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Testing English as a foreign language: a case study of

classroom tests in Qatar

Abbara, Tariq Mustafa

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2
Testing English

a s a F o r e i g n Language:

a Case Study

o f C l a s s r o o m T e s t s I n Qatar

by

T a r l q Mustafa Abbara

A t h e s i s s u b m i t t e d f o r t h e degree o f

Master o f A r t s

School o f Education

U n i v e r s i t y o f Durham

England
The copyright of this thesis rests with the author.

No quotation from it should be published without 199 1


his prior written consent and information derived

from it should be acknowledged.

- 8 SEP 1992
"One assumption i s that change does not occur unless the

p a r t i c u l a r s o f a s c h o o l and i t s c o n t e x t a r e taken i n t o account.

A second i s that a school staff will not be conuaitted to a

change effort unless they have had the opportunity to be

i n v o l v e d i n d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the scope of the p r o j e c t .

( D a v i d H o p k i n s , 1986, P. 7)
I n the'iof A l l a h , The B e n e f l c l e n t ,

Merciful

J.
Dedication

I humbly d e d i c a t e t h i s w o r k t o my f a t h e r , M u s t a f a , my w i f e ,

Enayah and my children: Linda, Danyah, Mohammad, Ahmad,

Mahmmoud, Hamza and Hussam w i t h love.


Abstract

The t h e s i s i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h testing E n g l i s h as a foreign


language in general and concentrates on testing in
Qatar i n p a r t i c u l a r .

Chapter I provides a b r i e f overview o f education i n Qatar


to form a s o l i d basis f o r the study.

Chapter I I presents an o v e r v i e w o f the h i s t o r i c a l stages


of development of testing and r e l a t e s the Q a t a r i s i t u a t i o n to
that framework.

Chapter I I I i s devoted t o the d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f t e s t and


t h e i r a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s and relates this framewor
k t o the Qatari situation by describing the kinds of test
currently i n use i n Q a t a r .

Cliapter IV focuses on the issues of reliability and


validity. These two q u a l i t i e s are d e a l t with as a basis f o r
j u d g i n g and i m p r o v i n g a c h i e v e m e n t tests.

Chapter V will focus even more closely on the kinds o f


t e s t s used i n Q a t a r i s c h o o l s . These t e s t s a r e w r i t t e n e i t h e r by
the I n s p e c t o r a t e o r by c l a s s r o o m teachers to r e f l e c t the nature
of the course. This chapter describes a case study wliich i s
b a s e d on " t h e C r e s c e n t E n g l i s h Course". I t a l s o p r o v i d e s a full
description of the materials being used as well as the
examination frequency and t h e a l l o c a t e d marks.

Chapter . V I is a summary chapter which deals with


recommendations t o improve the c u r r e n t s t a t u s o f classroom
tests.

11
Acknowledgement

First of a l l , I must e x p r e s s my sincere and thankfulness

to Allah, without whose h e l p this work would n e v e r have been

possible.

I also would like t o e x p r e s s my deepest a p p r e c i a t i o n and

sincere gratitude t o my s u p e r v i s o r , I ) r .Michael Ryram, D i r e c t o r

of Higher Degrees a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Durham f o r h i s h e l p and

wise counsel. I am deeply indebted to him for patience and

invaluable advice throughout a l l the stages of t h i s work.

Thanks must also go to Mr. R. F. Goodings for his

e n c o u r a g e m e n t and the l i b r a r y s t a f f a t Durham U n i v e r s i t y , A s t o n

University i n B i r m i n g h a m , and Qatar U n i v e r s i t y f o r t h e i r help.

I am also wholeheartedly grateful and obliged to Mr.

Husslen Mahmoud A b b a r a , Educational Officer, i n the office of

the cultural attache (Embassy of Qatar) in London for his

inclinable support and encouragement.

Last, but not least, I would like to express my sincere

gratitude t o my w i f e w i t h o u t whom I w o u l d n e v e r have been able

to continue and complete t h i s work.

iii
C O N T E N T S

Page

DEDICATION i

ABSTRACT i i

ACKNOWLEDGMENT i i i

CONTENTS iv

CHAPTER 1. B R I E F OVERVIEW OF EDUCATION I N QATAR

Topical Outline 1

1.0 Introduction 3

1.1. B r i e f Overview o f Education i n Qatar 4

1.2. History of English Language T e a c h i n g i n Q a t a r . . 9

1.2.1. R e s e a r c h Stage 11

1.2.2. The S t a g e o f W r i t i n g the Materials 12

1.2.3. The S t a g e o f T r a i n i n g t h e Teachers 12

1.2. A. The O b j e c t i v e s o f t h e C r e s c e n t Course 17

1.2.4.1. L i s t e n i n g 18

1.2.4.2. S p e a k i n g 19

1.2.4.3. R e a d i n g 20

1.2.4.4. W r i t i n g 20

1.3. F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g Standards o f Achievement 22

1.3.1. Teacher Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s 22

1.3.2. Learner Motivation 28

IV
1.3.3. Textbooks 30

1.3.4. Tests 32

1.4. The System o f T e s t i n g i n Qatar, 34

1.4.1, The T e s t i n g Scheme 36

1.4.2. E x a m i n a t i o n Times 37

1.5. Problems o f T e s t i n g 44

1.6. The Need and O r i g i n o f t h e Study 50

CHAPTER 2. OVERVIEW OF HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE

TESTING ,

Topical Outline 53

2.1. Introduction 54

2.2. H i s t o r y o f Language T e s t i n g 54

2 . 2 . 1 . The E a r l y I n t u i t i v e Stage ( b e f o r e 1850) 55

2.2.2. The P r e - S c i e n t i f i c S t a g e ( b e f o r e 1850-1950/60)..56

2.2.3. From 1900 t o 1915 60

2.2.4. f r o m 1915 t o 1930 61

2.2.5. From 1930 t o 1945 62

2.2.6. From 1945 t o 1960 62

2.2.7. Modern T e s t i n g 63

2.2.8. T e s t i n g i n t h e 1980s 65

2 . 2 . 8 . 1 . The F i r s t C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Current Testing....66

2.2.8.2. The Second C h a r a c t e r i s t i c 67

2.2.8.3. The T h i r d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c 68

2.2.8.4. The F o u r t h C h a r a c t e r i s t i c 69

2.3.1. The H i s t o r i c a l Development o f T e s t i n g i n Qatar.70

v
CHAPTER 3. PURPOSES AND KINDS OF TESTS.

Topical Outline 76

3.0. I n t r o d u c t i o n 79

3 . 1 . The S i g n i f i c a n c e o f T e s t i n g i n t h e C l a s s r o o m 80

3.2. The P u r p o s e s o f T e s t i n g i n t h e C l a s s r o o m 83

3 . 2 . 1 . M e a s u r i n g Outcomes o f I n s t r u c t i o n 84

3.2.2. I m p r o v i n g t h e C u r r i c u l u m 85

3.2.3. P l a c e m e n t a n d G r o u p i n g 86

3.2.4. P r e d i c t i n g F u t u r e P e r f o r m a n c e 88

3.2.5. D e s c r i b i n g R e a l i s t i c S t a n d a r d s o f A c h i e v e m e n t . . . . 8 9

3.2.6. As a D i a g n o s t i c Procedure, ,89

3.2.7. To Grade S t u d e n t s f o r P r o m o t i o n 90

3 . 3 . 1 . D i f f e r e n t Types o f T e s t 92

3.3.2. A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t i n g 94

3.3.3. S t a n d a r d i z e d T e s t s 100

3.3.4. Teacher-Made T e s t s 101

3 . 3 . 4 . 1 . A d v a n t a g e s o f Teacher-Made T e s t s ,.103

3.3.4.2. D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f Teacher-Made T e s t s 104

3.3.5. Norm-Referenced T e s t i n g 106

3.3.5.1. Advantages o f Norm-Referenced T e s t s 109

3.3.5.2. D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f N o r m - R e f e r e n c e d T e s t s 110

3.3.6. Criterion-Referenced Testing... 110

3 . 3 . 6 . 1 . When t o Use CR T e s t s 114

VI
3.3.6.2, C r i t e r i o n - R e f e r e n c e d Test Construction 118

3.3.6.3, T a s k s f o r L e v e l 1 119

3.3.6.3.1. L i s t e n i n g 119

3.3.6.3.2. S p e a k i n g 120

3.3.6.3.3. R e a d i n g 121

3.3.6.3.4. W r i t i n g 122

3.3.6.4, C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f CR T e s t i n g 126

3 . 3 . 6 . 4 . 1 . A d v a n t a g e s o f CR T e s t s 130

3.3.6.4.2, D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f CR T e s t s 132

3,3,7.1. D i f f e r e n c e s Between CR and NR T e s t s 133

3.3.8.1. Objective Testing 136

3.3.8.2. Advantages o f O b j e c t i v e T e s t i n g 137

3.3.8.3, Disadvantages of Objective Testing 138

3.3.8.4, Types o f O b j e c t i v e T e s t i n g 138

3.3.8.4.1, T r u e - F a l s e Items 139

3.3.8.4.2, A d v a n t a g e s o f T r u e - F a l s e I t e m s 139

3.3.8.4.3, D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f True-False Items 140

3.3.9.1. Matching Items 141

3.3.9.2. Advantages o f Matching Items 142

3.3.9.3. Disadvantages o f Matching Items 143

3.3.10.1. Multiple-Choice Items..., 143

3.3.10.2. Advantages o f M u l t i p l e - C h o i c e Items 144

3.3.10.3. Disadvantages of Multiple-Choice Items 145

3.3.11.1, Subjective Testing 145

3.3.11.2, The Essay T e s t 146

vii
3.3.11.3. S c o r i n g t h e Essay T e s t 148

3.3.11.4. Advantages o f t h e Essay T e s t 148

3.3.11.5. D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e Essay T e s t 149

3.3.12.1. T e s t Types i n Q a t a r 150

CHAPTER 4. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY-FUNDAMENTAL QUALITIES OF

GOOD TESTING

Topical Outline 153

4.1. Introduction 154

4.2. Validity 155

4.2.1. L i t e r a t u r e Survey 155

4.2.2. Types o f V a l i d i t y 158

4.2.2.1. Face V a l i d i t y 158

4.2.2.2. Content V a l i d i t y 160

4.2.2.3. Construct V a l i d i t y 164

4.2.2.4. Predictive Validity 167

4.3. Reliability 171

4.3.1. Introduction 171

4.3.2. Definition of R e l i a b i l i t y 171

4.3.3. Ways o f E s t i m a t i n g R e l i a b i l i t y 174

4.3.3.1. T e s t - r e t e s t Technique 174

4.3.3.2. A l t e r n a t i v e Forms o f t h e O r i g i n a l T e s t 176

4.3.3.3. Split-half Technique 178

4.4. R e l a t i o n s h i p Between R e l i a b i l i t y and Validityl79

Xlll
CHAPTER 5. CASE STUDY BASED ON "THE CRESCENT ENGLISH COURSE"..

Topical Outline 182

5.0. Intoduction (course background) 183

5.1, Course O b j e c t i v e s 185

5.2, A n a l y s i s o f T h r e e Teacher-Made T e s t s 187

5.3. T e s t One 188

5.3.1 T e s t e e s ' Background 188

5.3.2 Test S p e c i f i c a t i o n 188

5.4 T e s t Two 194

5.4.1 Testees* Background 194

5.4.2 Test S p e c i f i c a t i o n 194

5.5 Test Three 196

5.5.1 T e s t e e s ' Background 196

5.5.2 Test S p e c i f i c a t i o n 196

5.6. Implementation f o r Future Practice 201

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Introduction , 206

6.2 Conclusions 209

6.3 Recommendations... 211

REFERENCES 222

BIBLIOGRAPHY 229

ix
APPENDICES 245

Appendix A 246

Primary Level Objectives 246

Appendix B 249

Preparatory Level Objectives 249

Appendix C 252

Secondary L e v e l O b j e c t i v e s 252

Appendix l A 255

D e s c r i p t i o n o f The Course M a t e r i a l s 255

Appendix I B 256

Primary Six 256

Appendix 2 257

Preparatory One 257

Appendix 3 258

Preparatory Two 258

Appendix 4 259

Preparatory Three 259

Appendix 5 260

Secondary One 260

Appendix 6 261

S e c o n d a r y Two 261

Appendix 7 262

Secondary Three 262

Appendix 8 263

D e s c r i p t i o n o f Course C o n t e n t s 263

X
Appendix 9 , 264

Marks A l l o c a t i o n - M o n t h l y Exams ( o r a l ) 264

Appendix 10 , ....265

Marks A l l o c a t i o n - M o n t h l y Exams ( w r i t t e n ) 265

Appendix 11 266

Marks D i s t r i b u t i o n on W r i t t e n Exams ( a l l l e v e l s ) , . 2 6 6

Appendix 12 267

Model E x a m i n a t i o n (primary level) 267

Appendix 13 , 273

Model E x a m i n a t i o n (preparatory level) ....273

Appendix 14 280

Model E x a m i n a t i o n (secondary l e v e l ) 280

XI
C h a p t e r One

B R I E F OVERVIEW OF EDUCATION I N QATARJ

Topical Outline

1.0 Introduction.

1.1 B r i e f o v e r v i e w o f e d u c a t i o n i n Qatar

especially EFL.

1.2 The h i s t o r y o f ELT i n Q a t a r .

1.2.1. Research stage.

1.2.2. The s t a g e o f w r i t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l s .

1.2.3. The s t a g e o f t r a i n i n g t h e t e a c h e r s

1.2.4. The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e Components o f t h e

English Syllabus Crescent English Course (CEC)

1.2.4.1. Listening.

1.2.4.2. S p e a k i n g .

1.2.4.3. R e a d i n g .

1.2.4.4. W r i t i n g .

1.3 Factors a f f e c t i n g standards of

a c h i e v e m e n t i n EFL.

1.3.1, Teacher qualification,

1.3.2. Learner motivation.

C h a p t e r One - 1 -
1.3.3, Textbook,

1.3.4, Tests,

1,4, The s y s t e m o f t e s t i n g ,

1.4.1, Scheme o f t h e t e s t i n g system,

1.4.2, Examination times,

1.5 Problems of testing,

1.6 The need and o r i g i n o f t h e t h e s i s ,

C h a p t e r One - 2
Chapter One:

1.0 Introduction:

Complaints have been repeatedly expressed by both the

Ministry o f Education and teachers o f EFL i n QATAR about the

low standards o f s t u d e n t s ' a t t a i n m e n t i n E n g l i s h although t i m e ,

money, and energy have been spent i n t h e form o f a new approach

of teaching and new materials that take the students'

environment into account, but unfortunately the failure

continues to exist. Dr. N e i l B r a t t o n , who used t o be the

E n g l i s h language c o n s u l t a n t i n Qatar, wrote a r e p o r t i n 1983 i n

which he says:

Why do we c o n t i n u e t o f a i l even a f t e r making the


g r e a t e s t e f f o r t s t o improve t h e language component
which includes approaches, methods, techniques,
s y l l a b u s e s , t e x t s , a i d s and t e s t s ? I s i t the f a u l t
of t h e c u r r i c u l u m developers who a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
the above improvement? I s i t t h e f a u l t o f the
l e a r n e r s who a r e l a z y and u n m i t i v a t e d ? I s i t the
f a u l t o f t h e teachers who a r e weak i n E n g l i s h and
i n a d e q u a t e l y t r a i n e d ? o r does t h e f a u l t l i e i n the
system w i t h i n which these t h r e e components operate,
(P. 1 )

In this chapter, I shall concentrate on the Q a t a r i

situation t o p r o v i d e a c l e a r idea about the coming scene. I

s h a l l i n t r o d u c e a b r i e f h i s t o r y o f TEFL i n Qatar. The problems

of standards o f achievement i n ELT will be considered to

Chapter One - 3 -
diagnose the d i f f i c u l t i e s i n the present s i t u a t i o n . The system

of testing w i l l be looked a t i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n the problems

of the c u r r e n t procedures of t e s t i n g . Finally, the need f o r

the study w i l l be e x p l a i n e d to reinforce the s i g n i f i c a n c e and

scope o f the t h e s i s .

1.1 B r i e f Overview of Education i n Qatar E s p e c i a l l y EFL:

The s t a t e of Qatar i s s i t u a t e d halfway along the western

coast of the Arabian Gulf. I t consists of a peninsula

p r o j e c t i n g northwards about 150 Km. i n t o the Gulf and covers an

area o f 11.437 square Km. The s t a t e o f Qatar has a population

of 235.000, 80% o f whom l i v e i n Doha, the c a p i t a l c i t y . Arabic

i s the o f f i c i a l language, a l t h o u g h E n g l i s h i s w i d e l y spoken.

The ruling family i s t h a t o f the A l - T h a n i , which settled

i n Qatar around the middle o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . Qatar's

ruler i s HH Sheikh Khalifa Bin Hamad A l - T h a n i . The state of

Qatar became independent on September 3, 1971. Qatar is an

a c t i v e member o f the Gulf Cooperation C o u n c i l (GCC), The Arab

league, the n o n - a l i g n e d movement and the U n i t e d N a t i o n s .

O i l , b o t h onshore and o f f s h o r e , i s the backbone of Qatar's

economy. The f i r s t o i l p r o d u c t i o n i n commercial q u a n t i t i e s was

i n 1949. F u l l ownership o f the o i l was achieved i n 1977. Qatar

joined the O r g a n i z a t i o n o f O i l - E x p o r t i n g C o u n t r i e s (OPEC) i n

1961 and p a r t i c i p a t e d as an a c t i v e s t a t e i n the f o u n d a t i o n of

Chapter One - 4 -
the Organization of Arab O i l - E x p o r t i n g Countries (OAPEC) i n

1970, The d i s c o v e r y of a huge gas field, i n the n o r t h of the

c o u n t r y , w i l l guarantee the w e l f a r e of the Q a t a r i people i n the

f u t u r e . T h i s gas f i e l d i s one o f the l a r g e s t gas f i e l d s i n the

world.

Education in Qatar is free of charge at a l l levels,

including those of the university and post graduate study.

There are 95 schools f o r boys and 96 for girls at Primary,

P r e p a r a t o r y , Secondary and S p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d s of study such as

Industrial and Commercial schools. The grand total of

enrollment is 61914 students at a l l levels, (19274 boys,

30614 g i r l s ) 54 % of them are Q a t a r i s t u d e n t s , (see t a b l e 1 ) ,

Chapter One - 5 -
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In 1973, Qatar U n i v e r s i t y was opened with two teacher

training c o l l e g e s . I n 1989/1990, 659 students have graduated

from Qatar U n i v e r s i t y , 535 o f them were g i r l s , Qatari post-

graduates o f b o t h sexes p u r s u i n g t h e i r s t u d i e s i n Gulf States,

Arab States, U,S,A, and other countries are 918 students,

[Table 2 ] summarizes, a c c o r d i n g t o the i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e

from t h e M i n i s t r y o f Education, the number o f students who are

pursuing t h e i r studies i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s .

