeds 2 m/s, the radiation fog is very fast spread
 Steaming fog takes berth in the situation when a cold humid air mass blows on the sea
surface, which has also a hot temperature. In this conditions, the water vapors resulted from
the evaporation process from the sea surface, increases the air humidity until it reach
saturation level, a level not difficult to reach taking into account the cold air humidity
reported to the water’s temperature at the surface of the sea. At mid-latitudes, the resulted
fog is usually met during autumn and winter and is always accompanied by a weak wind.
 Advection fog. It appears as a consequence of the displacement of a hot and humid air mass
above the sea’s surface, which temperature is lower than the dew point temperature of the air
from the inferior layer. At mid-latitudes, it is always present during the cold season, often
covering broad distances, having a thickness of hundreds meters. Advection fog is always
accompanied by a wind, having a speed within 4-16 Knots (force 2-4 on BF Scale). It is
frequently met in the Nordic areas of Atlantic and Pacific Ocean or on the coast of South
America.
 Arctic fog or sea smoke. This type of fog appears, usually, after an arctic air mass passes
above seas or ocean with warm water. It is a very thick fog, especially when the air
temperature is with 3-4 degrees lower than the water temperature. Most frequently, it is met
during the winter.
 Frontal fog. As its name suggest, this type of fog is developed at the separation line between
two air masses, with different properties, usually a warm air mass and a cold one. Because of
this it is also called, mixing fog. It is formed, after the air temperature starts decreasing, and
the relative humidity increases. It is most frequently met in the areas were occluding fronts
are present and appears as “belts” with a width not exceeding 50 mm and doesn’t last more
than a few hours.

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Cismaru Vlad Description of meteorological phenomena

3.3 Rainfall

Based on the main causes which lead to the appearance of rain, the meteorology distinguish
the following types of rainfalls:

 Convection rain. Are generated by the ascendant moving of warm and humid air which
climbs until the condensation level or until the isotherm level of 0 degrees. Convection rains
are generally characteristic to the equatorial zones, and start at the same time every day,
between 14:00 and 16:00 local hour. In temperate regions, the convection rains are falling
during the after-noon, in the torrid summer days. Are very reach in the quantities of water
that leave behind, in very short periods of time.
 Orographic rains. Are called this way, because are made up due to the difference of level
caused by the big territorial expansions. Hereby, when the warm and humid air masses are
pushed ahead by wind, and interacts mountains barriers, they are obliged to rise, reaching
colder temperatures as they are raising more in the skies. The water vapors which are in
excess are condensed, leading this way to the appearance of orographic clouds that are
sustaining very abundant rainfalls. A typical example for this type of rains, are the ones from
the south Himalayan Mountains, where the cold and humid air, brought by the oceanic
monsoon, have to climb the Asian mountains inclinations.
 Cyclonic rainfalls. These types of rains are characteristic to the large baric lowlands
formations. The central zone of this formation is represented by powerful ascendant moves
of the hot and humid air mass, elevation which is associated to the gyration rising of a spiral.
In these conditions, humid air masses having different temperatures are mixed up. The
temperature of the mixed air resulted starts lowering, giving birth to violent and abundant
rains. The intensity and the time period of these rains are determined by the cold air mass
from the center of lowland.
 Drizzle. Is the appellation thru which are exemplified liquid precipitations falls, composed
from water droplets with dimensions within 0.25 to 1 mm. Because of their very reduced
droplets dimensions and their slow falling speed, between 0,3 to 1 m/s, their perception is
very hard. It is characteristic to the warm air masses having oceanic origins, being present
mostly all over the coasts.

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Cismaru Vlad Description of meteorological phenomena

3.4 Electrical phenomena in atmosphere

The electricity state of atmosphere is determined by the ionization processes of atoms,

molecules, and molecular groups resulted from the gases which constitute the atmosphere. The
causes that generate these processes can be represented by the action of solar radiations, elastic or
inelastic crashes between air molecules, ascendant and descendent moves of clouds, fall of
atmospheric precipitations, chemical reactions like violent burns or powerful oxidation or emissions
of radioactive substances from terrestrial shell like radius, actinil or thor.

Lightning

The lightning represents the electrical discharge between two clouds or between two parts of
the same cloud. For producing the initial lightning, there is necessary that a flow of electrical
charged particles to take birth, and disperse in air, creating this way an ionized canal. Usually, this
canal appears because of the invisible and interrupted multiple weak discharges in atmosphere, also
called leader stroke (leading stroke or pilot).When this pilot has successfully made the connection
between two clouds (or two parts of the same cloud), a suddenly strong electrical discharge follows,
which can also be visible. This discharge was named main stroke.

The leader stroke direction can be ascendant, descendent or horizontal, depending on the
ionized front particulars and its displacement speed is also different, the ascendant move having a
speed of 20km/s and for the descendant one, the speed can reach 150 km/s.

The main stroke direction, which reaches the speed of 100 000 km /s, is independent from
the leader stroke process, depending only on the positive or negative charge of clouds.

