General Physics

Length and Measurement

 Micrometer screw gauge
 Measuring lengths
 Pendulum.

(a) Distance AB divided by 2 is the amplitude of the oscillations/ Distance between highest point of
amplitude is divided by 2

(b) Measure the maximum angle from the vertical using a protractor, viewing perpendicular to the
vertical to avoid parallax error.

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Motion
Vocabulary for the Motion graphs
 Speed- time graph

 Constant acceleration because graph is a straight line graph

 it has a constant gradient
 Change in speed with time is constant
 Speed is proportional to time
 IF THE FORCE OR FRICTION ON THE SKIER INCREASES THEN HIS
ACCELERATION DECREASES
 IF THE SPEED OF THE SKIER BECOMES CONSTANT THEN IT IS
BECAUSE THE FORWARD FORCE IS EQUAL TO THE FORCE OF
FRICTION
CIRCULAR MOTION
 An object moving around a circular path at constant speed does not have a
constant velocity because its direction of motion is changing.
 It is necessary to apply a force to maintain the circular motion of an object
because:
 If no force is applied the object will continue to move in a straight line with
a constant velocity hence a force is needed to change the direction of the
object and move it in a circular path.
 The object moves in a circular path because it is acted upon by a force
directed towards the centre of the circular path or directed at the right angles
to its motion.

 The force that keeps the object moving in a circular path is the friction
between its tyres and road or it is the reaction from banking of track.

 For an object moving in a circle there is a force acting on it towards the centre
of the circle. This force does the following things
 Changes direction
 Causes acceleration

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  Stops straight line motion
 Keeps object from leaving the circle
 Pulls the object into the circle.
 Keeps the object in a circular path.

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MOTION OF A FALLING OBJECT
 Initially, when the object is dropped, it is only the force of gravity and the air-
resistance that act on it therefore, the object speeds up. When this happens
the air-resistance also increases and as a result, the speed decreases
 After some time, the force of friction becomes equal to the weight of the object
and as a result, there is no resultant force. (The forces are in equilibrium)
 The object is then said to have reached its terminal velocity/ constant velocity

TERMINAL VELOCITY GRAPH PARACHUTIST GRAPH

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DISTANCE-TIME GRAPH

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SPEED-TIME GRAPH/ velocity-time graph

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ACCELERATION-TIME GRAPHS

HOOKE’S LAW
 The extension of the spring is directly proportional to the load it supports
provided the spring has not crossed its elastic limit
 F=KX
 F, is the spring constant
 Elastic Limit: The point where the proportionality between the force(weight)
and the extension stops
 Weight: Is a force that stretches spring
 Extension: It is the difference between the unstretched(original length) and the
stretched length (new length)

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 mo

FORCE
 Force is a push or a pull
EFFECTS OF FORCES
 A force can accelerate an object
 Decelerate an object
 Change the shape of an object.
 Stop a moving object.
 Move a stationery object
 Change the direction of an object
Resultant force

 When the resultant force is zero

 The object will remain at rest if it is already at rest
 The object will move at a steady speed and in the same direction, if it was
already moving.

 When the resultant force is non-zero

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Newton’s Second Law (F=ma)
 Net force= Mass x Acceleration
 Acceleration= Net force/Mass
 This means that acceleration is produced by the net force
 Acceleration is proportional to the magnitude of the net force.
 Acceleration is in the same direction of as the net force
 Acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass
 Suggest why the acceleration of the rocket increases as it rises above the
Earth’s surface.
 The value of G of the object decreases on the rocket

F= m x A
WHENEVER A FORCE IS ACTING ON AN OBJECT IT CAUSES AN ACCEKERATION OF AN OBJECT
IN THE DIRECTION OF THE FORCE.

 For objects moving vertically upwards as in the case of the rocket. The
acceleration decreases because:
 The mass of the object decreases as the fuel is used up.
 The value of acceleration due to gravity on the object decreases as the
object is moving
 As the air resistance decreases as the air gets thinner.

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  Suppose a women of mass 60kg is in a lift which is at rest then she exerts a
force of 600 Newtons on the lift and the lift pushes her back with a force of
600 Newtons.
 To move the lady to her desired floor. The lift has to accelerate her mass.
Suppose the lift accelerates her by 2.5 m/s2 the force applied by the lift in
doing so is equal to F= M x A= 60 x 2.5= 150 Newtons
 Thus the lift exerts a force of 600+150=750 Newtons on the woman while the
lift is acceleration.