Chapter One - 7 -
1 Others

1 Art Education

j Education/Psycho

1 Languages
1 Political Scienc(

iSocial Studies

1 Religion/Law

1 Engineering

II Post Graduate
Special Cases
Grand Total

Country
Medicine
Computer @ Mathi

Medical Science
O

6
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d-

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The e d u c a t i o n a l system i s d i v i d e d into three levels:

Primary (6 y e a r s ) . Preparatory (3 years) and Secondary

(3 y e a r s ) . The E n g l i s h language i s taught from p r i m a r y 5. The

s c h o o l year runs from September 1 5 t h t o June 1 5 t h , d i v i d e d i n t o

two semesters by a two-week break which u s u a l l y occurs a t the

end o f January / b e g i n n i n g o f February.

1.2 H i s t o r y of E n g l i s h Language Teaching i n Qatar:

1.2.1 Teaching E n g l i s h i n t h e Q a t a r i schools began as i n

any o t h e r Arab c o u n t r y , particularly i n t h e G u l f S t a t e s , by

adopting t h e S t r u c t u r a l Approach which f i r s t began i n Europe

and then spread to other parts of the world as a reaction

against t h e Grammar-Translation Approach as a r e s u l t o f the

expansion i n foreign language teaching and the increasing

c o n t a c t between d i f f e r e n t communities. The S t r u c t u r a l Approach

was r e p r e s e n t e d i n a s e r i e s o f books, which was dominant i n

the late 1960s and t h e f i r s t half o f t h e 1970s. The books

that were i n use i n Qatar a t t h a t time were c a l l e d : L i v i n g

E n g l i s h For The Arab World, by W. S. A l l e n and Ralph Cook. This

s e r i e s was used i n Qatar i n 1965 as a r e s u l t o f i t s success i n

K u w a i t i schools which began t o adopt t h e same s e r i e s i n 1962-3.

When Qatar began t o send s t u d e n t s t o pursue t h e i r higher

studies i n many European and American Universities, the

students were i n need o f English courses to raise their

Chapter One - 9 -
standards t o cope with t h e new w o r l d o f study at foreign

U n i v e r s i t i e s on t h e one hand, and t h e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n which was

expressed by b o t h teachers and s t u d e n t s a g a i n s t the S t r u c t u r a l

Approach lead to a change from the S t r u c t u r a l t o the

Communicative Approach. Qotbah (1990) l i s t s four facts that

have l e a d t o t h e abandonment o f t h e S t r u c t u r a l approach.

1. The s y l l a b u s n e g l e c t e d t o a great extent listening

and speaking skills. Dialogues for practising

speaking were artificial, very long and hard to

remember o r p r a c t i c e .

2. Textbooks were f u l l of r e p e t i t i v e , boring d r i l l s i n

each u n i t and s t u d e n t s were always asked t o memorize

l i s t s o f words i n o r d e r t o pass t h e exam.

3. Subjects were o f t e n outmoded and u n i n t e r e s t i n g f o r

the students; f o r example there were some long

stories full of difficult words. In addition,

t e x t b o o k s d i d n o t have many p i c t u r e s t o i n t e r e s t t h e

s t u d e n t s b u t looked more l i k e n o v e l s .

4. The t e x t b o o k s contained some very long words which

were d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e s t u d e n t s t o memorize o r even

to pronounce. I n s h o r t a new s y l l a b u s was needed t o

cope with t h e development of language learning

t h e o r i e s i n an e f f e c t i v e way. (P. 24)

Chapter One - 10 -
I n 1975, t h e M i n i s t r y o f Education made c o n t a c t w i t h t h e

American U n i v e r s i t y i n B e i r u t . I n A p r i l 1975, a team was

a p p o i n t e d t o produce a comprehensive study o f t h e e x i s t i n g

t e x t b o o k s . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s s t u d y , t h e team diagnosed the

following reasons f o r t h e s t u d e n t s ' poor s t a n d a r d s .

1- Poor u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e importance o f o b j e c t i v e s

2- Teachers a r e n o t w e l l q u a l i f i e d i n teaching
English.

3- The t e a c h i n g methods a r e inadequate.

( A r a b i c r e p o r t about TEFL from 1975 t o 1988,

M i n i s t r y o f Education)

The same study suggested a way f o r m o d i f i c a t i o n which had


three stages:

1.2.1 Research stage:

At t h i s t h r e s h o l d l e v e l , t h e l e a r n e r s ' needs f o r t h e
language i n t h e f u t u r e were i d e n t i f i e d . To achieve these
needs, t h e M i n i s t r y d i d t h e f o l l o w i n g :

a) An E n g l i s h P r o f i c i e n c y Test was imposed on a l l teachers

of E n g l i s h t o decide t h e i r a b i l i t y t o use E n g l i s h i n

classrooms.

Chapter One - 11 -
b) A sample group o f s t u d e n t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e students o f the

F a c u l t y o f Education i n Qatar U n i v e r s i t y , took t h e same

test.

c) A q u e s t i o n n a i r e was g i v e n t o a l l those who took the

Proficiency Test,

d) Uses o f E n g l i s h i n r e a l Q a t a r i l i f e were i n v e s t i g a t e d

through another q u e s t i o n n a i r e which was g i v e n t o young

employees t o d e f i n e how and when they use E n g l i s h i n

real l i f e situations.

1.2.2 The Stage of Writing the M a t e r i a l s :

At t h i s stage t h e k i n d o f m a t e r i a l s was i d e n t i f i e d due t o

the r e s u l t s o f t h e two p r e v i o u s q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . At t h e end o f

1975, an agreement was signed between the M i n i s t r y of Education

and Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press t o w r i t e and p u b l i s h the textbooks.

In 1976, t h e f i r s t Crescent m a t e r i a l s were used on an

e x p e r i m e n t a l b a s i s i n Qatar. The m a t e r i a l s expose the l e a r n e r s

t h r o u g h t h e w r i t t e n work and t h e t h e recorded m a t e r i a l s , t o a

wide v a r i e t y o f a u t h e n t i c E n g l i s h .

1.2.3 The Stage of T r a i n i n g the Teachers

At t h i s stage, both prospective and experienced

teachers were trained in how t o use the newly i n t r o d u c e d

Chapter One - 12 -
materials. The Crescent E n g l i s h Course came i n t o being a t

t h i s s t a g e . The b a s i c approach t o c u r r i c u l u m r e f o r m i n ELT f o r

Qatar was developed i n a series o f workshops and seminars

o r g a n i s e d by t h e Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press i n Qatar (June 1976 ) ,

London ( 1976), Abu Dhabi ( 1977 ) , Cairo ( January 1977 ) ,

These workshops and seminars were prepared t o t r a i n members o f

the E n g l i s h Language Development Centre (see b e l o w ) . Those who

were t r a i n e d by Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press ( OUP ) were appointed

to t r a i n p r o s p e c t i v e teachers every new school-year.

The aim o f the Crescent Course i s t o develop i n p u p i l s the

communicative competence necessary t o use E n g l i s h i n r e a l - l i f e

situations. Then, i n 1975, t h e E n g l i s h Language Development

Centre was founded t o supervise the p r o j e c t . The following

people were appointed to direct the English Language

Development Centre;

Dr, N e i l B r a t t o n E n g l i s h Language Consultant

David Kirwan Teacher T r a i n e r

Helen O ' N e i l l

Alan Swales A s s i s t a n t Teacher T r a i n e r

A, Abu J a l a l a

Margaret A i t k e n

S, S h a f i

David A i t k e n Testing Co-ordinator

Chapter One - 13 -
In 1978, t h e phased i n t r o d u c t i o n of the materials i n t o

all schools began and t h e M i n i s t r y appointed two i n - s e r v i c e

t e a c h e r - t r a i n e r s . I n t h e meantime, f u r t h e r seminars were h e l d

in Abu Dhabi and C a i r o . The Crescent E n g l i s h Course i s now

used a t a l l l e v e l s ( P r i m a r y , P r e p a r a t o r y , and Secondary) i n a l l

schools i n Qatar, t h e U n i t e d Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and on an

experimental basis i n Bahrain.

The English Language Development Centre was o r i g i n a l l y

founded f o r two reasons. The f i r s t was t o s u p e r v i s e the newly

adopted approach, and t h e second was t o t r a i n teachers i n how

t o d e a l w i t h t h e new m a t e r i a l s . I n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g i s u s u a l l y

combined with a teacher's school schedule. I n Qatar, some

teachers had s p e c i a l l y arranged schedules so t h a t they could

attend in-service training. In fact, t h e r e were many reasons

for in-service training. Some of these reasons are the

following:

1. To f a m i l i a r i z e teachers w i t h t h e newly adopted

procedures of teaching.
2. O r i e n t a t i o n t o newly used m a t e r i a l s .
3. Improving t e a c h e r s ' p r o f i c i e n c y i n E n g l i s h .

The use of t h e Crescent English Course in Qatar,

required widespread efforts to orient t e a c h e r s , both new and

experienced, t o t h e p h i l o s o p h y and methods o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e

Chapter One - 14 -
new m a t e r i a l s . Such t r a i n i n g courses were of g r e a t importance

as a logical result of the change from Structural to

Communicative approach. Teachers were i n need o f these courses

to understand how t o use the " f u n c t i o n a l " E n g l i s h methodology

in the new world of teaching. Since teaching is a highly

c r e a t i v e p r o f e s s i o n , i t demands the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new ideas

and thoughts. Teachers cannot invent new techniques by

themselves t o the new field o f t e a c h i n g . I n s t e a d , they are i n

need o f o r i e n t a t i o n and r e f r e s h e r courses from time t o time t o

develop new professional s k i l l s in the target domain. The

t r a i n i n g programmes t h a t were used i n Qatar d i d not achieve the

g o a l because t h e r e was n o t enough time t o c o n c e n t r a t e on the

two important variables in these programmes. These two

variables are the teacher who is the key person in the

teaching-learning process and the situation of teaching new

materials which the teacher i s being prepared f o r . When we

want t o t r a i n teachers on a new area, we should consider the

difficulties that we may face. In the Q a t a r i s i t u a t i o n , the

difficulties l i e i n the sharp turning from the traditionally

adopted approach ( Structural ) to newly adopted one

( Communicative ) . The programmes should aim a t changing the

teacher a c t i v i t i e s from t e a c h i n g i n a t e a c h e r - c e n t r e d classroom

to a s t u d e n t - c e n t r e d one.

In a word, the training courses that were designed in

Qatar f a i l e d t o achieve t h e i n t e n d e d purposes through a fault

Chapter One - 15 -
which was n o t r e l a t e d t o the M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n , but i t was
a m a t t e r o f adequate time.

The Crescent Course adopts a communicative approach which


has t h r e e main implications,

1- We must teach the language n o t the r u l e s .

2- The l e a r n i n g should take p l a c e i n as n a t u r a l s i t u a t i o n s


as p o s s i b l e

3- Enjoyment, as an e s s e n t i a l m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r , becomes
central

The Crescent E n g l i s h Course seeks t o p r o v i d e s t u d e n t s w i t h

opportunities for a variety of a c t i v i t i e s f o r communicating

with one another and with their teacher i n a meaningful and

natural way. This is the first important aspect of the

communicative approach. The second important aspect i s t h a t

learning a language i s an i n d i v i d u a l process. Almost a l l the

language a c h i l d hears and speaks i s o f importance t o him/her

as an individual i n a social context. The course has been

designed to provide students w i t h social situations through

the adopted t e c h n i q u e o f group work, which enables s t u d e n t s t o

learn indirectly by co-operating with one another through

language. Lessons are developed, as f a r as possible, around

a c t i v i t i e s which are m o t i v a t i n g i n themselves and which r e f l e c t

the interest of students. Examples o f this are the use of

Chapter One - 16 -
songs, games and comic s t r i p stories.

The n a t i v e language o f t h e l e a r n e r s i s sometimes used at

the early stages of learning when comprehension i s at a

complete standstill and t h e teacher has h o n e s t l y made every

possible effort to explain whatever needs e x p l a i n i n g i n the

t a r g e t language. There i s n o t h i n g as f r u s t r a t i n g t o students as

feeling completely left o u t o f an e n t i r e lesson because they

d i d n o t understand something a t t h e beginning of i t ,

1.2.4 The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e Crescent Course were n o t s e t

i n advance so t h a t teachers can make every p o s s i b l e e f f o r t t o

achieve them effectively. The Crescent Course m a t e r i a l s were

w r i t t e n w i t h o u t a c l e a r idea about i t s o b j e c t i v e s . This was a

major c r i t i c i s m o f t h e course. I n a l a t e r time, i n 1985, the

course objectives were produced on a formal basis by the

Ministry o f Education, These objectives include listening,

speaking, r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g f o r each o f the t h r e e levels,

( Primary, Preparatory and Secondary ) , L e t us quote what has

been issued by t h e E n g l i s h Inspectorate i n 1985 t o g i v e an

example o f these o b j e c t i v e s . The o b j e c t i v e s I quote here are

meant f o r t h e P r e p a r a t o r y l e v e l . They a r e :

Chapter One - 17 -
1.2.4.1 Listening:

By t h e end o f t h e p r e p a r a t o r y l e v e l , t h e students should


be a b l e t o do t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1- L i s t e n t o o r d e r s and i n s t r u c t i o n s and c a r r y o u t a
t a l k ( p l a y i n g a game, f i l l i n g i n a form, translating
directions etc.)

2- L i s t e n t o a u t h e n t i c E n g l i s h t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e
media or airport announcements or a telephone
conversation, and be able to extract specific
information.

3- L i s t e n and understand s h o r t e x t r a c t s from t h e media l i k e

the news, commentaries, and p l a y s .

4- L i s t e n t o and i d e n t i f y t h r e e b a s i c themes o f a s h o r t

c o n v e r s a t i o n between two speakers, as w e l l as t h e i r

opinions and k i n d o f r e l a t i o n s h i p they have ( f r i e n d l y


or o t h e r w i s e ) .

5- Understand t h e main idea and i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s o f a s t o r y

or a dialogue.

6- To i d e n t i f y t h e s i t u a t i o n from t h e c o n t e x t o f a

conversation between two people ( a visit t o the

d o c t o r , buying something from a s t o r e e t c . ) .

Chapter One - 18 -
1.2,4.2. Speaking;

By t h e end o f t h e P r e p a r a t o r y l e v e l , t h e p u p i l s should be

able t o express themselves i n a clear and acceptable way i n

d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s such as:

1- Taking p a r t i n a s h o r t s o c i a l c o n v e r s a t i o n concerning

home, f a m i l y , s c h o o l , t r a v e l , media and l o c a l

environment.

2- Coping w i t h E n g l i s h language c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n s such as

helping a foreigner i n the market o r t h e s t r e e t ; g i v i n g

him simple directions; giving simple explanations of

s i t u a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o the l o c a l environment,

3- Handling language s i t u a t i o n s i n a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y where

E n g l i s h i s t h e means o f communication,

4- Taking p a r t i n a telephone c o n v e r s a t i o n t o g i v e an

i n v i t a t i o n , make an apology o r q u e s t i o n a c e r t a i n

personal or p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n .

5- T e l l i n g a s t o r y o r d e s c r i b i n g an a c c i d e n t o r r e l a t i n g an

incident.

Chapter One - 19 -
1.2.4.3 Reading;

By t h e end o f t h e P r e p a r a t o r y l e v e l , the p u p i l s should be

a b l e t o read and understand the f o l l o w i n g :

1- A s h o r t s t o r y o r e x p o s i t o r y passage i n simple English

w i t h o n l y a few unknown words, making an i n t e l l i g e n t

guess a t t h e meaning o f unknown words from their

context,

2- E x t r a c t i n f o r m a t i o n from a l e t t e r o r an a r t i c l e and a c t

accordingly.

3- I n t e r p r e t and f o l l o w w r i t t e n i n s t r u c t i o n s and a c t

accordingly.

4- Understand t h e news, r e p o r t s and a d v e r t i s e m e n t s .

5- E x t r a c t i n f o r m a t i o n from an a l p h a b e t i c a l list

( telephone d i r e c t o r y ) and i n t e r p r e t maps, diagrams,

t a b l e s and graphs.
6- Use simple d i c t i o n a r i e s .

1.2.4.4 Writing;

1- P u p i l s should be able t o w r i t e about themselves, their

f a m i l i e s , f r i e n d s and s c h o o l .

2- They should be a b l e t o summarise a spoken s t o r y and

w r i t e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f i n c i d e n t s they have witnessed.

Chapter One - 20 -
3- They should be a b l e t o w r i t e l e t t e r s ( e.g. t o a pen-

f r i e n d ) , a s k i n g f o r i n f o r m a t i o n or a d v i c e ,

4- They should be a b l e t o f i l l i n forms such as f o r

p a s s p o r t s or a t the a i r p o r t ,

5- They should be a b l e t o w r i t e down a simple summary of

i n f o r m a t i o n from a map or a diagram.

Stating the instructional o b j e c t i v e s i n advance by the

M i n i s t r y of Education i n Qatar helps teachers t o d e s c r i b e i n a

r e l a t i v e l y s p e c i f i c manner what a s t u d e n t should be able t o do

o r produce, o r they d e s c r i b e the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a student

should possess a t the end of a course of study. Teachers are

invited to pursue practical strategies in testing the

instructional o b j e c t i v e s they deal with during the academic

year. These strategies can be f o r m u l a t e d through cooperation

between c o l l e a g u e s t o ease the work-load associated with the

task. What happens at the Qatari schools is exactly the

opposite. The o b j e c t i v e s are written and distributed to the

teachers at the b e g i n n i n g of the school year. Then teachers

read these o b j e c t i v e s and put them a s i d e . No careful thought

seems t o be g i v e n t o the ways o f t e s t i n g these o b j e c t i v e s t o

know how many o f them have been achieved. Another p o i n t which

is s t i l l dominant among teachers i n Q a t a r i schools i s t h a t the

instructional o b j e c t i v e s they receive from the Ministry of

Education are u n q u e s t i o n a b l e . On the c o n t r a r y , t h e r e i s no need

Chapter One - 21 -
for teachers to limit themselves t o the stated objectives.

Although the objectives a r e always s e t i n advance, teachers

should study them c a r e f u l l y t o decide what s t r a t e g i e s should be

used to test these objectives. At this stage cooperation

between c o l l e a g u e s p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i f teachers wish t o

act seriously.

