Chapter 5

Toxic Release and Dispersion models

Toxic and Dispersion models
Toxic and Dispersion models
Toxic and Dispersion models

4.6.
Toxic and Dispersion models
 Toxic and Dispersion models

RMP –Risk Management Plan

 Toxic and Dispersion models
Worst case Release Ex :Release of Gas from Unit
• During an accident, process equipment can
release toxic materials quickly and in
significant enough quantities to spread in
dangerous clouds
• Examples: explosive rupture of a process
vessel, rupture of a pipeline containing toxic
materials at high pressure, rupture of a train
or truck transportation tank following an
accident.
• Bhopal is an example of such accident
 Toxic and Dispersion models
4.10 Conservative analysis
• All models, including consequence models
have uncertainties because of incomplete
understanding of geometry release.
1. An incomplete understanding of the
geometry of the release (that is,hole size)
2. Unknown or poorly characterized physical
properties
3. A poor understanding of the chemical
or release process and mixture behavior.
 Toxic and Dispersion models
4.10 Conservative analysis
Uncertainties arises during the consequence
modeling procedure are treated by assigning
conservative values to these unknowns.
Example: Gas discharge from hole in storage tank.
For conservative result , maximum discharge is
basis.

The consequence analysis should be approached

with intelligence, common sense and
understanding the reality.
 Toxic and Dispersion models
• Toxic release and dispersion models are an
important part of the consequence modeling
procedure
1. Identify the release incident
2. Develop a source model to describe how
materials are released and the rate of release
3. Estimate the downwind concentrations of
the toxic material using a dispersion model
 Toxic and Dispersion models
Parameters Affecting Dispersion

• Wind Speed
• Atmospheric stability
• Ground conditions
• Height of release
• Momentum and buoyancy of material
released
 1.Wind Speed

As the wind speed increases, the plume becomes longer

and narrower ; the substance is carried downwind faster
but is diluted by a large quantity of air
 2.Atmospheric stability
• Atmospheric stability refers to the tendency
for air parcels to move vertically
• Basic concept – when the temperature of the
air parcel is greater than the temperature of
the surrounding environment, then it will rise,
and when the temperature of the air parcel is
less than the surrounding environment, then
it will sink.
 2.Atmospheric stability
• During the day, the air temperature decreases
rapidly with height, encouraging vertical
motions , At night the temperature decrease is
less, resulting in less vertical motion
• During an inversion, the temperature increases
with height, resulting in minimal vertical
motion. This occurs at Night becoz the ground
cools rapidly as a result of thermal radiation.
2.Atmospheric stability
 2.Atmospheric stability

Air temperature as a function of altitude for day and

night conditions
 2.Atmospheric stability
Classification
1. Unstable: Sun heats ground faster than heat can
be removed so that air temperature near the
ground is higher than the air temperature at
higher elevations.
Air of lower density is below air of greater density
2. Neutral: The air above the ground warms and the
wind speed increases, reducing the effect of solar
input.
3. Stable: The sun cannot heat the ground as fast as
the ground cools - temperature at ground is lower.
 2.Atmospheric stability
Types
 3.Ground condition
• Ground conditions affect the mechanical
mixing at the surface and the wind profile
with height.
• Trees and buildings increase mixing, whereas
lakes and open areas decrease it
4.Release height
Coordinate system
 5.Momentum and buoyancy

If gas has less density than air ,the released gas will
initially positively buoyant and will lift upward.
If gas has more density than air ,the released gas will
Initially negatively buoyant and will slump towards ground
 Neutrally buoyant dispersion models

The T and M determines the gas density relative

to that of air.

For all gases >Mair , the gas travels downwind and

mixed with fresh air, diluted adequately can be
considered neutrally buoyant. At this point the
dispersion is dominated by ambient turbulence.

This models apply to gases at low concentration in

ppm range.
Types of Neutrally Buoyant Dispersion Models

Puff Model can be used to describe a plume model : a

plume is simply a the release of continuous Puffs
 Neutrally buoyant dispersion models
Consider instantaneous release of a fixed mass of
material Q*m into infinite expanse of air,
The concentration of material from this release
given by advection eqn,

Where uj is the velocity of the air and the subscript j

represents the summation over all coordinate directions
x, y, and z
If uj is avg.velocity of the air and solving material
disperses much faster than predicted as because of
turbulence in velocity field.
 Neutrally buoyant dispersion models
By means of approximation

<uj> is the average velocity and

uj’ is the stochastic fluctuation resulting from turbulence.
So concentration will fluctuate as a result of velocity
C = <C> + C'

Because the fluctuations in both C and uj are around

the average or mean values, it follows that
<u’j> = 0,
<C’> = 0.
 Neutrally buoyant dispersion models
Substitute this velocity and concentration into
advection equation results,

but the turbulent flux term <u’jC’> is not necessarily

zero and can be find from eddy diffusivity Kj

Substitute this into eqn and for incompressible

atmosphere
Neutrally Buoyant dispersion-Coordinate system
 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
• The eddy diffusivity changes with position,
time, wind velocity and weather condition.
Experimentally difficult to find.
• Based on dispersion co-efficient,

similar expressions given for σ y ,σz , standard deviation of

Concentration in downwind, crosswind and vertical.

Dispersion co-efficient is function of atmospheric condition and

distance downwind from the release
Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
The atmospheric conditions are classified according
to six different stability classes
The stability classes depend on wind speed and
quantity of sunlight.

Night refers to 1 hr before sunset

and 1 hr after dawn
 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
Sky Condition
The sky condition describes the average percentage of
the sky that is covered by opaque clouds at a given time

The neutral category D should be used, regardless of wind

speed, for overcast conditions during day or night and for any
sky conditions during the hour before or after sunset or
sunrise, respectively
 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
Dispersion co-efficient – Plume model σx = σ y

We can use directly the graph for rural area and urban area
 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
Dispersion co-efficient – Puff model

We can use directly the graph for rural area and urban area
 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models

The center of the cloud is found at coordinates (ut, 0,O).

The concentration at the center of this moving cloud is
given by
 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
The total integrated dose Dtid received by an
individual standing at fixed coordinates (x, y, z ) is
the time integral of the concentration

The total integrated dose at ground level is found

 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
Isopleths: the line connecting the equal concentration
around the cloud boundary.
For a specified concentration (C)* the isopleths at ground
level are determined by dividing the equation for the
centerline concentration by the equation for the general
ground-level concentration

1. Specify <c>* , u and t

2. Determine the concentration C(x,0,0,t) using eqn 5.40.
Define the boundary of the cloud along the x-axis.
3. Set C(x,y,0,t)=C* and determine the values of y at each
centre line points.
This procedure repeated for each value ‘t’ required.
 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
Case 12: Plume with Continuous Steady-State Source at Ground
Level and Wind Moving in x Direction at Constant Velocity u

The ground-level concentration is given at z = 0:

The concentration along the centerline of the plume directly

downwind is given at y = z =0
 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
Similarly we have for different condition.
Case 13: Plume with Continuous Steady-State Source at
Height H, above Ground Level and Wind Moving in x
Direction at Constant Velocity u

At ground level concentration is z=0

 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
The ground-level centerline concentration are found by taking y=z=0

The Maximum ground-level concentration along x axis Cmax is found

The distance downwind at which the maximum ground level

concentration occurs,
 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
Similarly for this two cases,
Case 14: Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Height Hr
above Ground Level and a Coordinate System on the Ground
That Moves with the Puff
 Pasquill-Gifford dispersion models
Case 15: Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Height
Hr above Ground Level and a Coordinate System Fixed
on the Ground at the Release Point