Figure 3.4 “Lightning at sea” (Source: https://geekswipe.net/science/physics/aquatic-

animals-survive-lightning-strikes/)

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Cismaru Vlad Description of meteorological phenomena

Thunderbolt

The thunderbolt represents the electrical discharge between a cloud and ground or between a
cloud and a floating object on sea (a vessel, platform, submarine etc.). This kind of discharges can
be produced only by clouds which are not positioned at a height greater than 1 500 m, above
terrestrial surface or above the sea.

The discharge takes place always inside an ionized air canal which has a diameter of 4-5 mm
and variable lengths, after the same mechanism just like lightning. The road travelled is almost
parallel but can also have sometimes big angles with the vertical plane. The most frequent direction
is descendent. The cases where ascendant thunders are met, are very uncommon usually areas with
very high structures or buildings. In regions with temperate climate, 80 to 90% of the thunders that
fall are negative, which means that their source originates from a cloud having negative loads.

Thunder

The thunder represents the noise produced after an electrical discharge between two clouds
or between a cloud and sea. The extremely high temperature developed by the electric current in the
discharge canal, generates a powerful air expansion, which after the crush with the other layers,
determine intense vibrations that are propagated in the atmosphere.

When the electrical discharges take place far away from the observers, the thunder is
perceived like a sequence of booms with different intensities and with variable periods of time,
following the reflexing and sounding interferences phenomena. This are produced due to the
variations in air’s density, on the horizontal direction and also on the vertical one.

Magnetic storms

This appellation designates strong turbulences suffered by the Earth’s magnetic field after
the compression, dilation or other deformations of magnetosphere, under the action of an intense
flow of solar plasma, following a forceful eruption in chromosphere. During some powerful
magnetic storms, it has been stated that big dissipation of energy took place, this thing being
possible only after the direct injection of plasma in the magnetosphere’s interior.

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Cismaru Vlad Description of meteorological phenomena

Usually, the effect of magnetic storms has been registered at latitudes higher than 20 ̊,
especially in the areas narrowed by the longitudes of 30̊ west and 140̊ west. Their duration can vary
between some minutes or even some days.

The magnetic storms can affect the safety of ships through the dis-adjustments which can
affect the navigation equipment. Thus, the magnetic compasses can register variations of 1-2̊, or
even during longer periods of time, the oscillations are that big that the magnetic compass can no
longer be used.

3.5 Tropical cyclones

The tropical cyclones are mobile lowland formations, distinguished by the mid-latitude
lowlands through a typical structure, through characteristic areas and through some specific effects,
like weather turbulences so powerful, so that their destroying force on ships has been characterized
as natural hazards.

Their relatively high frequency in the oceans regions, in which an intense high traffic takes
place, the high violent levels which the effects of the cyclonic storms arouse, the disasters left
behind in ports and in the localities situated on the ocean coast are reasons which demonstrates that
a special attention should be considered when the tropical cyclones have to be analyzed.

The big baric turbulences and the other specific conditions which lead to the appearance of
cyclones take place only above the ocean surfaces, in regions situated between latitudes 5̊ and 15̊
north and south, more usually in the approaches of areas where monsoons are active.

At lower latitudes, around equator, very small, weak cyclones appear which cannot put in
danger the safety of a ship. At higher latitudes of 15̊ north and south, the tropical cyclones are very
rare, because the condition that the water from the surface of the ocean has to reach and maintain
temperatures of 26̊-27̊ C, can’t be satisfied.

Appearance of a tropical cyclone

It becomes possible when between 5̊ and 15̊ latitude north or south, takes birth a lowland
center with a minimum pressure of 1000 mbars, around which a cyclonic circulation appears,
characterized by strong winds that blow in a circular area, located around the center of minimum

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Cismaru Vlad Description of meteorological phenomena

pressure. This stage can last from a few hours to whole days, period in which the low land is static
or it moves very slow. Usually, only 10% of these lowlands are becoming cyclones.

Figure 3.5 “Tropical cyclone photo shot from satellite” (Source: Google Maps)
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Cismaru Vlad Description of meteorological phenomena

Development of a cyclone

During the development of a cyclone, gradually, the lowland starts to deepen, the
atmospheric pressure usually decreasing under 980 mbar, the area where the wind blows starts
extending until 50 Nm, wind force usually reaching force 12 BF (speed over 64 knots), and the
lowland system starts moving, at the beginning slowly, and then faster as long as it reaches higher
latitudes, so that after passing tropical lines, it’s moving speed can reach 20 knots.

Dissipation of a cyclone

The advancement of tropical lowland towards higher latitudes (usually more than 30̊ north
latitude or over 25̊ south latitude), as well as the continuing extension of its action area are the
principal causes which lead to the dissipation of a cyclone. Thus, at latitudes higher than the one
recently mentioned, the interrupted power supply with big quantities of warm and humid air for the
minimum pressure center, is no more possible. In this condition, the filling process starts, consisting
in decrease of the wind speed, wave height become smaller, so that in few days, the principal
characteristics of a cyclone are totally gone.

Figure 3.6 “Minimum pressure registered during the Wanda typhoon (958 mbar, 1 September
1962). (Source: Meteorologie maritimă, Liviu Neguţ)

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