1.3 F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g Standards of Achievement;

Most educators i n Qatar a r e n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e present

state o f s t u d e n t s ' achievement in English as a foreign

language. They always blame teachers and consider them

responsible f o r t h e poor standards i n E n g l i s h . I t must be

always kept i n mind t h a t teachers a r e n o t t h e o n l y people t o be

blamed, r a t h e r t h e r e a r e so many f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g standards o f

achievement i n classrooms. Among them a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1.3.1 Teacher q u a l i f i c a t i o n s :

It is vitally important that teachers o f E n g l i s h as a

f o r e i g n language should be adequately prepared f o r t h e i r f u t u r e

t a s k . I n Qatar, some teachers a r e w e l l - t r a i n e d i n t e a c h i n g the

language, but not i n testing i t . The majority are o n l y

introduced t o a course which u s u a l l y l a s t s o n l y two weeks a t

the b e g i n n i n g o f each academic year. This course o f o r i e n t a t i o n

Chapter One - 22 -
i s always i n t e n d e d f o r i n e x p e r i e n c e d and p r o s p e c t i v e teachers

b e f o r e they f a c e t h e i r f i r s t t e a c h i n g experience. T h i s time i s

not enough t o f a m i l i a r i z e teachers w i t h t h e textbooks they w i l l

t e a c h . The r e s u l t i s that many teachers have been p o o r l y and

i n a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r e d , o f t e n through no f a u l t o f t h e i r own. I t

is clear that t e a c h i n g by persons who cannot meet t h e minimal

s t a n d a r d o f q u a l i f i c a t i o n ( t h e knowledge o f e f f e c t i v e methods

and techniques of language teaching) will n o t make a

distinctive contribution t o language learning and testing.

P r e p a r a t i o n o f teachers f o r t h e i r inescapable r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f

testing t h e i r s t u d e n t s should begin a t t h e p r e - s e r v i c e l e v e l ,

A specialist i n test c o n s t r u c t i o n could be o f c o n s i d e r a b l e

a s s i s t a n c e t o such a group o f t e a c h e r s .

Broadly speaking, teachers of English i n primary and

preparatory schools can be d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r c a t e g o r i e s on t h e

b a s i s o f t h e i r academic and p r o f e s s i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s :

(tables 1 , 2 ) , Table ( 1 ) shows us t h a t teachers who teach


English i n Primary schools are d i v i d e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s

according t o t h e i r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s :

( A ) . Teachers who h o l d a u n i v e r s i t y degree o r h i g h e r than

university degree are o n l y 45 teachers out o f 136 i n

Primary level,

( B ) , Teachers who h o l d lower than u n i v e r s i t y degree a r e

either Diplomas h o l d e r s (two years a f t e r t h e General

Chapter One - 23 -
Secondary Certificate) or only General Secondary

Certificate .

Table (2) indicates that teachers who teach English in

Preparatory schools are d i v i d e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s as f a r as

qualifications are concerned:

( A ) . Teachers who h o l d a degree lower than B.A. are 9 out

o f 176 which i s the grand t o t a l . They h o l d diplomas, two

years study in teacher-training institutes after the

General Secondary C e r t i f i c a t e .

( B ) . Teachers who h o l d B.A. are a l s o d i v i d e d i n t o two sub

categories:

1. B.A, ( n o n - e d u c a t i o n a l ) i n the E n g l i s h language and

its literature.

2. B . A . ( e d u c a t i o n a l ) i n teacher t r a i n i n g and education.

Chapter One - 24 -
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While i n Secondary s c h o o l s , t a b l e 3 g i v e s the impression

that teachers at this stage are i n a better situation. A l l

teachers have u n i v e r s i t y degrees, either i n education or i n

the English language and i t s literature, those teachers who

studied the E n g l i s h language a t the u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l have not

undergone the necessary training at the u n i v e r s i t y . Special

attention should be g i v e n t o them when they i n t e n d t o

teach and t e s t E n g l i s h , We run the r i s k of t u r n i n g a promising

teacher away from h i s chosen profession i f his early teaching

e f f o r t s are met w i t h poor r e s u l t s and consequent frustration.

In reality, there are very few M, Ed, or Ph, D, holders

teaching i n the p u b l i c s c h o o l s . The essence of the matter i s

t h a t most E n g l i s h teachers have B, A,'s i n areas o t h e r than

E n g l i s h Language Teaching from Arab U n i v e r s i t i e s , where t h e r e

are v e r y few courses i n TEFL methodology,

1.3.2 Learner motivation:

Students i n Qatar l a c k the adequate motivation to learn

E n g l i s h . Dr. Qotbah, 1990 quotes Widdowson 1983 t o p o i n t out

the r e s u l t o f s t u d e n t s ' l a c k o f m o t i v a t i o n s a y i n g :

A l a c k o f m o t i v a t i o n on the p a r t of the students

may arise either from a rejection of the aims

presupposed by the objectives, or from a

Chapter One - 28 -
r e j e c t i o n o f the o b j e c t i v e s as a v a l i d mediation

towards aims t h a t they do not accept. (P. 31)

I t h i n k the classroom teacher can p l a y an important role

i n r a i s i n g the s t u d e n t s ' m o t i v a t i o n i n the classroom. This can

be done on the b a s i s o f c o n v i n c i n g them t h a t the language they

l e a r n w i l l be o f g r e a t importance t o them when they decide to

pursue h i g h e r s t u d i e s , conduct a business, or take a t r i p t o a

f o r e i g n c o u n t r y . On the o t h e r hand, they should l e a r n English

because they l i v e i n a community i n which the t a r g e t language

i s o f t e n spoken. The s t u d e n t s j u s t i f y t h i s l a c k o f motivation

by s a y i n g t h a t they l e a r n E n g l i s h i n t h e i r classes and always

use t h e i r n a t i v e language o u t s i d e the classroom. To achieve

the b e s t r e s u l t s , the course ought t o be seen by the learners

to be b o t h u s e f u l and p r a c t i c a l f o r the performance of their

f u t u r e o c c u p a t i o n a l d u t i e s . When the l e a r n e r s have low l e v e l s

of competence, the intended results may be difficult to

a c h i e v e . The low s t a n d a r d o f achievement i n E n g l i s h i n Q a t a r i

schools i s one o f the major e d u c a t i o n a l problems t h a t should

be investigated to diagnose ways for raising students'

motivation to learn English,

Chapter One - 29 -
1.3.3 Textbooks:

The values and a t t i t u d e s t h a t a r e taught a t schools are

of obvious and c e n t r a l i n t e r e s t t o those who a r e concerned w i t h

the social future that the patterns of schooling seem t o

foreshadow w i t h t h e view o f t h e w o r l d a t a c e r t a i n time. When

the values t h a t schools r e f l e c t become i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the

values of a c e r t a i n s o c i e t y , i , e , , the b e l i e f s the i n d i v i d u a l s

hold, textbook bias i s then obvious. In this way textbooks

seems t o t h r e a t e n the i n d i v i d u a l values. I t should be kept i n

mind that a school subject i s always considered a body o f

information about a f i e l d that i s thought a p p r o p r i a t e f o r the

education o f the s t u d e n t s . To make the students accept the

target information, we should know the s o c i a l background o f the

learners,

As f o r t h e Crescent English Course, f o l l o w i n g are some

shortcomings o f t h e course,

1-The i n t r o d u c e d m a t e r i a l s a r e i n t e n d e d t o present the t a r g e t

language i n a s o c i a l c o n t e x t as an o u t s t a n d i n g f e a t u r e o f the

communicative approach. The f a u l t with these m a t e r i a l s is

t h a t t h e t a r g e t c u l t u r e i s i n t r o d u c e d b e f o r e t h e n a t i v e one.

To make t h e t h e s t u d e n t s have t h e necessary i n t e r e s t i n t h e

taught materials, i t i s better to introduce them t o t h e i r

native culture first. I n t h e Crescent English Course The

Chapter One - 30 -
Book which i s t a u g h t i n Primary 5, i n t r o d u c e s t h e p u p i l s t o a

song which runs as f o l l o w s :

Humpty Dumpty s a t on a w a l l .

Humpty Dumpty had a g r e a t fall.

The same p u p i l s w i l l be i n t r o d u c e d to their native culture

a f t e r f o u r y e a r s , t h a t i s , i n P r e p a r a t o r y Two. They w i l l read

about Ramadan, which i s t h e month of fasting, Prayers,

Zakat, which means alms, neighbours, and H a j j , which means

pilgrimage t o Makkah. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e Crescent English

Course has been r e v i s e d so many times to suit the l e a r n e r s '

needs i n Qatar, t h a t i s , t o i n t r o d u c e t h e n a t i v e c u l t u r e first.

This can o n l y be a p p l i e d t o t h e books which a r e taught a t

Primary and P r e p a r a t o r y levels.

2 )-A common weakness i s t h e w r i t i n g s k i l l because o f the

following factors:

a )-The l a c k o f a g r a d u a l and c l e a r p l a n t o develop this

skill.

b )-A c l e a r t r e n d t o c o n c e n t r a t e on a u d i o - v i s u a l

instructions instead of reading and w r i t i n g . This

trend clearly affects the learners' a b i l i t y t o form

their own s t r a t e g y about sentence construction that

they need i n o r d e r t o develop t h e s k i l l o f w r i t i n g ,

c )-The e x i s t i n g textbooks tend t o encourage t h e l e a r n e r s

to do t h e i r homework i n groups i n t h e i r c l a s s e s . This

technique undermines their responsibilities towards

Chapter One - 31 -
this important t a s k . As a result of this technique,

the students do not nurture their individual

capabilities in writing,

d )-The t e x t b o o k s c o n c e n t r a t e on o r a l comprehension

q u e s t i o n s more than the w r i t t e n form which made the

learners l o s e the chance o f sentence c o n s t r u c t i o n to

develop the s k i l l o f w r i t i n g ,

3-The l e a r n e r s always express the l a c k o f r i g h t and wrong

c r i t e r i a because of l e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n on grammar, t h a t

is, they cannot judge whether a p a r t i c u l a r sentence i s

right or wrong. T h i s can be easily seen i n answering

questions such as "put the verbs i n brackets in the

r i g h t form" ,

1.3.4 Tests:

The tests that are constructed either by the

I n s p e c t o r a t e or by classroom teachers are s t i l l traditional in

the sense t h a t they are not analysed t o p o i n t out weaknesses or

strengths i n students' achievement, Byrd (1986) i n a study

about English Language instruction i n the Gulf Arab States

describes the testing procedures as inadequate and i t is

generally considered a problem in the teaching-learning

process.

Chapter One - 32 -
There were a number o f r e p o r t s d e a l i n g w i t h students
i n some s t a t e s . Grading and e v a l u a t i o n procedures
were sometimes l a x and f a i l e d t o r e p r e s e n t the r e a l
achievement o f s t u d e n t s . Teachers were r e p o r t e d t o be
under p r e s s u r e a t times t o pass s t u d e n t s r e g a r d l e s s
of their performance. This pressure came from
Headmasters/Mistresses, who p r o b a b l y worry about t h e
"image" o f t h e i r school i f t h e r e a r e a l o t o f low
grades. ( P. 53 )

The teacher's p r i m a r y r o l e i n t h e classroom i s t o teach.

His success or f a i l u r e could be a s c e r t a i n e d by t e s t i n g the

i n t e l l e c t u a l growth and development o f t h e p u p i l s ' standards.

The existing system of testing i s not able t o v e r i f y the

pupils' standards o f achievement and describe t h e i r progress

toward t h e i n t e n d e d o b j e c t i v e s .

Tests, i n general, a i d i n determining the learning

outcomes o f classroom i n s t r u c t i o n . The teacher-made t e s t i s a

r e f l e c t i o n o f what t h e i n d i v i d u a l teacher c o n s i d e r s i m p o r t a n t .

The teacher can then e v a l u a t e success o r f a i l u r e i n r e l a t i o n t o

test results. An a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t u d e n t s ' responses on t h e

test can be h e l p f u l t o t h e teacher i n adjusting t h e present

l e v e l and d i r e c t i o n o f classroom i n s t r u c t i o n which w i l l affect

the standards o f achievement i n t h e t a r g e t language.

In Qatar however, teachers c o n s t r u c t classroom tests just

to promote students t o a new class and n o t h i n g e l s e . The

decisions about standards o f achievement a r e completely left

to t h e p e r s o n a l i n t u i t i o n o f t e a c h e r s . I f they a r e asked about

t h e i r s t u d e n t s ' s t a n d a r d s , they have no s c i e n t i f i c evidence t o

Chapter One - 33 -
d e s c r i b e these standards o f achievement. I f teachers o f E n g l i s h

in Qatar were aware o f t h e r o l e o f t e s t i n g i n t e a c h i n g , they

could increase their students' achievement by helping to

develop study h a b i t s and d i r e c t i n t e l l e c t u a l energy toward the

desired objectives,

1.4 THE System oF T e s t i n g iN Qatar:

There a r e two p u b l i c examinations i n Qatar, t h e f i r s t i s

called the f i r s t s e s s i o n exam which i s u s u a l l y h e l d i n June,

the same exam i s c a l l e d E n g l i s h Promotion Examination, Students

who pass t h i s exam i n a l l t h e seven s u b j e c t s , R e l i g i o n , A r a b i c ,

English, Maths, Science, S o c i a l S t u d i e s , and A r t Education,

w i l l be promoted t o t h e next year o f s c h o o l i n g i f they g e t 50 %

i n a l l t h e s u b j e c t s . Students who f a i l t o get 50 % i n three

of these s u b j e c t s , w i l l take another exam a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f

the next year, t h a t i s i n September, This i s c a l l e d a Second

Session Examination, Those who fail i n four subjects will

repeat t h e same year of schooling again. The following

procedure i s always f o l l o w e d when teachers i n t e n d t o c a l c u l a t e

the passing mark:

40 % o f t h e t o t a l mark i s assigned t o t h e ongoing assessment

t h a t t h e teachers c a r r y throughout t h e school year, two months

Chapter One - 34 -
before t h e Mid-year exam, and two months after t h e Mid-Year

exam. ( The T o t a l Mark i s 40 ) . ( P a s s i n g Mark i s 20 ) .

1 s t Month + 2nd Month = T o t a l ^ 2 = Mean 10% i s taken.

M i d - Y e a r Exam 2 0 %

3 r d Month + 4 t h Month = T o t a l ^ 2 = Mean 10%

First S e s s i o n Exam 60%

10% + 2 0 % + 1 0 % + 6 0 % = 1 0 0 % [ 50% pass mark = 20 o u t o f 40 ]

The English Inspectorate i n the Ministry of

Education is responsible f o r constructing the promotion

examinations f o r some stages of learning, that i s t o say.

Primary, Preparatory, and S e c o n d a r y stages. This situation

means that there is a kind of centralization of test

construction in Final Promotion Examinations. This

centralization passes over teachers' p a r t i c i p a t i o n and this

Chapter One - 35 -
creates a d e t r i m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e on b o t h t e a c h i n g and t e s t i n g a t

the same time because no members o f t h e I n s p e c t o r a t e a r e

qualified i n testing and t h e y do n o t l i v e the real classroom

life as t e a c h e r s do. I f t h e I n s p e c t o r a t e j u s t i f i e s t h i s kind of

centralization of test construction,on the basis that teachers

l a c k t h e a d e q u a t e k n o w l e d g e on t e s t i n g , i n s p e c t o r s can s u g g e s t

in-service training courses f o r teachers to practise test

construction.

1.4,1 The T e s t i n g System Has t h e F o l l o w i n g Scheme:

1st test 2nd Mid-Year 3rd 4th Final

Nov. Dec. Jan. Mar. Apr. JUN.

T e s t s t h a t a r e c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e E n g l i s h I n s p e c t o r a t e :
1. Mid-Year e x a m i n a t i o n . (Sometimes).
2. F i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n , (Always)o
T e s t s t h a t a r e c o n s t r u c t e d by c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s :
1 . 1 s t month t e s t .
2. 2nd month t e s t .
3. 3 r d m o n t h t e s t .
4. 4 t h month t e s t .
Sometimes, t h e I n s p e c t o r a t e members a s k some t e a c h e r s t o
c o n s t r u c t M i d - Y e a r t e s t s and t h e n t h e i n s p e c t o r s choose some o f
these t e s t s .

Chapter One - 36 -
1.4.2 Examination Times:

Grade Written Oral

Primary 5 ~1 hours m groups

Primary 6 2 hours

Preparatory 1 2 hours

Preparatory 2 2 hours

Preparatory 3 2 hours

Secondary 1 2 hours

Secondary 2 ( Science ) 2 hours

Secondary 2 ( Arts ) 3% h o u r s

Secondary 3 ( Science ) 2% h o u r s

Secondary 3 ( Arts ) 3% h o u r s

Chapter One - 37 -
= A l l o t h e r 1 s t y e a r Secondary e x a m s - T e c h n i c a l , C o m m e r c i a l , and

R e l i g i o u s a r e as S e c o n d a r y 1 General.

= A l l other 2nd and 3rd year Secondary exams-Technical,

Commercial, and R e l i g i o u s a r e as f o l l o w s :

W r i t t e n exam : 3 h o u r s . [ O r a l i n g r o u p s ]

These t i m e s a r e t h e same f o r M i d - Y e a r , F i s t S e s s i o n , and Second

Session Examinations.

The ongoing everyday activities i n classrooms require

t e a c h e r s t o use t e c h n i q u e s t o assess the progress of students.

The most o f t e n used t e c h n i q u e i s t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a paper

and pencil test which presents selected tasks to students. I n

Qatari schools, students always trust the teacher who can

simplify the textbook and make i t look easier f o r them to

memorise I can g i v e an example h e r e t o e x p l a i n what I mean. I n

Preparatory Three, there i s a text about Qatar N a t i o n a l Museum

which deals with i t s history. Teachers of English who teach

this grade g i v e typical questions together with their answers

as a t e a c h i n g t e c h n i q u e ,

Q. What i s t h e p u r p o s e o f Q.N.M. ?

A. To show young p e o p l e how l i f e was l i k e n o t v e r y

l o n g ago.

Q. What c a n v i s i t o r s l e a r n a t t h e museum ?

Chapter One - 38 -
A. How c o f f e e was made, how tents were p u t up, and how

f a l c o n s were trained.

Questions s u c h as these t e s t i n f o r m a t i o n not language. As

a result of this situation, teachers are sometimes judged by

their students on the basis of making the textbook easy to

memorize by presenting a variety of ready-made q u e s t i o n s and

answers.'T hi's i s because s c h o o l e x a m i n a t i o n s always concentrate

on the q u a l i t y of i n f o r m a t i o n presented by the students. Tests

are misunderstood by b o t h t e a c h e r s and s t u d e n t s a l i k e . Teachers

still look at t e s t i n g as an unbearable r e s p o n s i b i l i t y which is

imposed on them by educational accountability. Testing the

target l a n g u a g e on t h i s basis k i l l s the c r e a t i v e ability of the

students and encourages the a b i l i t y of memorization which may

be u s e d as a way of learning b u t n o t as a method o f t e s t i n g . I n

this type of testing, i t is difficult to determine the

students* communicative ability.

Teachers i n the Q a t a M schools use d i f f e r e n t kinds of

test t o measure t h e i r s t u d e n t s a c h i e v e m e n t . The following notes

will e x p l a i n the s i t u a t i o n .