Turning effects of Forces (Moment of a force)

 Moment of a force= force*perpendicular distance from pivot. Is calculated in
Nm
 There are two kinds of moments:
 Clockwise
 Anticlockwise
 Pivot(Falcrum) is the point about which the object rotates
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM
 There is no resultant moment(clockwise moment=anticlockwise moment)
 There is no resultant force

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
 For an object in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about any
point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moment along the same point

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USES OF MOMENTS OF A FORCE
 Spanners
 Scissors
 Nutcrackers
 See-saw

Centre of Mass
 It is the point on the object where the whole mass is supposed to be
concentrated

 For two objects with similar masses but difference in volume

 For the object with larger volume, the upward force for air resistance is
larger than that on the smaller object and hence it reaches the terminal
velocity and is able to balance the weight of the object.
 For the smaller volume the upward force is not able to balance the weight
of the object hence it does not reach the terminal velocity.
Finding the centre of mass
 For Symmetric Object
 Their centre of mass is where their axis of symmetry cross each other
 For asymmetrical object
 Drill a hole near the edge and suspend it, so that it is free to swing without
obstruction
 Hang a plumb line from the same suspension point, this lets you mark the
vertical line directly below the suspension point. The centre of mass lies on
some position on the line.
 Drill another hole near the edge of the object and repeat the above
procedure.
 The point at which the two marked lines cross each other is the centre of
mass
 For suspended objects to be in equilibrium, the centre of mass lies directly
below the point of suspension hence there is no turning effect created by the
weight of the object.

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STABILITY OF CENTRE OF MASS
 The stability of an object can be increased by lowering its centre of mass and
widening its base.
Application base-questions

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Momentum
OBJECTS REBOUNDING FROM A WALL CALCULATION

 Left-side is negative and right side is positive (not compulsory)

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A moving object hitting a stationery object and both moving together

 Define Momentum= Mass* Velocity

A MOVING BODY COLLIDES WITH A STATIONARY BODY AND BOTH THE
BODIES CONTINUE TO MOVE IN THE SAME DIRECTION

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SOLVE THE QUESTION BEFORE BOARDS

Pressure
 Pressure is defined as force per unit area. The units are Pascals(Pa)/ N/m 2
 Pressure = Force/Area
 Pressure = Density*Height*10
Properties of pressure
 Pressure exerted by fluids is calculated by: Pressure= Height*Density*10
 Properties of fluid pressure:
 The pressure of the liquid increases with depth
 The pressure along a horizontal line in liquid is constant
 The pressure in the liquid depends on the density of the liquid

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  When the temperature of the air inside the cylinder is increased, then the
volume of the air increases, however, There will be no change on the
pressure because the excess pressure is exerted over a large surface area as
the piston moves outwards.
 To prevent the change of the volume, we can add more weights (extra
weights)
NOTE: if the above movable piston is replaced by an immovable piston then this
means that the volume change is restricted. In this case the pressure will increase, if
the temperature of the air increases.

Explain in terms of molecules of gas and the molecules of the atmosphere why the
piston moves down when atmospheric pressure above the piston increases.
 The particles of gas in the atmosphere collide with each other and the piston
with harder collisions with the piston walls making the piston move
downwards.
 The pressure of the atmospheric pressure is more than the pressure below
the piston.

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  The particles of gas below the piston, gain energy and there is an increase in
the number of collision of gas particles and hence the pressure of the air
inside the piston increases.
 The piston moves up until the pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric
pressure.

MERCURY BAROMETER

 When the atmospheric pressure increases. The level of the mercury in the
tube rises and the pressure of the vacuum stays the same
 The pressure at the top of the mercury column in the tube is nearly zero
because there is only vacuum or very little mercury vapour in that region

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  The position would be B because the atmospheric pressure only remains on
the density and the height of the liquid column in the capillary

Manometer

 Manometers are made using water because with mercury in it h would be too
small to be easily visible.

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 WORK, ENERGY, POWER
ENERGY
 Different forms of energy
 Internal Energy: The energy of an object due to the internal motion and
position of its molecules is called as internal energy (a magnetised object,
a hot object)
 Gravitational Potential energy: The energy of an object due to its position
is called as gravitational potential energy.(Water strode behind a dam)
 Kinetic energy: Energy of an object due to its motion (moving train, moving
ball)
 Elastic strain energy: It is the energy stored in an object when it is
stretched or squashed. ( Stretched spring)
 Nuclear energy: The energy released when the nucleus of an atom splits
or disintegrates
 Principle of conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created, nor
destroyed. It can be converted from one form to another. The total amount
of energy before and after a change is the same.
Generating Electricity in power stations
 Depending on the type of fuel, power stations are divided into the following
types
 Coal/Oil/BiofuelFired power stations
 Gas fired power station Methane, any natural gas

FUEL

FUEL
BURNER Turbines
Thermal BOILER Rotation Generators Electricity
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age Energy
Steam
NUCLEAR
REACTOR
NOTES FOR THE POWER STATIONS AS SHOWN ABOVE
 AFTER THIS PROCESS, THE STEAM IS MADE TO CONDENSE AND
RETURNS TO THE BOILER. IT IS CONDENSED THROUGH COLD WATER
PIPES.
 IN A GAS-FIRED POWER STATION THE GAS IS DIRECTLY BURNED IN A
GAS TURBINE ENGINE. THIS PRODUCES A POWERFUL JET OF HOT
GASES, THAT DRIVES THE TURBINE
 THESE TURBINES CAN BE SWITCHED ON AND OFF EASILY
 THE ENERGY CONVERSIONS IN THE POWER STATIONS ARE:
 CHEMICAL HEAT KINETICELECTRICAL
 The fuel in the nuclear power station is Uranium and it releases energy that is
10000 times more compared to fossil fuels or bio-fuels.