1-At the primary l e v e l , a l l the t e s t instructions are in

the n a t i v e language. The justification f o r that i s to ensure

that no pupil fails to answer a question because he cannot

understand the instructions, teachers always e x p l a i n the main

test f o r m a t . The type of questions that a r e used a t t h i s stage

Chapter One - 39 -
swing between the completion items and d e s c r i p t i o n of people.

Vocabulary tests are always used in isolation. Grammatical

items may sometimes be used t o ensure that the p u p i l s master

" V e r b t o be" f o r e x a m p l e . The use of illustrative pictures is

often part of any given test. These p i c t u r e s a r e intended to

t e s t "Numbers" o r p a r t s o f t h e body.

2- A t t h e p r e p a r a t o r y l e v e l , a l l t e s t i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e also

given in the native language of the pupils. The same

justification as a t the primary l e v e l can be a p p l i e d here. The

types of test are either o b j e c t i v e or s u b j e c t i v e . Some tests

may have b o t h o b j e c t i v e and s u b j e c t i v e items. Test instructions

usually begin with an imperative e.g. [ Write a

reply ] , [ Use these notes to write ] , [Answer

these questions ] , [Change these sentences as shown i n

brackets ] , etc.

3- A t the Secondary l e v e l , a l l t h e t e s t i n s t r u c t i o n s are i n

English. The English Inspectorate in the Ministry of

Education distributed a h a n d o u t as g u i d e l i n e s f o r teachers to

help them in their t a s k when t h e y want to construct classroom

t e s t s . The f o l l o w i n g notes were i n c l u d e d i n t h e h a n d o u t :

1- W r i t i n g From Notes:

This type o f q u e s t i o n appears i n s e v e r a l forms: "Use

these notes to w r i t e a report / reply / describe " etc.

Chapter One - 40 -
Pupils should first study the notes and see how they r e l a t e to

t h e s u b j e c t t o be w r i t t e n about.

2- D i r e c t Q u e s t i o n s :

"Read t h e following passage and answer t h e questions

b e l o w . " T h i s sounds s i m p l e , b u t few s t u d e n t s know how to tackle

s u c h a q u e s t i o n i n t h e most e f f i c i e n t manner.

3- Transcoding:

This t y p e o f q u e s t i o n depends on the p u p i l ' s a b i l i t y

to read charts, diagrams, maps, etc. and transfer the

i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o sentences or v i c e versa.

4- D i r e c t and Reported speech:

Two types of a c t i v i t y are p o s s i b l e here:

a) a scene i s d e s c r i b e d and t h e p u p i l has to w r i t e a dialogue

o f what m i g h t h a v e been s a i d .

b) a f t e r r e a d i n g a d i a l o g u e p u p i l s h a v e t o r e p o r t what were

s a i d e.g. " When I i n t e r v i e w e d t h e p r i s o n e r he told me

that "

Chapter One - 41 -
5- C l o z e T e s t :

T h i s t e s t i s used i n v a r i o u s f o r m s :

a) Filling i n t h e b l a n k s w i t h a word a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e

context.

b) C h o o s i n g t h e w o r d o r p h r a s e w h i c h means t h e same as t h e

underlined word.

c) Putting a verb i n t o i t s correct form.

6- Matching sentences:

Pupils a r e asked t o read sentences and match them with

pictures o r two g r o u p s A and B and t h e s t u d e n t s a r e asked t o

match t h e sentences t h a t go t o g e t h e r , most o f t h e s e s e n t e n c e s

are taken d i r e c t l y from textbooks.

7- T r a n s l a t i o n : ( Secondary two and t h r e e A r t s only)

A short passage o f 6-10 l i n e s t o be t r a n s l a t e d from

English into Arabic.

8- T o p i c s e n t e n c e s : ( S e c o n d a r y Stage o n l y )

Pupils a r e asked to identify and copy the topic

s e n t e n c e o f a s h o r t p a r a g r a p h . They must be a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h

Chapter One - 42 -
the sentence which s t a t e s t h e main purpose o f t h e speaker.

As f o roral testing i n the Qatari school, i ti s s t i l l

carried out traditionally. What I mean here i s that testing

students' ability t o use t h e t a r g e t language i s not practiced

as i t should be. A t a l l t h e three l e v e l s ( Primary, Preparatory

and S e c o n d a r y ) t e a c h e r s u s u a l l y a s k t h e same s e t o f q u e s t i o n s .

Some o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s may i n c l u d e :

-What i s y o u r name?

-How many b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s have y o u g o t ?

-Where do y o u l i v e ?

-How d i d y o u come t o s c h o o l ?

- T e l l something about your country?

-What i s t h e man d o i n g i n this picture?

These questions and o t h e r s are often asked on an oral

test. Some teachers g e t bored when they hear t h e word oral.

They f o r g e t the fact that oral testing i s one o p p o r t u n i t y f o r

students t o apply what they have learned by e x p r e s s i n g their

ideas and p o i n t s o f view with previous preparation in the

foreign language. This activity presents a difficult problem

for t h e t e a c h e r when i t comes t o e v a l u a t i n g s t u d e n t p e r f o r m a n c e

in such a complex c o m b i n a t i o n of skills. An o r a l p r e s e n t a t i o n

entails not only grammar and pronunciation but also the

student's communicative ability and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f his

Chapter One - 43 -
ideas. When we come to the rating scale in the present

situation, teachers do i t itintuitively. Most s t u d e n t s pass t h e

oral test, not because most students are well qualified in

E n g l i s h , b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e absence o f criteria.

In a word, testing in Qatar is in need of urgent

modification. I t is s t i l l c a r r i e d out t r a d i t i o n a l l y because i t

devotes no attention to such matters as reliability and

validity.

1.5. Problems of Testing:

Constant a t t e m p t s Wk^t been made by inspectors and

teachers to improve school examinations, but within the

confines of the traditional pattern. A technical unit or

section of educational evaluation is not yet established in

Qatar. We hope that the day will soon come when such a unit

will be established. In 1990, the M i n i s t r y of Education has

appointed Mr. Roger Nunn, native speaker, as a testing

co-ordinator f o r only one y e a r . Mr. RogerAhas been t r a n s f e r r e d

to the English Language Teaching Unit (ELTU) at Qatar

University t o teach English^ but the evaluation section is

still a dream. T h e r e a r e many problems t h a t undermine testing

i n Q a t a r , among them a r e the f o l l o w i n g :

Chapter One - 44 -
1, Old T e c h n i q u e s of Testing:

Although Qatar has adopted contemporary materials,

testing procedures are still traditional. Tests have

to test what is taught, but teachers teach

communicatively and test t h e i r students t r a d i t i o n a l l y ,

2, L a c k o f minimum k n o w l e d g e on t e s t i n g and i t s role i n

t e a c h i n g . Teachers test t h e i r students j u s t t o promote

them to a higher stage of learning. They often use

personally invented techniques that are repeatedly

applied in the classroom. The success of up-to-date

English language teaching approaches requires the

k n o w l e d g e o f s p e c i a l i z e d e x p e r t i s e t o t r a i n and p r o v i d e

teachers with suitable and recent procedures of

testing.

3, P r e s e n t t e c h n i q u e s do n o t make a r e a s o n a b l e b a l a n c e to

emphasise the four skills. Although the communicative

approach concentrates on the four skills while

teaching, testing pays special attention to writing

( t i c k i n g o f f o r c i r c l i n g t h e c o r r e c t answer, f i l l i n g in

blanks, answering questions). The current testing

procedures do not treat oral or listening skills in

the real meaning of testing, and fail to focus on

reading skills. Testing what has been taught is a

failure.

Chapter One - 45 -
4. The t e s t i n g m e t h o d o l o g y i s a t odds w i t h classroom

teaching procedures. There i s no r e l a t i o n s h i p between

t e s t i n g and t e a c h i n g . T e s t i n g s h o u l d be l o o k e d a t as an

indicator of the students* achievement in the

classroom.

5. I g n o r a n c e of the teachers' role i n the present

process makes them negative in improving their

k n o w l e d g e on t e s t i n g . To g e t t h e b e s t r e s u l t s , teachers

should be familiarized with various techniques of

testing through in-service training for both newly

appointed teachers, who lack the appropriate

methodology of testing, and e x p e r i e n c e d teachers who

a r e a l s o i n need o f s u c h t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s to learn how

to t e s t communicatively.

6. L i t t l e attention has been p a i d t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f

testing i n improving teaching.

7. No f i r m i n d i c a t i o n i s g i v e n t o t h e importance of

reliability and v a l i d i t y o f t h e t e s t s b e i n g used i n t h e

classroom.

Testing E n g l i s h as a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e i n Q a t a r p l a y s an

important role only i n deciding the students' future position,

tests are not analysed to point o u t s t r e n g t h s and weaknesses,

so testing c a n be l o o k e d a t as an o b j e c t i v e i n itself more

t h a n a means o f i m p r o v i n g teaching. Once the results of the

examinations appear, the role of testing i s finished. I n the

Chapter One - 46 -
present situation, t h e r e i s no e v a l u a t i o n o f t e s t s c o r e s that

should be done by the classroom teacher i n order t o diagnose

certain weaknesses and s t r e n g t h s o f t h e s t u d e n t s ' achievement.

If some of these tests are analysed by the Inspectorate,

teachers are n o t informed o f the r e s u l t s of this analysis.

The t e a c h e r s ' r o l e c a n n o t be e a s i l y i g n o r e d s i n c e they a r e

the only people who live moment-by-moment with classroom

activities. They know where exactly their students a r e . This

enables them to diagnose their students' weaknesses. The

Inspectorate's justification f o r the c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of testing

is that teachers lack the necessary knowledge of test

c o n s t r u c t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a l t h o u g h none o f them i s w e l l

qualified i n the testing domain either. I t i s however true

that teachers lack the necessary knowledge about test

construction, b u t we should not leave this ignorance, t o

continue. T e a c h e r s s h o u l d know how t o d e s c r i b e t h e i r s t u d e n t s '

a c h i e v e m e n t , how t o choose test items and how t o assign test

scores.

In order t o describe in a little detail the lack of

k n o w l e d g e among t e a c h e r s , I s h a l l g i v e a b r i e f a c c o u n t o f some

classroom tests. They are teacher-made tests, although the

Inspectorate sets sample tests that could be followed by

classroom teachers when they want, either to train their

p u p i l s on s u c h i t e m s , o r t o i m i t a t e these tests:

1-A s h o r t passage w h i c h i s u s u a l l y f o l l o w e d by f o u r o r

Chapter One - 47 -
f i v e comprehension q u e s t i o n s , ( i t i s sometimes taken

from the textbook).

2- One e s s a y q u e s t i o n . " W r i t e a l e t t e r t o y o u r p e n - f r i e n d ,

tell something about your c o u n t r y " , or "Describe this

animal"

3- A c l o z e p a s s a g e o f a b o u t 4-6 r a n d o m l y s e l e c t e d g a p s .

If we consider these three e x a m p l e s , we w i l l find that

two o f them p l a c e g r e a t emphasis on r e a d i n g and l e s s on w r i t i n g

and they place the testee i n a position t o recognize rather

than to create responses. As a c o n s e q u e n c e , examinations in

Qatar are s t i l l t r a d i t i o n a l l y constructed i n such a way that

teachers with three or four years o f experience can easily

predict most test items t o be i n c l u d e d i n any t e s t . Items a r e

j u s t stereotypes repeated now and t h e n .

What i s happening i n Qatar now i s that because teachers

test their students just t o pass them t o a higher stage of

learning and n o t h i n g else, test i t e m c o n s t r u c t i o n i s always a

fast procedure. When a t e a c h e r w a n t s t o c o n s t r u c t any t e s t , he

does n o t spend the necessary time on t e s t item c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

and classroom teachers do not care about the necessary

qualities of a good test because they do n o t know how to

estimate either validity or reliability. Both are effective

procedures t o o b t a i n e f f e c t i v e t e s t i n g and s h o u l d be understood

by any one w o r k i n g on t e s t i n g . Validity, content validity in

particular, i s very necessary t o be understood by classroom

Chapter One - 48 -
teachers t o make sure that they really test what they have

t a u g h t t o t h e i r s t u d e n t s and n o t h i n g e l s e .

Since the communicative approach i s used i n teaching i n

the Qatari schools, tests s h o u l d be c o n s t r u c t e d communicatively

to suit the activities the approach is trying to provide.

Communicative t e s t i n g as seen by c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s i s no more

than a test which pays no attention to the accuracy of the

s t u d e n t s ' r e s p o n s e s w h i l e s c o r i n g t h e t e s t . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s

belief, they begin t o a c c e p t any r e s p o n s e even i f t h e r e s p o n s e

is i n c o r r e c t l y w r i t t e n . Teachers justify t h i s on t h e b a s i s that

the communicative approach does not pay attention to the

language structure but i t stresses the idea of communication

and l a n g u a g e function.

Another factor in the situation is that teachers have

always been asked by the Inspectorate to train their

s t u d e n t s on c e r t a i n k i n d s o f q u e s t i o n s s u c h as t h e following:

(Prep. Three L e v e l ) .

Do as shown i n b r a c k e t s and r e w r i t e the sentences again,

1 - A man ( D r i v e ) h i s c a r now. [ C o r r e c t the v e r b ]

2- a . s . a . p . [Write in full]

3- Why do a l o t o f f i s h d i e i n r i v e r s ? [Answer ]

Chapter One - 49 -
4- A woman who keeps m e d i c i n e a t home. [Give warning]

5- Man i s d e s t r o y i n g h i s e n v i r o n m e n t , [ G i v e two e x a m p l e s ]

When t h e s t u d e n t s a r e asked t o answer such questions i n

the mid-term exam, t h e y a l l begin t o ask teachers of English

about how t o answer this particular question (Do as shown i n

brackets). I think t h e s t u d e n t s c a n n o t answer t h e q u e s t i o n f o r

two r e a s o n s . The f i r s t i s that they cannot understand what i s

meant by t h e words i n brackets, and t h e second one i s that

their teachers do n o t t r a i n them i n how t o answer t h i s k i n d o f

question. They have n o t been introduced t o such questions

before.

1.6 The Need and O r i g i ^ n o f t h e Study:

As a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d above, I felt

that there i s a l a c k o f k n o w l e d g e on t e s t i n g and i t s r o l e i n

education among classroom teachers. As a result of this

feeling, I decided t o concentrate on testing t o i m p r o v e ray

views on t h e t a r g e t domain on t h e one hand, and t h o s e o f my

colleagues on t h e o t h e r . I felt t h e need f o r t h i s s t u d y during

my fifteen years of teaching English in Preparatory and

Secondary schools i n Syria and Q a t a r . I f teachers a r e asked

about t h e k i n d o f t e s t t h e y use when t h e y t e s t t h e i r students,

they cannot classify the tests they often use as a c h i e v e m e n t .

Chapter One - 50 -
o r d i a g n o s t i c as c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d o r n o r m - r e f e r e n c e d tests.

The p r e s e n t s y s t e m o f t e s t i n g needs q u i c k m o d i f i c a t i o n t o

cope w i t h t h e new techniques of teaching, the s h i f t from t h e

Structural t o t h e Communicative approach i n t e a c h i n g EFL. To

achieve the best results, teachers should acquaint themselves

with the most up-to-date testing procedures. Teachers of

English i n Qatar a r e i n need o f adequate knowledge about the

following topics:

1. Test function.

When we t e s t o u r s t u d e n t s i n t h e Q a t a r i s c h o o l s , we do

n o t know e x a c t l y why we t e s t . Do we t e s t t o p r o m o t e o u r

students t o a higher stage of learning o r t o measure

w h a t t h e s t u d e n t s have a c h i e v e d ? I t s h o u l d be p o i n t e d

out here that testing has t o measure positive and

negative achievement. I t seems t o me t h a t we t e s t just

for promotion as f a r as the Qatari schools are

concerned,

2. T e s t format.

The school test should be a reflection o f what t h e

s t u d e n t s have s t u d i e d d u r i n g a l i m i t e d p e r i o d o f t i m e .

Chapter One - 51 -
3. T e s t effect.

Tests i n general have a d v a n t a g e s and disadvantages on

the t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g process. For example, when the

students are tested o r a l l y , the classroom teacher will

concentrate on preparing the students for the oral

performance.

4. T e a c h e r ' s role.

Teachers should be given further c o n s i d e r a t i o n . This

means, t e a c h e r s s h o u l d be g i v e n more f r e e d o m t o prepare

their t e s t s because they l i v e the classroom life in i t s

real meaning. Those who direct the teaching-learning

process, are not able to diagnose the students'

problems either i n teaching or in testing. Hence, the

need f o r t h i s s t u d y i s o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e to classroom

teachers t o improve t h e i r a b i l i t y to test correctly and

efficiently.

Chapter One - 52 -
C h a p t e r Two:

OVERVIEW OF HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE TESTING:

Topical Outline

2.1 Introduction

2.2 O v e r v i e w o f h i s t o r y and d e v e l o p m e n t o f l a n g u a g e

testing.

2.2.1 The e a r l y i n t u i t i v e stage ( b e f o r e 1850)

2.2.2 The p r e - S c i e n t i f i c S t a g e . (1850-1950/60)

2.2.3 From 1900 t o 1 9 1 5 .

2.2.4 f r o m 1915 t o 1 9 3 0 .

2.2.5 From 1930 t o 1 9 4 5 .

2.2.6 From 1945 t o 1 9 6 0 .

2.2.7 Modern testing

2.2.8 T e s t i n g i n t h e 1980s

2.3.1 The h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t e s t i n g i n Q a t a r

C h a p t e r Two - 53 -
Chapter Two

2.1 Introduction:

I n c h a p t e r One I p r o v i d e d a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e main i s s u e s

and problems o f t e s t i n g i n Qatar. I n t h i s chapter, I shall

deal with the stages o f development i n language testing in

o r d e r t o l o c a t e t h e Q a t a r i s i t u a t i o n and b e g i n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

stage we have reached i n Qatar. After a review o f t h e main

periods in the history of testing, I shall deal, i n more

detailed perspective with the current state of testing, that i s

to say, the progress t h a t has been made i n t e s t i n g f r o m 1980 t o

1988.

2.2 O v e r v i e w o f H i s t o r y and Development o f Language T e s t i n g :

There i s a problem one f a c e s when trying t o overview the

the literature about early stages of testing English as a

foreign language. This problem is mostly related t o the

difficulty of investigating d i f f e r e n t views o f d i f f e r e n t people

and making them come n e a r one a n o t h e r to establish a kind of

a u t h e n t i c and harmonious d i v i s i o n .

The former history o f language testing can be divided

into two major periods of development according to Madden

( 1 9 8 3 ) . The e a r l y intuitive stage, and t h e s c i e n t i f i c stage.

Chapter Two - 54 -
T e s t i n g d u r i n g t h e l a s t c e n t u r y and t h e e a r l y decades
of this one was b a s i c a l l y i n t u i t i v e . . . A f t e r the
i n t u i t i v e stage, t e s t i n g entered a s c i e n t i f i c stage.
(PA. 5 - 6 ) .

2.2.1 The E a r l y I n t u i t i v e S t a g e ( b e f o r e 1850)

In this stage t e s t i n g depended on t h e p e r s o n a l j u d g m e n t o f

t h e e x a m i n e r and a l l e x a m i n a t i o n s were p e r f o r m e d orally. Since

testing was o r a l and i t d i d n o t depend on w e l l d e f i n e d types,

the scores were variable. Thorndike and Hagen (1969) explain

w h a t was h a p p e n i n g i n t h i s stage:

B e f o r e 1 8 5 0 , t e s t i n g had r e l i e d v e r y l a r g e l y upon
o r a l e x a m i n a t i o n . The t e a c h e r o r v i s i t i n g examiner
a s k e d a q u e s t i o n . The d e s i g n a t e d p u p i l u n d e r t o o k t o
answer i t . The q u e s t i o n e r a r r i v e d a t an i m m e d i a t e
s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e answer. The method was
burdensome and i n e f f i c i e n t s i n c e o n l y one p u p i l c o u l d
be t e s t e d a t a t i m e and s i n c e d i f f e r e n t p u p i l s were
a s k e d d i f f e r e n t q u e s t i o n s , t h e answers t o w h i c h were
e v a l u a t e d s u b j e c t i v e l y by t h e e x a m i n e r ( P , 2 ) .

It i s clear from the previous quotation that testing was

basically dependent on the t e s t e r s ' personal judgment simply

because t e s t e r s were u n t r a i n e d . As a r e s u l t , b o t h t e a c h e r s and

testers tried their best to invent ways of teaching and

t e s t i n g , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e i n v e n t e d ways c o n c e n t r a t e d on

language structure instead of language use. Madsen (1983)

s t r e s s e s t h e p o i n t when he says:

C h a p t e r Two - 55 -
F a c t s a b o u t E n g l i s h o f t e n w e i g h e d as h e a v i l y as s k i l l
i n u s i n g the language. As a r e s u l t , s t u d e n t s had t o
l a b e l p a r t s o f a s e n t e n c e and memorize l i s t s o f
l a n g u a g e p a t t e r n ( l am, we a r e , you a r e , she i s , he
i s , e t c . (P. 6)

The early intuitive stage lasted for a long time during

which there was a reliance on t h e knowledge o f grammar t a u g h t

in a traditional method. This stage of oral testing was

criticized because more time was needed to test a group of

pupils, and s t u d e n t s were asked different q u e s t i o n s . The aim

of testing had n o t been a c h i e v e d and no c o m p a r a b i l i t y was then

possible among p u p i l s . The t e s t e e s were n o t o f f e r e d t h e same

opportunity either i n the task or i n t h e mode o f evaluation.

The next stage of development began to overcome these

d i s a d v a n t a g e s by t u r n i n g t o w r i t t e n tests.

Another d i v i s i o n o f t h e t a r g e t domain was also classified

by S p o l s k y . Madsen ( 1 9 8 3 ) q u o t e s S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 8 ) who says:

I n 1978, S p o l s k y i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e m a j o r h i s t o r i c a l
t r e n d s i n l a n g u a g e t e s t i n g , w h i c h he r e f e r r e d t o as
"pre-scientific", "psychometric-structuralist" and
" i n t e g r a t i v e - s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c " (P.432)

2.2.2 The P r e - S c i e n t i f i c Stage. (1850-1950/60)

In this period, oral tests were replaced by written

examinations as a basis of promotion or even admission to

colleges. The technique which was used most widely in this

C h a p t e r Two - 56 -
period was t h e essay. T h o r n d i k e and Hagen ( 1 9 6 9 ) e x p l a i n the

justifications for this change from oral to written

examinations:

The w r i t t e n e x a m i n a t i o n s had a d v a n t a g e s o v e r t h e o r a l
e x a m i n a t i o n s o f ( 1 ) p r e s e n t i n g t h e same t a s k t o each
examiner o f t h e group, ( 2 ) l e t t i n g each p u p i l work
f o r t h e f u l l e x a m i n a t i o n p e r i o d . (P. 2)

During t h i s stage of t e s t i n g , l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n was p a i d t o

reliability and v a l i d i t y . Testing was c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e f o r m

of translation and reading approaches, and exercises on

selected grammar p o i n t s d e a l i n g w i t h g e n e r a l r u l e s o f language.

In t h e second h a l f o f t h e p r e - s c i e n t i f i c s t a g e , subjective

written t e s t s began t o be r e p l a c e d by o b j e c t i v e tests because

the latter could be scored consistently even by untrained

people. Specialists started to evaluate tests statistically,

looking a t the effectiveness o f each item. This l e d t o a new

consideration of r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f t e s t s .

It was believed that the second period, the

" Psychometric-structuralist " was d e v e l o p e d by Lado. To a c t

with confidence, i t i s relevant t o quote Madsen (1983) who

says:

The " P s y c h o m e t r i c - s t r u c t u r a l i s t ", may be c o n s i d e r e d


to have evolved i n very large part from t h e
theoretical work and related empirical studies
c a r r i e d o u t by Lado. ( P . 4 3 1 )

C h a p t e r Two - 57 -
This trend in testing suggests that when trying to test

students' ability i n the target language, students should be

exposed to a variety of problems during the test. These

language problems should be limited to the same points of

difficulty. That i s t o say, a l l t h e p r e s e n t e d q u e s t i o n s should

be dealt with at the same level of difficulty. The

Psychometric-structuralist can be looked at as an advanced

level of testing because i t pays special attention to the

students' ability to solve problems that are related to the

target language. I f they are able to deal effectively with

t h e s e p r o b l e m s , t h e y can be c o n s i d e r e d as m a s t e r s o f t h e target

l a n g u a g e . Madsen ( 1 9 8 3 ) q u o t e s ^ l 9 5 7 ) t o e x p l a i n what i s meant

by l a n g u a g e p r o b l e m s and t h e i r l e v e l o f difficulty.

S i n c e some , a s p e c t s o f t h e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e , a r e easy

to master they are already from previous language

training i n mastering the native l a n g u a g e , we will

generally eliminate these from t h e c o r p u s . We will

attempt to test the learning p r o b l e m s , on t h e g r o u n d

t h a t knowing t h e problems i s knowing t h e language. We

say s p e c i f i c a l l y t h a t testing the problems i s t e s t i n g

the language. (P.432)

In this period a new t y p e o f t e s t i n g had emerged and was

completely dependent on linguistic theories. That i s , the

C h a p t e r Two - 58 -
discrete-point approach i n teaching and t e s t i n g w h i c h assumes

that t h e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e c a n be b r o k e n into s e p a r a t e elements

and skills and c a n a l s o be t a u g h t and t e s t e d on t h i s b a s i s t o

diagnose the learners' ability t o use the target language.

Oiler ( 1 9 7 9 ) sums up t h e aims o f t h i s approach:

These t h r e e g o a l s , that i s , diagnosing learner


strengths and weaknesses, prescribing curriculum
aimed a t p a r t i c u l a r s k i l l s , and d e v e l o p i n g specific
teaching strategies to help learners overcome
p a r t i c u l a r w e a k n e s s e s , a r e among t h e l a u d a b l e aims o f
d i s c r e t e p o i n t t e s t i n g . ( P . 211)

But this way o f t e s t i n g was criticized on the basis that we

harm t h e l a n g u a g e s t r e a m when we i s o l a t e i t i n t o p i e c e s and p u t

it together again. Oiler explains the problem of this

ineffective separation.

Discrete point analysis necessarily breaks the


e l e m e n t s o f l a n g u a g e a p a r t and t r i e s t o t e a c h ( o r
t e s t ) them s e p a r a t e l y w i t h l i t t l e o r no a t t e n t i o n t o
t h e way t h o s e e l e m e n t s i n t e r a c t i n a l a r g e r c o n t e x t
o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . What makes i t i n e f f e c t i v e as a
basis f o r teaching or testing languages i s t h a t
c r u c i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f l a n g u a g e s a r e l o s t when i t s
elements a r e s e p a r a t e d . ( P . 212)

The third period in Madsen's division is the

" i n t e g r a t i v e - s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c " w h i c h assumes t h a t the learners'

ability c a n be tested on a w i d e r basis than discrete point

approach does. This period showed a clear rejection of the

C h a p t e r Two - 59 -
discrete-point approach on t h e b a s i s that t h e use o f l a n g u a g e

for real-life communication involved a creative a c t i n which

the whole o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e e v e n t was c o n s i d e r a b l y greater

than t h e sum of i t s linguistic elements. As a r e s u l t , the

adequacy or effectiveness o f t h e communication could n o t be

adequately assessed through individual evaluation of i t s

component p a r t s .

The historical development of twentieth century testing

i n d i c a t e s new i n t e n t i o n s t o t e s t s t u d e n t s o b j e c t i v e l y . So ways

were needed to provide objective information to get a sound

judgement of students' progress and of a school program's

effectiveness as w e l l . The first 60 y e a r s of the twentieth

century are divided by T h o r n d i k e and Hagen (1976) i n t o four

equal parts:

2.2.3 From 1900 t o 1915.

This was a period of exploration and i n i t i a l development

of methods. I t saw the emergence of the first Binet

intelligence scales. Standardized achievement tests in

different subjects began to appear. The appearance of

achievement t e s t s l e d t o a s y s t e m a t i c way o f t e s t i n g .

Since new ways of doing things are usually contrived

because of a pressing need, a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t i n g came i n t o b e i n g

as a need f o r knowing s t u d e n t s ' a c h i e v e m e n t i n a p a r t i c u l a r and

C h a p t e r Two - 60 -
practical school situation. During this period, standardized

tests came into existence as a direct result of the early

efforts of those who were looking for a uniform method o f

measuring children's abilities; intelligence testing also

contributed to this period when B i n e t gained wide recognition

o f h i s w o r k as a p s y c h o l o g i s t . Tuckman ( 1 9 7 5 ) s a y s :

By 1904 A l f r e d B i n e t had e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f as
F r a n c e ' s p r e m i e r p s y c h o l o g i s t and e x p e r t i n human
individual differences with h i s studies of the
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n " b r i g h t " and " d u l l " children.
(P. 15)

2.2.4 From 1915 t o 1930.

This period can perhaps be c a l l e d t h e "boom" period i n

which the result of achievement testing received much

attention, but less a t t e n t i o n was g i v e n t o t h e developments i n

writing test items, although test items are the basic building

blocks of t e s t s . P i o n e e r s i n t e s t i n g had shown t h e i r i d e a s t o

their enthusiastic followers, tests were multiplied.

Standardized tests were d e v e l o p e d f o r a l l s c h o o l s k i l l s and f o r

the c o n t e n t areas o f school programs.

Test results were unquestioned. Thorndike and Hagen (1969)

explains t h i s trend i n testing:

t e s t r e s u l t s were o f t e n a c c e p t e d u n h e s i t a t i n g l y and
u n c r i t i c a l l y and s e r v e d as t h e b a s i s f o r a v a r i e t y o f

C h a p t e r Two - 61 -
frequently unjustified judgments and actions with
respect t o i n d i v i d u a l s . (P. 6)

2.2.5 From 1930 t o 1945.

Thorndike and Hagen g i v e a s h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p e r i o d

when t h e y s a y :

From 1930 t o 1945 may be c o n s i d e r e d a period of


c r i t i c a l a p p r a i s a l ... I t was a p e r i o d i n w h i c h t h e
c e n t r e o f a t t e n t i o n s h i f t e d from measuring a l i m i t e d
range o f academic s k i l l s t o e v a l u a t i n g achievement o f
the whole range o f e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s (P. 6)

2.2.6 From 1945. t o 1960

During the present century, many testing techniques have

been d e v e l o p e d and c h a r a c t e r i z e d by many e d u c a t i o n a l changes.

T h e r e was an u r g e n t need f o r new t e c h n i q u e s i n testing t o go

hand i n hand w i t h new methods i n t e a c h i n g on t h e one hand and

to help classroom teachers t o understand t h e new terminology

used i n r e p o r t s o f o n g o i n g t e s t i n g o f s t u d e n t s ' a c h i e v e m e n t on

the o t h e r hand. V a l e t t e (1977) says:

It i s clear that t h e s e new methods o f teaching


r e q u i r e new methods o f e v a l u a t i o n . ( P . 7 )

Thorndike and Hagen (1969) describe this period as a good

opportunity f o r standardized testing:

C h a p t e r Two - 62 -
The mid-twentieth century i s a period i n which
standardized testing i s a w i d e l y e x p e r i e n c e d and
w i d e l y a c c e p t e d phenomenon. ( P . 7 )

2.2.7 MODERN TESTING

The late 1960s and 1970s were clearly a period where

assessment o f s t u d e n t s became s y s t e m a t i c . Many new books were

written about testing and assessment. Doyle (1984) mentions a

long l i s t o f w r i t e r s , among them a r e t h e following:

B o t t o m ( 1 9 7 3 ) , M i l l e r (1972 - 1 9 7 4 ) , Page ( 1 9 7 4 ) ,
D o y l e ( 1 9 7 5 ) and more r e c e n t l y , Grasha ( 1 9 7 7 ) , C e n t r a
( 1 9 7 9 ) and M i l l a n ( 1 9 8 1 ) ... A l l t h e s e books i n d i c a t e
the e v o l u t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l e v a l u a t i o n . (P. 5)

But these tests failed to measure outcomes of high

school programs. Then there was a marked shift from the

linguistic t o t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e d i m e n s i o n . The emphasis was no

longer on the perfect linguistic accuracy of the learner's

responses, but on the ability to function effectively when

using the language i n real situations. At t h i s s t a g e , t h e most

important change was t h e emphasis on the learner's knowledge

and use o f t h e t a r g e t language, c o m m u n i c a t i v e t e s t i n g began t o

take i t s form as an adequate alternative to tests that

c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e l e a r n e r ' s a b i l i t y t o use t h e

C h a p t e r Two - 63 -
l a n g u a g e he l e a r n s .

In this period, t h a t i s i n t h e 1970s, little knowledge

was a v a i l a b l e a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e communicative p r o f i c i e n c y

of t h e l e a r n e r . I n an a r t i c l e i n 1979 Morrow began by q u o t i n g

Wilkins (1976) t o express the d i f f i c u l t y i n dealing with

communicative language t e s t i n g :

W i l k i n s (1976) concludes w i t h the observation that,


"we do n o t know how t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e
p r o f i c i e n c y o f t h e l e a r n e r " . (P. 9)

I n summary, we c a n say t h a t language testing has been

developed enormously i n recent y e a r s and has a l s o a b s o r b e d many

influences. We no longer believe in the most common

characteristic o f t e s t i n g i n t h e p a s t namely t h a t t e s t i n g has

nothing t o do w i t h the teaching-learning process. We a l s o no

longer believe that there i s a s i n g l e k i n d o f language t e s t i n g ,

since different kinds of tests are needed f o r different

s i t u a t i o n s . The i m p o r t a n c e o f e d u c a t i o n has g a i n e d w i d e r p u b l i c

appreciation. Teachers, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t h e g e n e r a l public

need accurate information about educational progress t o reach

decisions about f u r t h e r development. This will be t h e main

topic of the following section.

C h a p t e r Two - 64 -
2.2.8 TESTING i n t h e 1980s:

This section w i l l be devoted t o the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

testing i n t h e 1980s. T h i s review of the current state of

testing will be an attempt to outline the progress that has

been made i n t e s t i n g f r o m 1980 t o 1988. Such a r e v i e w w i l l be

useful f o r establishing t h e base l i n e o f o u r own approach. I t

will a l s o throw l i g h t on current procedures.

In recent years, testing and assessment scholars have

l e a r n e d a g r e a t amount a b o u t t e s t i n g . T e s t i n g has become much

more complex than a simple technical issue and they have

invented many new approaches to testing to suit the c u r r e n t

approaches of teaching, as a result of this, interest in

t e s t i n g has g r o w n .

The p u r p o s e o f a s s e s s m e n t now goes beyond t h e a n a l y s i s and

evaluation o f a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e o r p r o g r a m . I t s scope has been

expanded t o i n c l u d e how t o make t h e b e s t use o f t h e s e tests to

employ t h e r e s u l t s i n i m p r o v i n g t h e t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s .

It is difficult f o r any researcher to trace a l l the

recent changes and developments that have taken place in

testing. Many changes and new d e v e l o p m e n t s seem t o be merely

fashion, that i s , they quickly rise and more quickly fall.

Other changes and developments have become well known and

accepted as a f o u n d a t i o n f o r many o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t s .

The c u r r e n t s t a t e o f t e s t i n g presents g r e a t e r emphasis on

C h a p t e r Two - 65 -
t h e use o f t e s t s t o i m p r o v e l e a r n i n g and i n s t r u c t i o n . T e s t s a r e

no l o n g e r d e p e n d e n t s o l e l y on p a p e r and p e n c i l , s i n c e t h e r e a r e

a number of important changes that require t h e use of new

procedures. To improve the present state of education is a

challenge. I t needs to resist powerful traditions and

influences. Many o f t h e a s p e c t s o f achievement that teachers

wish t o assess i n the present time c a n n o t be a s s e s s e d by t h e

traditional techniques, so the need f o r alternatives is

e v i d e n t . Now, t e s t i n g techniques go hand i n hand w i t h teaching

procedure.

2.2.8.1 The f i r s t characteristic of current testing

represents an increased use of criterion-referenced testing

w h i c h has t h e a b i l i t y to tell us a b o u t a student's s i t u a t i o n .

Brown ( 1 9 8 1 ) s a y s :

Criterion-referenced a s s e s s m e n t compares t h e p u p i l ' s


a t t a i n m e n t w i t h a c r i t e r i o n . I t i d e n t i f i e s what a
p u p i l knows o r has a t t a i n e d . ( P . 2 )

Criterion-referenced testing tells us a b o u t t h e knowledge o f

the subject or performance of s k i l l s that i s o f concern. The

concerns that have l e d t o the establishment of the increased

use of criterion-referenced testing include t h e need t o know

what students know o r c a n do when u s i n g t h e t a r g e t language.

C h a p t e r Two - 66 -
2.2.8.2 The second characteristic i s graded tests that

have frequently arisen because of dissatisfaction with

traditional methods of both teaching and testing. Murphy and

Torrance (1988) quote Pennycuick ( 1 9 8 6 ) who explains what i s

meant by g r a d e d test.