ENERGY FROM NUCLEAR FIRED POWER STATIONS (NUCLEAR FISSION)

 A lot of heat is released when the Uranium atoms undergo a chain reaction.
The core of the reactors becomes very hot. The thermal energy of the core is
taken away by a liquid called coolant. Since, the coolant is very hot while
leaving the core it is passed through a heat exchanger, where the heat of the
coolant is used to change water into steam.
 STEAM  TURBINE GENERATORS.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
 Two types of geothermal resources:
 Volcanic areas: Radioactive substances such as Uranium present in the
Earth decay and release heat energy which in turn warms the water. This
water may rise up as hot water or as steam. The steam is used to drive
turbines that are connected to generators that generator.
 Hot rocks: If no hot water or steam surfaces then deep wells are drilled
down to the hot rocks and cold water is pumped down. The water runs
through the fractures in the rocks and is heated up. It returns to the
surface as hot water and steam. The energy of the steam can be used to
generate electricity

SOLAR ENERGY
 Solar cells: LIGHTElectrical. Uses: To power the road signs in remote
areas and to power the satellites in orbit around the Earth.
 Solar panels: Do not generate electricity but they heat up the water. Uses:
Geyser.
WIND ENERGY

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  The wind is produced as a result of giant convection currents in the Earth’s
atmosphere, which are driven by the heat energy from the sun. This means
that the kinetic energy in the wind is a Renewable resource
 As the wind blows it transfers it kinetic energy to the blades. This kinetic
energy turns and drives the generator.
 There is a cable between a generator and the shore that delivers electricity to
local users. Several wind turbines are grouped together in windy locations to
form wind farms
Water Energy
 Tidal energy: A tidal barrage is built over a river Estuary. The barrage
contains turbines and electricity generators. The kinetic energy of tides are
used to turn the turbines and eventually generate electricity.

 Wave energy: The energy of the waves is used to drive the turbines and
eventually generate electricity (sea)
 Hydroelectric energy: The energy of the stored water in dams. Hydroelectric
power stations make use of the gravitational potential energy of water stored
high up behind the dams. This energy is converted to kinetic energy of the
water which then runs the turbines which are connected to generators to
generate electricity.
 Revision guide : Page 22

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 
Fuel Environmental Disadvantages Reliablity Cost Scale Type
Advantages
Nuclear Does not They are non- Yes Setting up a power Large scale Non-
produce toxic renewable. station is production Renewable
and acidic In case of accident expensive of energy is
gases there is a large however, running it possible.
Low emissions amount of is cheap.
of greenhouse radioactive material
gases that can get into the
environment leading
to mutation and
remains hazardous
for 1000 of years
Geothermal Only produce It produces It is No fuel cost. If The amount renewable
energy 1/6th of carbon hydrogen sulphide available using the energy of energy is
dioxide is gas in low 365 days. directly would save produced in
produced. concentrations. However, 80% as compared less quantity
there are to fossil fuels.
certain Maintainence cost
locations of the plant is very
that have low.There is no
cooled down guarantee that the
after years amount of energy
of use. produced will
justify the capital
expenditure and
operational cost
Water It does not The habitats of the They are There are no fuel It is very Renewable
pollute the estuary species are very reliable. cost involved. difficult to
environment, destroyed, the They can be scale up the
hydroelectric dams turned on designs for
might flood the farm and off wave
lands and houses quickly as machines to
and the rotting per produce
vegetation under electricity large
water produce demand. amounts of
methane gas which They can be electricity
is a greenhouse gas affected by
draughts
Wind No harmful Noisy, they cause They are There are no fuel Only Renewable
gases that are visual pollution, they non-reliable costs but initial available
emitted take up large acres as it cost of setting up locally.
of land, they kill depends on wind farms is very
birds at times. the strength high
of the wind.

Solar No harmful No disadvantage Very reliable Are the cheapest Installing Renewable
energy polluting gases however, if amongst all the power plants
are produced the days are available power in most
heavily plants power plants
shaded then in most part
the solar of the world
cells stop
producing
electricity.

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Efficiency is calculated using:

WORK
 Work= Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force
 Work unit: J or Nm

Definition
 Period: It is the time taken to complete one oscillation.
 Speed: It is the distance travelled by a body in unit time. It is a scalar quantity.
Units: km/h, m/s

Time unit Equivalent in smaller unit

A common year 365 days
Leap year 366 days
Day 24 hours
Hour 60 minutes
Minutes 60 seconds
Seconds 1000 milliseconds

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