I n a g r a d e d t e s t scheme, t h e r e i s a sequence o f t e s t s
at progressive levels of d i f f i c u l t y , complexity,
s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and or syllabus c o n t e n t , which are
d e s i g n e d t o be t a k e n by s t u d e n t s o n l y when t h e y have
a h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u c c e s s . Each t e s t i s c l o s e l y
l i n k e d t o t h e c u r r i c u l u m f o r t h e r e l e v a n t l e v e l by
means o f c l e a r s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e knowledge and
p r o c e s s e s t o be a s s e s s e d and o f t h e s t a n d a r d s t o be
a t t a i n e d , (P. 68)

Murphy and T o r r a n c e a l s o c o n s i d e r t h e s e t e s t s as a new a r e a t o


be d i s c o v e r e d . They s a y :

The g r a d e d t e s t movement i s s t i l l i n i t s i n f a n c y , t h e r e i s
s t i l l a g r e a t d e a l t o be l e a r n t . ( P . 2)

The most i n t e r e s t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s and a l s o a c t u a l p r o g r e s s

in graded testing have been teacher-led. In Britain, the

clearest example o f t h i s i s t h e Graded O b j e c t i v e s Movement i n

F o r e i g n Language T e a c h i n g . Skehan (1988) g i v e s j u s t i f i c a t i o n s

for this movement:

D i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l e x a m i n a t i o n s , and a l s o
more concerned with communicatively oriented
teaching, graded objectives schemes have been

C h a p t e r Two - 67 -
developed i n many parts of the country (Britain).
(P. 2 2 0 ) .

Graded tests a r e seen as h i g h - q u a l i t y teacher-made tests

for i n t e r n a l assessment of s t u d e n t s and as an a l t e r n a t i v e to

external e x a m i n a t i o n s . Those who praise graded tests are f a r

more concerned with the effects of these tests on classroom

practice than they are with technical aspects of the tests.

Murphy and Torrance evaluate the state of the graded tests

saying:

A p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e which remains unsolved i s whether


schemes a r e b e s t d e s i g n e d f o r a w i d e o r r e s t r i c t e d a b i l i t y
r a n g e . The l o n g - t e r m m o t i v a t i o n a l e f f e c t s o f g r a d e d t e s t s
a r e n o t c l e a r , and t h e r e a r e t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s ( e . g . i n
t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f p u p i l a c h i e v e m e n t ) w h i c h may c o n t i n u e
to be t r o u b l e s o m e . However, g r a d e d tests represent a
s i g n i f i c a n t component o f t h e r e c e n t s u r g e o f assessment
i n i t i a t i v e s , and d e s e r v e f u r t h e r e v a l u a t i o n . ( P . 84)

2,2,8,3 The third characteristic of modern testing is

formative t e s t i n g which feeds i n t o the process o f l e a r n i n g and

provides teachers and students with information that may

change or at least modify behaviour while teaching is still

relatively rare. These trends have increased confidence i n

teachers' accountability for improving learning and

instruction, and imposed a great responsibility on them,

especially i n t h e U.S.A. Gronlund (1981) says:

C h a p t e r Two - 68 -
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , a number o f s t a t e s have passed laws
making teachers and other school personnel
accountable f o r the learning and d e v e l o p m e n t o f
students. (P. 1 3 ) ,

To cope w i t h these demands, t e a c h e r s need their tests to

be as c o n s i s t e n t as p o s s i b l e . To a c h i e v e this quality, teachers

must pay a t t e n t i o n to reliability t o know how c o n s i s t e n t s c o r e s

are, and t h i s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n a later chapter.

2.2.8.4 The fourth characteristic i s the use o f t h e

computer which has had a profound impact on the rapid

development of testing. Testers expect that t h e use o f t h e

computer w i l l have g r e a t e r i n f l u e n c e i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . Madsen

(1983) emphasizes t h i s saying:

A c u r r e n t t r e n d i n t h e language t e a c h i n g f i e l d - a
t r e n d t h a t has n o t y e t been e x p l i c i t l y r e l a t e d t o
l a n g u a g e t e s t i n g t o any a p p l i c a b l e e x t e n t b u t t h a t
shows considerable potential f o r becoming an
important and i n t e g r a l component o f t h e o v e r a l l
measurement o p e r a t i o n i s t h e use o f c o m p u t e r s i n t h e
s e r v i c e o f language i n s t r u c t i o n . (P. 436)

The most apparent contribution has been seen i n the

scoring and analysis of tests. The type of feedback made

possible by using t h e computer has been a major factor i n

improving both learning and instruction. When school

computers are widely used, teachers will be a b l e t o prepare

classroom tests of high q u a l i t y and a v o i d much o f t h e r o u t i n e

C h a p t e r Two - 69 -
works to construct their tests.

In summary, we can say that r e s e a r c h i n language testing

has made i m p o r t a n t strides recently, but s i g n i f i c a n t problems

r e m a i n e d u n s o l v e d . A l t h o u g h l a n g u a g e t e s t i n g has a l w a y s had i t s

friendly and u n f r i e n d l y c r i t i c s , i n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e has been

i n c r e a s i n g concern about the r o l e of t e s t i n g i n the school One

criticism is that most of the t e s t i n g procedures currently

used t o a s s e s s s t u d e n t s o r s c h o o l programs c o v e r a narrow range

of t h e knowledge and s k i l l s t h a t a r e commonly c o n s i d e r e d as t h e

goals of schooling.

It i s often argued that t h e f a c e o f language testing has

already changed and most testers think that i t is likely to

continue to change f o r some years to come. In the future,

clearly teacher involvement i n assessing the l e a r n i n g process

will be a prerequisite f o r the realization of the expected

i d e a s and p r a c t i c e s . T h i s i n v o l v e m e n t seems l i k e l y to continue

and will maximize the opportunity f o r teachers t o experiment

with different sorts of course work assignments and gain

e x p e r i e n c e on improving the q u a l i t y and e f f e c t i v e n e s s of their

t e a c h i n g methods and s c h o o l s y l l a b u s .

2.3.1 The H i s t o r i c a l Development of T e s t i n g i n Q a t a r

In c h a p t e r one, we provided a detailed discussion about

the factors that affect s t u d e n t s ' standard of achievement, and

C h a p t e r Two - 70 -
among them we mentioned classroom tests. These tests are

constructed traditionally just t o promote students to a new

position. They h a v e " l i t t l e t o do" with s t u d e n t s ' achievement

during the school-year instruction.

Testing i n Qatar has undergone major changes since the

introduction o f t h e Crescent E n g l i s h C o u r s e . The M i n i s t r y has

appointed a full-time testing c o - o r d i n a t o r who has a t t e n d e d a

British Council course on t e s t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i v e competence. He

used t o w r i t e a l l t h e end-of-year examinations, both public and

promotion; t h e mid-year examinations a r e sometimes w r i t t e n by

classroom teachers. At the beginning of the application of the

English Crescent Course, a l l levels from Primary Five to

Secondary Three had a half hour listening test (the

instructions were i n A r a b i c ) and a f i f t e e n m i n u t e s oral test.

The o r a l test p e r f o r m a n c e was d i f f e r e n t i n accordance w i t h the

l e v e l o f t h e s t u d e n t s . At t h e Primary l e v e l , the oral test was

conducted by t h e c l a s s r o o m teacher. At the Preparatory level,

by the classroom teacher; while a t t h e Secondary l e v e l , the

oral test was c o n d u c t e d by t h e I n s p e c t o r s and E n g l i s h Language

Teaching Development Centre (ELTDC) s t a f f p a i r e d w i t h Secondary

teachers. Students were examined i n groups o f f o u r . Before the

use of t h e Crescent English Course, when the Audio-Lingual

A p p r o a c h was i n u s e , t h e r e was n e i t h e r a l i s t e n i n g n o r an o r a l

examinations.

C h a p t e r Two - 71 -
Through the stages of test development in Qatar, tests

began t o i n t e g r a t e w r i t i n g and r e a d i n g and an attempt has been

made t o p r o d u c e r e a l - l i f e tasks. Tests began a l s o t o a v o i d

discrete-point multiple choice testing and questions like:

"Read the following and answer the questions" and "Write a

s h o r t paragraph about your last summer h o l i d a y " . To increase

the teachers' ability to construct classroom tests, the

appointed testing co-ordinator tried to e s t a b l i s h a test-bank

of items covering a l l the levels of teaching (Primary,

Preparatory, and Secondary). These items were available to

teachers as models to be f o l l o w e d when c o n s t r u c t i n g i n - c l a s s

t e s t s and sometimes i n m i d - y e a r examinations.

In 1982, Brendan C a r r o l l , testing expert, came t o Doha i n

a s e r i e s of consultancy visits at the request of the Ministry

of Education. These consultancy visits were arranged by the

British Council i n Doha, I n t h e f i n a l report, Brendan Carroll

states the purposes of these v i s i t s t o be as follov/s:

1, To comment on the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the present approach

to English Language testing and examining in Qatar

schools,

2, To c o n d u c t w o r k s h o p s and discussions i n the

construction of tests and examinations of English in

t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i d e a l s o f t h e C r e s c e n t Course.

3, To make i n i t i a l steps i n an o v e r a l l o b j e c t i v e

C h a p t e r Two - 72 -
assessment of the progress of children, especially

t h o s e a t t h e u p p e r end o f t h e s c h o o l system, i n their

mastery of English as a means of communication.

( C a r r o l l : 1982 - P . l )

Constant a t t e m p t s have been made t o t e s t communicatively

and an impressive amount o f work has been done on d e v i s i n g

tests that reflect t h e aims o f t h e C r e s c e n t C o u r s e . As a r e s u l t

o f t h e s e a t t e m p t s , t e a c h e r s were a s k e d t o c a r r y o u t an o n - g o i n g

assessment o f t h e i r s t u d e n t s . The i d e a i s t o u r g e teachers t o

note the progress o f each i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e c l a s s t o take the

appropriate remedial action, particularly with those who fail

the tests.

The present state of testing, i n Qatar, places great

emphasis on testing school students just t o move them to a

higher level o f education. Tests i n the Q a t a r i schools are n o t

used i n t h e r e a l sense o f t e s t i n g . They have n o t h i n g t o do w i t h

teaching improvement. There are many suggestions to improve

the c u r r e n t state of testing i n Qatar, b u t they a r e a l l s t i l l

theoretical. Although many a t t e m p t s have been made t o i m p r o v e

the current s t a t e o f t e s t i n g , little k n o w l e d g e has been learnt

about classroom testing. We a r e i n need o f a " T e s t i n g U n i t "

t o p r o v i d e u s , as t e a c h e r s , w i t h t h e most u p - t o - d a t e procedures

and techniques o f t e s t i n g t h a t e n a b l e us t o use t e s t r e s u l t s t o

improve teaching and d i r e c t i t i n t h e d e s i r e d way. T e a c h e r s

Chapter Two - 73 -
t e a c h c o m m u n i c a t i v e l y and s t i l l t e s t t r a d i t i o n a l l y . They do n o t

care much about whether the course objectives have been

a c h i e v e d o r n o t , b e c a u s e t e s t r e s u l t s mean n o t h i n g t o c l a s s r o o m

teachers except students' promotion

The evident theoretical period i n the Qatari system of

testing i s t h e modern p e r i o d where t h e communicative approach

is of central interest , b u t no d i s t i n c t signs o f communicative

t e s t i n g a r e b e i n g a p p l i e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n . The p r e s e n t

state of testing i s no more t h a n m i s c e l l a n e o u s p r o c e d u r e s that

escape c l e a r - c u t classification.

In Qatar, teachers of English a r e i n a vantage position

t o make e v e r y p o s s i b l e e f f o r t t o b e n e f i t from t h e communicative

approach currently i n use in the Qatari schools to test

communicatively, but the current procedures a r e always faced

with administrative problems. Qotbah (1990) deals with the

matter irrefutably:

A l t h o u g h t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e t e s t has i t s own a p p r o a c h
t o l a n g u a g e t e s t i n g w h i c h makes i t d i f f e r e n t f r o m
o t h e r approaches, i t i s part of the educational
s y s t e m and c a n be a f f e c t e d t o a g r e a t e x t e n t by
administrative problems. In other words, the
s t u d e n t s ' p e r c e n t a g e s u c c e s s i n exams i s a c r i t e r i o n
a s s i g n e d by t h e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n t o gauge t h e
academic r e p u t a t i o n o f s c h o o l s . ( P . 41)

With regard t o the Qatari testing state, the time i s

highly suitable t o dismiss the t r a d i t i o n a l techniques of

t e s t i n g and t o a p p l y t h e modern t e c h n i q u e s i n l a n g u a g e testing.

C h a p t e r Two - 74 -
Involvement of teachers i n the t e s t i n g process should be more

obvious than before. We mean that teachers should test their

students and deal with test scores as a good indicator t o do

w h a t s h o u l d be done t o improve the c u r r e n t s t a t e of teaching.

C h a p t e r Two - 75 -
Chapter Three

PURPOSES AND KINDS OF TESTS

Topical Outline

3.0 Introduction

3.1 The s i g n i f i c a n c e of testing i n the classroom,

3.2 Purposes o f t e s t i n g i n the classroom,

3.2.1 M e a s u r i n g outcomes o f i n s t r u c t i o n .

3.2.2 Improving the curriculum.

3.2.3 P l a c e m e n t and g r o u p i n g ,

3.2.4 Predicting f u t u r e performance.

3.2.5 Describing r e a l i s t i c standards o f achievement.

3.2.6 As a d i a g n o s t i c p r o c e d u r e ,

3.2.7 To g r a d e s t u d e n t s f o r p r o m o t i o n ,

3.3.1 Different types o f t e s t .

3.3.2 Achievement testing.

3.3.3 Standardized tests.

3.3.4 Teacher-raade tests.

3.3.4.1 Advantages o f teacher-made tests.

3.3.4.2 D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f teacher-made tests.

3.3.5 Norm-referenced t e s t i n g .

3.3.5.1 Advantages o f n o r m - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s .

c h a p t e r Three - 76 -
3.3.5.2 Disadvantages o f norm-referenced tests.

3.3.6 Criterion-referenced testing.

3.3.6.1 When t o use c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d tests.

3.3.6.2 Criterion-referenced test construction.

3.3.6.3 Tasks f o r l e v e l 1. (lower).

3.3.6.4 V a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y o f CR tests.

3.3.6.5 Advantages of criterion-referenced tests.

3.3.6.6 Disadvantages o f c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d tests,

3.3.7.1 D i f f e r e n c e s between CR t e s t s and NR tests.

3.3.8.1 Objective testing,

3.3.8.2 Advantages of objective testing,

3.3.8.3 Disadvantages of o b j e c t i v e testing.

3.3.8.4 Types o f o b j e c t i v e testing.

3.3.8.4.1 T r u e - f a l s e items.

3.3.8.4.2 A d v a n t a g e s of true-false items.

3.3.9.1 Matching items,

3.3.9.2 Advantages of matching items.

3.3.9.3 Disadvantages o f matching items.

3.3.10.1 Multiple-choice items.

3.3.10.2 Advantages of multiple-choice items.

3.3.10.3 Disadvantages o f m u l t i p l e choice-items.

3.3.11.1 Subjective testing.

3.3.11.2 Essay test.

3.3.11.3 S c o r i n g t h e essay test.

c h a p t e r Three - 77 -
3.3.11.4 A d v a n t a g e s o f t h e essay test

3.3.11.5 D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f essay test.

c h a p t e r Three - 78 -
C h a p t e r 3. PURPOSES AND KINDS OF TESTS.

3.0 Introduction.

In chapter two I c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l t r e n d s up t o

the present d a y , and provided a review o f t h e h i s t o r y and

development o f language t e s t i n g . My p u r p o s e i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s

to review t h e p u r p o s e s and kinds of t e s t used by t e a c h e r s i n

classrooms i n g e n e r a l , and by teachers o f E n g l i s h i n Qatar,

in particular. Essentially this will mean c o n c e n t r a t i n g on

different p u r p o s e s o f t e s t s as w e l l as on a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s i n

particular and contrasting them with other tests. I shall

s t a t e t h e kinds o f t e s t i n g procedures that w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n

the thesis. My main c o n c e r n i s classroom testing that enables

us, as teachers, to obtain valid, reliable and useful

information concerning our s t u d e n t s ' performance. I will then

consider the issue of criterion and norm referencing f o r

achievement t e s t s . I will consider d i f f e r e n t techniques o f test

construction. Finally, I will mention what k i n d s o f tests,

r e f e r e n c i n g and c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a r e used i n Q a t a r .

c h a p t e r Three - 79 -
3.1 The S i g n i f i c a n c e o f T e s t i n g i n the Classroom:

Classroom tests, i n particular, p l a y many r o l e s i n t e a c h i n g ,

among them a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1- Determining progress towards course o b j e c t i v e s ,

2- S t i m u l a t i n g students' learning,

3- E v a l u a t i n g classroom attainment,

4- D i a g n o s i n g problems.

Through frequent testing, teachers can determine which

aspects of the target program are presenting difficulty for

individuals or f o r the class as a w h o l e . When a n a l y s i n g t h e

scores, the teacher can decide where t h e p r o b l e m s a r e . Such

analysis can a l s o enable the teacher t o diagnose t h e mistakes

made on a given test t o decide where exactly the remedial

teaching should c o n c e n t r a t e . Tests enable classroom teachers t o

discover whether t h e c l a s s o b j e c t i v e s a r e b e i n g met o r n o t . On

the other hand, teachers can e v a l u a t e the effectiveness of a

new method b e i n g a p p l i e d i n t e a c h i n g .

The i d e a of integrating testing w i t h t e a c h i n g i s n o t new.

The t o p i c was p r e s e n t e d as e a r l y as 1939 by P u r n e l l and D a v i s

when t h e y w r o t e about using classroom tests to direct learning.

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , H o p k i n s and A n t e s ( 1 9 8 5 ) m e n t i o n what T y l e r

had pointed out i n 1951:

chapter Three - 80 -
Educational measurement can have a profound
i n f l u e n c e i n the improvement of i n s t r u c t i o n , but t o
do s o , i t must be v i e w e d as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f
i n s t r u c t i o n , i t s p l a n n i n g must go hand i n hand with
i n s t r u c t i o n a l p l a n n i n g , and t h e r e s u l t must be used
c o n t i n u o u s l y t o g u i d e t h e p l a n n i n g and d e v e l o p m e n t
of c u r r i c u l u m . ( p . 3 0 )

The purpose of classroom testing i s t o a l l o w the teacher

to meet specific learning needs. A f t e r completion of part of

the learning course, remediation alloii7S teachers to overcome

deficiencies p o i n t e d up i n the testing procedure that has been

applied in the classroom. The frequency of tests during

instruction are determined by how instruction is structured.

At times, a test may be needed f o r one lesson and at other

times a t e s t may cover a unit. Ideally tests w o u l d be g i v e n at

natural breaks i n the instructional sequence. T e a c h e r s should

space t h e time between classroom tests to give t h e needed time

for remediation. Testing i s commonly considered as a part of

every teacher's day. T e a c h e r s who do not test to evaluate both

t h e i r own and t h e i r s t u d e n t s ' w o r k c a n n o t do t h e i r job properly^

Satterly (1981) emphasizes the i d e a saying:

Assessment o f a w i d e r a n g e o f p u p i l p e r f o r m a n c e i s an
i n t e g r a l p a r t i n m o n i t o r i n g t h e p r o g r e s s made n o t
o n l y f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e p u p i l and t e a c h e r , b u t
those outside the classroom such as other
t e a c h e r s , o t h e r s c h o o l s . E m p l o y e r s w i l l depend upon
r e l i a b l e knowledge o f p u p i l s ' achievement.(P.1).

chapter Three - 81 -
The c o n c e p t of testing has i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a l m o s t every

aspect o f teaching. Decisions that teachers make a b o u t e v e r y d a y

activity help them to predict the students' future

performance. Teachers need to know whether the classroom

o b j e c t i v e s a r e b e i n g met o r n o t . They c a n n o t l e a v e such matters

to chance. Without a clear set of goals, the determination i s

q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e . When we say t h a t o u r s t u d e n t s a r e p r o g r e s s i n g

in the r i g h t direction, we mean t h a t we have measured their

abilities towards specific goals t o reach such a decision.

Gronlund (1981) says:

The more a c c u r a t e l y we j u d g e o u r p u p i l s , t h e more


e f f e c t i v e we s h a l l be i n d i r e c t i n g t h e i r l e a r n i n g . An
understanding o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s and p r o c e d u r e s o f
evaluation, then, should a i d us i n making more
intelligent decisions i n directing pupil progress
toward w o r t h w h i l e e d u c a t i o n a l outcomes.(P.4).

Madsen ( 1 9 8 3 ) g i v e s f u r t h e r reasons f o r t e s t i n g saying:

Tests can f o s t e r l e a r n i n g by their diagnostic


c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e y c o n f i r m what each p e r s o n has
m a s t e r e d and t h e y p o i n t o u t t h o s e l a n g u a g e items
needing f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n . ( P . 4 ) .

It i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t many t e s t s i n t h e p a s t have l e d t o

a separation of testing from teaching. Both testing and

teaching a r e so c l o s e l y i n t e r r e l a t e d that i t i s impossible t o

work on either domain without working on the other. The

chapter Three - 82 -
essential purpose of tests is to reinforce learning and

motivate students.

T e a c h e r s used t o t h i n k that t h e aim o f t e s t i n g i s to p o i n t

out students' ignorance or l a c k o f knowledge i n a c e r t a i n field

of study, but recent studies on testing have emphasised the

opposite. The previous view of testing harms the teaching

p r o c e s s and restricts students* motivation.

In the following section I shall consider i n more detail

the main purposes of classroom testing. Finocchiaro and

Bonomo(1973) e x p l a i n the modern role of testing in classroom

teaching:

The t h r e e p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n s f o r t e s t i n g as f a r as
classroom teachers are concerned are:a) to diagnose
the s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s of language i n which i n d i v i d u a l
s t u d e n t s o r g r o u p s a r e h a v i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s ; b) t o
h e l p us guage o u r a b i l i t y as t e a c h e r s ;c) t o f i n d o u t
how much o u r students have l e a r n e d or achieved
(P.206).

3.2. P u r p o s e s of T e s t i n g i n the Classroom:

The fundamental purpose of classroom t e s t i n g i s to provide

information for making decisions, that i s , for evaluation.

Evaluation comprises essentially two components: (1)

information and (2) judgments, or decisions. The various

p u r p o s e s o f t e s t i n g can be b e s t u n d e r s t o o d by d e a l i n g w i t h them

separately.

chapter Three - 83 -
3.2,1 M^.suring O^comes of Instruction:
i

Tests help teachers i n deciding the l e a r n i n g outcomes of

classroom instructions, because the teacher can then evaluate

the success and failure of classroom learning i n relation to

test results. I f the teacher wishes to adjust the level and

direction of classroom instruction, he can easily do that by

analysing students' responses to the test. The purpose of

classroom tests i s to help students achieve a set of l e a r n i n g

o u t c o m e s . These outcomes a r e e s t a b l i s h e d by the instructional

objectives, the d e s i r e d changes i n students are brought about

by the planned learning activities, and the students'

l e a r n i n g progress is periodically evaluated by t e s t s and other

evaluation devices.

The first step in both teaching and testing is that of

determining t h e l e a r n i n g outcomes t o be e x p e c t e d from classroom

instruction. The l e a r n i n g outcomes can also provide guidance

about the language s k i l l s and f u n c t i o n s t o be i n c l u d e d i n t e s t s

used to assess students progress. The procedure of stating

specific tasks, then teaching and testing them is used in

programmed i n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s makes i t p o s s i b l e to analyse each

intended learning outcome in considerable detail and to

describe the expected student performance at every specific

level.

In Qatar, testing d i d not achieve i t s goals i n measuring

chapter Three - 84 -
t h e outcomes o f t e a c h i n g i n a c o m m u n i c a t i v e a t m o s p h e r e because

the present techniques of testing do n o t pay t h e necessary

attention to analysing the students' responses t o a p a r t i c u l a r

test.

3,2,2 Improving the Curriculum:

Tests i n schools should be purposefully related

to what s c h o o l s a r e t r y i n g t o a c c o m p l i s h i n t e r m o f c u r r i c u l u m

development. I f t h e purpose i s t o evaluate the c u r r i c u l u m and

develop i t , testing should be a d o p t e d d u r i n g the early stages

when new m a t e r i a l s are being tried. Evaluation data enable t h e

curriculum developer to determine the effectiveness o f t h e new

materials and t o i d e n t i f y a r e a s where r e v i s i o n i s needed.

When the new curriculum has been fully developed,

evaluation makes i tpossible t o determine t h e degree t o which

the new curriculum is effective in meeting the desired

o b j e c t i v e s f o r w h i c h i t was d e s i g n e d .

Curriculum development i s n o t simply a matter of devising

new s y l l a b u s e s , but rather there is a link between the study

of the content o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m and t h e methods o f t e s t i n g and

presenting the content. Entwistle and N i s b e t (1973) explain

the importance o f t e s t i n g i n any c u r r i c u l u m development:

New materials and methods a r e t e s t e d in pilot


s c h o o l s and t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s t a g e s a r e ( o r s h o u l d

c h a p t e r Three - 85 -
b e ) f o l l o w e d by a s y s t e m a t i c e v a l u a t i o n t o assess how
e f f e c t i v e l y t h e o b j e c t i v e s have been a c h i e v e d by t h e
c o n t e n t and methods w h i c h have been adopted,
(p.264).

The Q a t a r i situation lacks the indispensable duty to link

curriculum development t o newly adopted testing techniques t o

enable curriculum developers to determine the desired

effectiveness of the applied curriculum. Many attempts have

been made t o develop textbooks, but less attempts have been

suggested t o improve testing.

3.2.3 Placement and Grouping:

Placement testing i s concerned w i t h students' entry

performance and typically focuses on answers to a set of

questions. These questions have been mentioned by Gronlund

(1981).

1 - Does t h e p u p i l p o s s e s s t h e k n o w l e d g e and s k i l l s needed


to begin t h e planned i n s t r u c t i o n ?
2- To what e x t e n t has t h e p u p i l a l r e a d y m a s t e r e d t h e
o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e planned i n s t r u c t i o n ?
3- To what e x t e n t do t h e p u p i l s ' i n t e r e s t , w o r k h a b i t s and
p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n d i c a t e t h a t one mode o f
i n s t r u c t i o n m i g h t be b e t t e r t h a n a n o t h e r ? ( P . 1 7 ) .

The g o a l o f p l a c e m e n t t e s t i n g i s t o d e c i d e t h e p o s i t i o n i n

the i n s t r u c t i o n a l sequence and t h e k i n d of instruction that i s

needed by t h e s t u d e n t s to benefit t h e most. T e s t results are

c h a p t e r Three - 86 -
used t o p l a c e i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e c l a s s e s . When

students apply for a course, only tests can tell us where

exactly to place them by m e a s u r i n g t h e d e g r e e o f p r o f i c i e n c y to

assign them for specific activities on the basis of their

c u r r e n t l e v e l o f competence. I n d e s i g n i n g a t e s t f o r placement,

the test developer may choose t o base t h e test content either

on language proficiency or on the learning o b j e c t i v e s of the

syllabus to be taken. I f the test is based on language

proficiency, the t e s t may be d e v e l o p e d to determine placement

according t o a norming procedure. I f , on the o t h e r hand, the

objectives of the program are clearly defined, the test

developer i s more l i k e l y to develop a multi-level t e s t based on

the c o n t e n t o b j e c t i v e s o f the program.

At Qatar U n i v e r s i t y , t h e r e a r e two k i n d s o f s t u d y as f a r

as the English language i s concerned. There i s the English

Department for those who intend to specialize in English.

Those students are tested at the beginning of their academic

year. The test that t h e y must t a k e can be called an entrance

test (or readiness) to decide whether or not they should enter

t h e p r o g r a m and whether or not they are ready f o r the intended

instruction. Students are tested and the proposed number of

students i s decided i n advance. Students who score high on

this test/:--: /are s e l e c t e d f o r t h e s t u d y . The second k i n d o f

study at the University is called "The English Language

T e a c h i n g U n i t " . I n t h i s U n i t , E n g l i s h i s t a u g h t as a University

c h a p t e r Three - 87 -
requirement only. In a word, we can say t h a t there i s no

placement t e s t i n g i n Qatar e i t h e r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y , o r a t the

school level. I mean t o say t h a t s t u d e n t s a r e n o t t e s t e d t o be

classified into s u i t a b l e courses b u t as a r o u t i n e p r o c e d u r e t o

be a c c e p t e d as u n i v e r s i t y students.

3.2,4 P r e d i c t i n g F u t u r e Performance:

Generally speaking, test scores create the

possibility of being able to predict individual future

performance based on h i s / h e r test scores. A t t h e end o f each

school year, administrators, parents and students are

interested i n d e c i d i n g what k i n d o f course the students will

take i n the following year. They a l l use t h e t e s t scores as a

clue to predict how well the students will perform i n the

coming c o u r s e . I n Qatar, this important role of testing i s not

c l e a r s i n c e t h e s t u d e n t s ' scores are not real representation of

their abilities. For i n s t a n c e , students i n Secondary One who

g e t h i g h marks on t h e Maths t e s t d e c i d e t o go t o t h e s c i e n t i f i c

section. When t h e y are tested i n the s c i e n t i f i c s e c t i o n , they

fail t o achieve the passing mark on t h e Maths t e s t . T h i s means

that their previous scores were not real representation of

their abilities.

c h a p t e r Three - 88 -
3.2.5. Describing R e a l i s t i c S t a n d a r d s o f Achievement:

Students usually desire t o know how much they have

achieved and w h e r e they stand among their classmates. Tests

have t h e a b i l i t y not only t o provide the l e v e l o f achievement,

but also to establish e x a c t l y what a l e a r n e r has o r has n o t

mastered.

Test scores may u r g e a s t u d e n t t o compete w i t h o t h e r s and

sometimes with h i m s e l f . Low scores may motivate a student to

double his effort t o improve h i s own achievement, w h i l e high

scores give him a f e e l i n g of satisfaction and c o n f i d e n c e , h i s

success w i l l lead t o f u r t h e r success.

3.2.6. As a D i a g n o s t i c Procedure:

Testing experts consider t e s t s as a process through

which teachers can e v a l u a t e their teaching, whether i t was

effective or not. After tests, teachers o f t e n ask themselves a

lot of questions whose answers c a n make the f i n a l decision

about improving the teaching process. These questions that

t e a c h e r s o f t e n a s k a r e i n t r o d u c e d by Madsen ( 1 9 8 3 ) ;

Have I been e f f e c t i v e i n my t e a c h i n g ?
A r e my l e s s o n s on t h e r i g h t l e v e l ?
Am I t e a c h i n g some s k i l l s e f f e c t i v e l y , but others
less e f f e c t i v e l y ?
Which p o i n t s need r e v i e w i n g ? ( P . 5 ) .

c h a p t e r Three - 89 -
All those who are concerned with testing agree that

testing may be used t o enable teachers to identify specific

areas of strengths and weaknesses so t h a t they may plan the

most a p p r o p r i a t e r e m e d i a l p r o c e d u r e t o overcome t h e weaknesses

and enforce t h e s t r e n g t h s . Through tests that teachers make,

they can diagnose which aspects of the materials present

particular difficulty f o r pupils. The c l a s s r o o m teacher needs

t o know i f h i s s t u d e n t s h a v e m a s t e r e d what he had t a u g h t them

in order t o use t h e most appropriate techniques accordingly.

The classroom teacher diagnoses t h e weaknesses i n the tested

a r e a and t h e n make t h e s u i t a b l e c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e s e weaknesses

and reinforces the strengths.

3.2.7. To Grade S t u d e n t s F o r Promotion:

One o f t h e m a i n r e a s o n s f o r t e s t i n g i s t o grade students

so that teachers can move them t o the next higher class or

retain them a t t h e i r p r e s e n t level. Without testing, promotion

will be i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c .

We h a v e seen t h a t testing plays an i m p o r t a n t part i n the

teaching-learning process. I t provides a background for

decision-making about students and their attainment in a

certain s u b j e c t d u r i n g a c e r t a i n p e r i o d o f t i m e . T e s t i n g i s an

indicator of t h e degree we are progressing towards course

o b j e c t i v e s . Feedback on t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s t u d e n t s ' l e a r n i n g

chapter Three - 90 -
is generally of interest t o both teachers and s t u d e n t s f o r

making decisions regarding appropriate modifications i n the

instructional procedures and learning activities. Finally,

testing i s t h e basis f o r t h e promotion o f students t o the next

stage of learning.

Theoretically speaking, t h e Q a t a r i s i t u a t i o n as f a r as t h e

purposes o f t e s t i n g a r e c o n c e r n e d has many p u r p o s e s o f t e s t i n g ,

but only one o f t h e s e i s achieved on the real schools

levels. I t i s clearly identified that testing i n the Qatari

schools has j u s t one p u r p o s e w h i c h i s t o promote s t u d e n t s t o a

higher position of learning. Teachers t e s t t h e i r students just

to assign marks t o a g i v e n situation which i s called testing.

Teachers ignore the fact that testing has many different

p u r p o s e s i f i t i s done p r o p e r l y and a d e q u a t e l y . They a r e a l s o

unaware o f t h e f a c t that testing has s o m e t h i n g t o do w i t h o u r

ways o f p r e s e n t a t i o n and i t i s f i r m l y c o n n e c t e d with what t h e

s t u d e n t s h a v e l e a r n e d . The p r e s e n t situation has n o t h i n g t o do

with refinement and aspiration to a better teaching and

testing. What happens i n t e s t i n g vocabulary, f o r example, does

not fulfil the possible purpose. Teachers have four or s i x

marks t h a t are assigned f o rtesting vocabulary. They j u s t give

four or s i x isolated words and a s k t h e i r s t u d e n t s t o give the

equivalent i n their n a t i v e language and v i c e v e r s a . In fact,

testing vocabulary i s meant to give the impression that the

students understand the target word not i n isolation, but to

c h a p t e r Three - 91 -
have the a b i l i t y to carry out orders that require either a

simple physical action like pointing a t something or a very

s i m p l e answer s u c h as " y e s " o r " n o " . I n good t e a c h i n g , teachers

should n o t recommend h a v i n g students simply memorize l i s t s o f

w o r d s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e y s h o u l d teach t h e students t o f i n d

the meaning o f words t h r o u g h t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s e n t e n c e . Since

words a r e n o t t a u g h t i n i s o l a t i o n , words s h o u l d n o t be t e s t e d

in isolation.

In a word, purposes of testing should be s t u d i e d and

understood i n a way t h a t c a n make a change f o r t h e b e t t e r . The

testing situation i n t h e Q a t a r i schools lacks the a b i l i t y to

set realistic standards of achievement for groups or

individuals. Present testing procedures are n o t intended to

diagnose weaknesses and r e - e n f o r c e s t r e n g t h s . They are j u s t

routine procedures that teachers a r e asked t o do now and

then.

3.3.1 D i f f e r e n t Types o f T e s t :

We h a v e seen i n the previous discussion that t e s t i n g has

many d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s . To a c h i e v e these p u r p o s e s , we c a n n o t

use o n l y one t y p e o f t e s t t o g e t what we a i m a t .

To classify different types of language test, test

developers should consider many features that help i n this

classification. Language test developers and users are

c h a p t e r Three - 92 -
frequently faced w i t h questions regarding what type of test

w o u l d be most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n . Bachman ( 1 9 9 0 )

comments saying:

I n d i s c u s s i o n s o f l a n g u a g e t e s t i n g one o f t e n h e a r s
q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s , " S h o u l d we use a norm-referenced
o r an a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t ? " o r " S h o u l d we use b o t h a
d i a g n o s t i c and a p r o f i c i e n c y t e s t i n o u r p r o g r a m ? "
Such uses o f l a b e l s f o r d e s c r i b i n g t e s t t y p e s o f t e n
r a i s e more q u e s t i o n s t h a n t h e y answer. How a r e norm-
r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s d i f f e r e n t from achievement t e s t s ?
Cannot p r o f i c i e n c y t e s t s be used for diagnosis?
Questions l i k e these imply comparisons t h a t are l i k e
t h e p r o v e r b i a l q u e s t i o n , "Which a r e b e t t e r , a p p l e s o r
o r a n g e s ?" ( P . 70)

The p r e v i o u s q u o t a t i o n i m p l i e s t h e i d e a t h a t t y p e s o f t e s t
may be classified according to d i f f e r e n t f e a t u r e s . These
f e a t u r e s a r e g i v e n by Bachman ( 1 9 9 0 ) :

Language t e s t s can be c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o f i v e
d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s : t h e p u r p o s e , o r use, f o r w h i c h
t h e y a r e i n t e n d e d ; t h e c o n t e n t upon w h i c h t h e y a r e
based; the frame o f r e f e r e n c e w i t h i n which their
r e s u l t s a r e t o be i n t e r p r e t e d ; t h e way i n w h i c h t h e y
a r e s c o r e d , and t h e s p e c i f i c t e c h n i q u e o r method t h e y
e m p l o y , ( P . 70)

Comprehensive t e s t i n g always r e q u i r e s a v a r i e t y of testing

types. No single technique has been proved to be completely

a d e q u a t e and reliable to appraise students' progress to achieve

the well defined and important outcomes of systematic

instruction. An achievement test, f o r example, is commonly

used t o p r o v i d e the t e s t e r w i t h a true p i c t u r e of a v a r i e t y of

l e a r n i n g o b j e c t i v e s s u c h as concepts, knowledge o f terms, etc.

While a diagnostic test is constructed and administered to

chapter Three - 93 -
diagnose certain weaknesses and strengths. When r e s u l t s have

been obtained, remedial instructions must be applied to

reinforce s t r e n g t h s and g e t r i d o f weaknesses,

Karmel (1978) says:

A school should a d m i n i s t e r many d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f


t e s t s b e c a u s e no one t e s t c a n measure a l l t h e v a r i e d
facets of a child's ability, interests and
p e r s o n a l i t y , (P, 4)

3.3.2 Achievement T e s t i n g :

The most important aim of achievement testing i s to

identify and define the learning outcomes that are to be

measured. They measure specific types of performance that

s t u d e n t s a r e e x p e c t e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e a t t h e end o f i n s t r u c t i o n ,

Gronlund (1982) also gives the following definition of the

term.

An a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t i s a systematic procedure f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e amount a s t u d e n t has l e a r n e d , ( P , 1 )

Brown ( 1 9 8 1 ) s a y s :

A c h i e v e m e n t t e s t i s a t e s t d e s i g n e d t o measure t h e
extent t o which a person has a c q u i r e d certain
information or mastered certain skills, usually
( t h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r y ) as t h e r e s u l t o f s p e c i f i c
i n s t r u c t i o n . ( P , 208)

c h a p t e r Three - 94 -
This type of testing arose from practical school

situations. There have been many s t u d i e s about this type of

testing, which l e d t o the objective trend i n t e s t i n g , but the

beginning of objective testing isdifficult to trace, Adams

(1964) says:

When one c o n s i d e r s t h e w i d e s p r e a d use o f s t a n d a r d i z e d


tests today, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e a l i z e the youth of
o b j e c t i v e t e s t i n g , (P, 428)

The most i m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e e a r l y 1920s was t h e

birth of organizing tests into batteries. I n 1922 t h e S t a n f o r d

Achievement Test appeared. Since t h e n , a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s has

been drawn i n t o p l a y i n g a b a s i c r o l e i n classroom activities.

When d e a l i n g w i t h achievement t e s t i n g , two k i n d s can be

discussed. The f i r s t i s t h e f i n a l a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t w h i c h can be

a d m i n i s t e r e d a t t h e end o f a c o u r s e o f study. This test should

be based on a d e t a i l e d course s y l l a b u s o r t h e books used i n t h e

course of study. I n this respect, the test o n l y c o n t a i n s what

it i s thought that the students have a c t u a l l y encountered. The

p u r p o s e o f t h i s i s t o c h e c k i f s t u d e n t s have m a s t e r e d what has

been taught to them i n order t o move them t o t h e next

objective. Testing at t h e end of instruction also helps

teachers t o adjust t h e i r previous strategies o f i n s t r u c t i o n and

students c a n know the level of their abilities f o r future

c h a p t e r Three - 95 -
performance, Gronlund (1982) summarizes the goals of

achievement testing saying:

The r e s u l t s o f a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s can be used t o


evaluate various aspects of the instructional
p r o c e s s . They can h e l p d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h
t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s were r e a l i s t i c . Whether
the methods and materials of instruction were
a p p r o p r i a t e , and how w e l l t h e l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s
were s e q u e n c e d . T e s t r e s u l t s n o t o n l y r e v e a l t h e
l e a r n i n g weaknesses o f i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s , b u t when
t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e g r o u p a r e c o n s i d e r e d as a w h o l e ,
t h e y can a l s o r e v e a l weaknesses o f instruction,
(P. 7)

Achievement tests can be designed to test a variety of

l e a r n i n g outcomes, s u c h as t h e knowledge o f s p e c i f i c f a c t s , the

knowledge of terms and understanding of concepts and

principles,

The second is the progress achievement test which is

intended to measure the progress that students are making

t o w a r d s t h e c o u r s e o b j e c t i v e s . T h i s t e s t can be based on short-

term o b j e c t i v e s . The p r o g r e s s t e s t can be l o o k e d a t as a u n i t -

t e s t which gives the i n d i c a t i o n t h a t what has been t a u g h t , has

been m a s t e r e d by t h e s t u d e n t s .

Classroom teachers are always involved in the

preparation of achievement tests. These tests measure a

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample o f l e a r n i n g o b j e c t i v e s . Achievement tests

help i n h a v i n g an idea of what has been instructed and the

c h a p t e r Three - 96 -
degree of students' mastery of these materials, Gronlund

( 1 9 8 2 ) summarizes t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f a c h i e v e m e n t tests:

1. A c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s s h o u l d measure c l e a r l y d e f i n e d
l e a r n i n g outcomes t h a t a r e w i t h harmony w i t h t h e
instructional objectives,
2. A c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s s h o u l d measure a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
sample o f t h e l e a r n i n g tasks included i n the
instruction.
3. Achievement t e s t s should i n c l u d e t h e types o f
i t e m s t h a t a r e most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e
d e s i r e d l e a r n i n g outcomes.
4. A c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s s h o u l d f i t t h e p a r t i c u l a r uses
t h a t w i l l be made o f t h e r e s u l t s .
5. A c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s s h o u l d be as r e l i a b l e as
possible and s h o u l d t h e n be i n t e r p r e t e d with
caution,
6. Achievement t e s t s should improve s t u d e n t s '
l e a r n i n g , (PP, 8-13)

The aim o f achievement tests i s t o h e l p both the classroom

teacher and t h e s t u d e n t s . The c l a s s r o o m teacher feels, after

the test, job satisfaction and t h e s t u d e n t s a r e e n c o u r a g e d t o

make t h e necessary progress. Information that c a n be d e r i v e d

from the test will inform the test user about those who can

pass t h e t e s t and o t h e r s who c a n n o t . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h o s e who

pass can be moved to a higher stage of learning

(see f i g u r e 3 , 1 ) ) .

c h a p t e r Three - 97 -
ENTER

INSTRUCTION

EXIT?

Figures. 1 (Upshur 1970)

chapter Three - 98 -
and those who fail the test should be instructed again and

prepared t o take the t e s t f o r t h e second time (see f i g u r e 3.2)

ENTER

1 • TEST

yes
<^EXEMPT?^

no

INSTRUCTION EXIT

(Upshur 1973)
Figure 3.2

chapter Three - 99 -
3.3.3 Standardized Tests:

Standardized tests have an i m p o r t a n t function i n testing

and education. They i n c l u d e many t y p e s , b u t t h e y a l l s h a r e t h e

following characteristics t h a t were g i v e n by Brown (1981):

1 - The t e s t s a r e c a r e f u l l y c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h e x t e n s i v e
t r y o u t , a n a l y s i s and r e v i s i o n o f i t e m s b e f o r e t h e f i n a l
form o f t h e t e s t i s prepared.
2- E x p l i c i t p r o c e d u r e s f o r a d m i n i s t e r i n g and s c o r i n g t h e
t e s t are developed.
3- N o r m a t i v e d a t a , d e r i v e d f r o m t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e
t e s t t o c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d g r o u p , a r e a v a i l a b l e as a i d s
i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s c o r e s . ( P . 141)

Bagnato (1981) d e f i n e s s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t s as:

A s y s t e m a t i c sample o f p e r f o r m a n c e o b t a i n e d under
p r e s c r i b e d c o n d i t i o n s , scored according t o d e f i n i t e
r u l e s and c a p a b l e o f e v a l u a t i o n by r e f e r e n c e t o
n o r m a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n (P 6 3 8 )

H o p k i n s and A n t e s ( 1 9 8 5 ) add new f e a t u r e s t o t h e t e r m when t h e y

define it:

A commercially p r i n t e d t e s t f o r w h i c h c o n t e n t has
been s e l e c t e d and c h e c k e d e m p i r i c a l l y . The t e s t i s
s t a n d a r d i z e d so t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and s c o r i n g
p r o c e d u r e s a r e t h e same f o r a l l t e s t t a k e r s . (P 4 7 9 )

chapter Three -100-


Thus, s t a n d a r d i z e d tests a r e r e a d y made as a result of

research and development in a s t a t i s t i c a l l t j accepted manner,

their c o n s t r u c t i o n i s produced by experienced personnel to a

highly technical standard. This type of testing is primarily

designed t o measure overall achievement. I t seems t o me that

standardized tests cannot be used in the classroom to test

achievement of i m m e d i a t e and specific instructional objectives

because teachers do not practise this kind of testing. These

tests include a fixed set of test items designed t o measure a

clearly defined achievement domain. They have specific

directions for administration and s c o r i n g the test

3.3.4 Teacher-Made T e s t s :

Measuring pupils' progress is a major aspect of the

teacher's responsibility in the learning process because

teachers have achieved a more significant role in education.

These t e s t s a r e most l i k e l y t o be c o n c e n t r a t e d on, by teachers,

because they have close relationship to classroom teaching.

They can provide the classroom teacher with a true idea about

the students' progress, his effective ways of teaching and

about the degree o f achievement of the d e f i n e d objectives.

On the o t h e r hand, teacher-made t e s t s c o n s t i t u t e the basis

for grading students, reporting to parents and provide the

students with a feedback concerning the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of their

chapter Three -101-


efforts to learn. Adams (1964) quotes Brownell who has

developed several c r i t e r i a for judging the worth of classroom

tests i n relation to the i n s t r u c t i o n a l process:

Does t h e t e s t e l i c i t from the p u p i l s the d e s i r e d


types of mental process?
Does t h e t e s t e n c o u r a g e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d e s i r a b l e
study habits?
Does the test lead to improved instructional
p r a c t i c e ? ( P . 324)

Although achievement can be measured either by

standardized tests or teacher-made tests, i t is always

preferable to be done by teachers because they are the only

individuals who live the classroom's life moment-by-moment and

they are fully involved in classroom activities. This means

that teachers are in the best position to evaluate the

situation. Teacher-made tests can provide true picture of the

students' a b i l i t y . Ebel (1965) e x p l a i n s the nature of classroom

grades.

T e s t s c a n , and o f t e n do, h e l p t e a c h e r s and p r o f e s s o r s


t o g i v e more v a l i d , r e l i a b l e g r a d e s , because t h e y a r e
intended to summarize concisely a comprehensive
e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s t u d e n t ' s a c h i e v e m e n t , because t h e y
are r e p o r t e d t o the student and h i s parents to
i n d i c a t e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f h i s e f f o r t s . ( P . 6)

chapter Three -102-


3.3.4.1 Advantages o f Teacher-Made T e s t s :

Teacher-made tests, as any type of testing, have certain

advantages that can be observed when putting the test into

p r a c t i c e . Such a d v a n t a g e s are:

1- Teacher-made t e s t s a r e based on a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

sampling of the m a t e r i a l s s t u d i e d .

2- Teacher-made t e s t s f i t the content and o b j e c t i v e s of a

p a r t i c u l a r course b e t t e r than would a t e s t prepared by

any one else.

3- When t e a c h i n g and t e s t i n g a r e i n t h e hands o f t h e same

person, they are l i k e l y t o be more e f f e c t i v e because t h e

teacher is closely acquainted with students'

individuality, he can decide how to motivate them and

when exactly to do i t . Satterly (1985) gives the

f o l l o w i n g s t r e n g t h s o f teacher-made tests:

1. They p r o v i d e a c l o s e r f i t between t e s t and course

content.

2. T e s t s which correspond w i t h u n i t s of a course

provide a check of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of teaching

and l e a r n i n g .

3. Teacher-made t e s t s can p r o v i d e a more e x t e n s i v e

sampling of s p e c i f i c areas of l e a r n i n g .

chapter Three -103-


4. Teacher-made t e s t s p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g a

pupil's attainment r e l a t i v e to specific objectives

which then provide a basis for report to parents

c o n c e r n i n g h i s / h e r e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r e s s . (P. 74)

3.3.4.2 D i s a d v a n t a g e s of Teacher-Made T e s t s :

Teachers o f t e n r e v e a l shortcomings in their construction,

use, d e v e l o p m e n t and s c o r i n g o f t e s t s because most o f them a r e

not skilled i n the a r t of testing. Since I am a teacher of

English as a foreign language, I can list the following

disadvantages:

1 - Teacher-made tests are usually short and poorly

constructed.

2- Teacher-made tests do not make distinction between

b a s i c and trivial objectives. T h i s means t h a t teachers

cannot sometimes distinguish between the important

areas t o be t e s t e d from the unimportant ones.

3- T e a c h e r s do not know the effective role that can be

played by their tests in directing learning in the

classroom, so t h e y t e s t j u s t f o r t h e sake o f testing.

4- Most teachers copy bookish terms in the test

instructions. They n e v e r t r y t o i n v e n t new ones, that

is to say, they copy what most textbooks give at the

c h a p t e r Three -104-
end o f e a c h u n i t as a sample t e s t .

5- T e a c h e r s sometimes use i t e m s t h a t may be o f g r e a t h e l p

t o answer a n o t h e r i t e m . The i n f o r m a t i o n i n q u e s t i o n "A"

may be used t o answer q u e s t i o n "B",

6- T e a c h e r s a r e sometimes d e s c r i b e d as c o n s e r v a t i v e , t h a t

is, they are happier with familiar types of testing

t h a n w i t h new o n e s .

7- Teacher-made t e s t s a r e n o t r e l i a b l e .

Ebel (1965) e x p l a i n s t h e reason:

Many t e a c h e r s have n e v e r c h e c k e d on t h e r e l i a b i l i t y
o f any o f t h e i r t e s t s and may n o t even have p l a n n e d
t h o s e t e s t s p u r p o s e l y t o make them as r e l i a b l e as
p o s s i b l e , (p.14)

Finally, as a t e a c h e r o f E n g l i s h as a f o r e i g n language, I

can say t h a t teachers o f E n g l i s h i n some c o u n t r i e s a r e t o be

freed from blame i n t h e sense that they l a c k knowledge about

teaching and testing f o r many reasons. When teachers were

s t u d e n t s a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l , t h e y have n o t been instructed

how t o t e a c h and t e s t t h e l a n g u a g e t h e y l e a r n . I remember when

I began t o teach i n Qatar, The Ministry o f Education has

i n t r o d u c e d us t o a c o u r s e o f o r i e n t a t i o n about how t o t e a c h and

test t h e communicative approach. The t i m e t h a t was s p e n t on

this course lasted o n l y about t e n days w h i c h was n o t a d e q u a t e

to introduce the teachers t o a complete and new course. So

teachers always depend on p e r s o n a l initiative t o o b t a i n the

c h a p t e r Three -105-
needed knowledge either in teaching or in testing. Thus, I

think that i f teachers do t h i n g s and succeed, they should be

praised

In a word, teachers are responsible^evaluating their


•J

teaching and sometimes reporting the progress that has been

made. I n Q a t a r , t e a c h e r s do n o t f e e l this responsibility. On

the c o n t r a r y , they still think that testing is just a routine

procedure t o be done m o n t h l y . They n e v e r t r y to evaluate their

tests at a l l . So, students are s t i l l traditionally tested.

3.3.5 Norm-Referenced Testing:

Both types, criterion-referenced and norm- r e f e r e n c e d

tests, are of great importance since each provides unique

information concerning student achievement.

In this section, our discussion will be restricted to

norm-referenced tests, and a full comparison of t h e two types

will be g i v e n a t t h e end of t h i s chapter.

The term, norm-referenced tests is composed of two

parts, the first which is 'norm' needs c l a r i f i c a t i o n , then we

shall proceed to define the term as a complete form. The

concise D i c t i o n a r y of Education ( 1 9 8 2 ) d e f i n e s norms as:

Extensive statistical findings that document how


representative groups of students have actually
p e r f o r m e d on a s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t , f o r a d e q u a t e s c o r e
i n f o r m a t i o n , norms o f t e n need t o be p r o v i d e d on bases

c h a p t e r Three -106-
t h a t a r e n a t i o n - w i d e , s t a t e - w i d e , school-system-wide
and c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e s t u d e n t s c o n c e r n e d i n o t h e r
e s s e n t i a l r e s p e c t e d s u c h as s o c i o b i o l o e i c a l s t a t u s .
(P. 154)

Adams ( 1 9 6 4 ) c l a r i f i e s t h e meaning o f norms by s a y i n g :

Norms are statistics that describe the test


p e r f o r m a n c e o f s p e c i f i e d g r o u p s , such as p u p i l s o f
v a r i o u s ages o r g r a d e s i n t h e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n g r o u p
for a test. Norms are often assumed t o be
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f some l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n o f p u p i l s i n
t h e c o u n t r y as a w h o l e . Norms a r e d e s c r i p t i v e o f
average. (P. 643)

Tuckman ( 1 9 7 5 ) e x p l a i n s t h e f u n c t i o n o f norms i n t e s t i n g :

Norms a r e s t a t i s t i c s t h a t s u p p l y a f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e
by w h i c h meaning may be g i v e n t o obtained test
s c o r e s . Norms a r e based upon t h e a c t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e
of pupils of various grades o r ages i n the
standardization group f o r a test. S i n c e norms
r e p r e s e n t average o r t y p i c a l performance, they should
not be r e g a r d e d as s t a n d a r d s o r as universally
d e s i r a b l e l e v e l s o f a t t a i n m e n t . (P. 481)

It i s obvious now that norms play an i m p o r t a n t role i n

interpreting test scores. A l l t e s t s u s e r s know t h a t raw s c o r e s

on a test have no meaning unless interpreted i n relation to

some reference. Norms provide a reference against which

to compare p e r f o r m a n c e s and i n d i c a t e where s t u d e n t s in the

same g r o u p s t a n d i n relation t o each o t h e r . Norm- r e f e r e n c e d

tests t e l l t e s t u s e r s how an individual compares with other

chapter Three -107-


p e r s o n s who have t a k e n t h e same t e s t . G r o n l u n d ( 1 9 8 2 ) r e s t r i c t s

the use o f n o r m - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s :

Since norm-referenced t e s t s are designed t o i n d i c a t e


how an i n d i v i d u a l ' s t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e compares t o t h a t
of o t h e r s . ( P , 113)

Norm-referenced tests are o f great importance t o classroom

teachers when they wish to compare their students'

performances. Norm-referenced t e s t s a r e used t o f u l f i l certain

p u r p o s e s , some o f w h i c h were g i v e n by R o i d and Haladyna (1982)

The p u r p o s e o f a norm based c o m p a r i s o n i s p r e s u m a b l y


t o : ( a ) group students f o r i n s t r u c t i o n , ( 2 ) assign
honours f o r h i g h achievement, ( c ) s e l e c t f o r s p e c i a l
programs. ( d ) evaluate an i n s t r u c t i o n a l program.
(P. 2 7 )

Classroom teachers sometimes ask which type they

should use. The c o r r e c t answer depends on t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e

test. I f teachers are planning to make decisions about

individuals' status with reference t o some c r i t e r i o n t h e y can

use c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d tests. I f t h e y need t o make d e c i s i o n s

about individuals' status relative t o performance of others,

t h e y c a n use n o r m - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s . I n f a c t , t h e two t y p e s a r e

needed t o make d e c i s i o n s about i n d i v i d u a l s . The p u r p o s e o f t h e

t e s t d e c i d e s t h e t y p e t o be u s e d .

c h a p t e r Three -108-
3.3.5.1 Advantages o f Norm-Referenced T e s t s :

Most of the advantages of norm-referenced tests are

directly tied to their ability to tell us a b o u t the student

position among o t h e r s . Hopkins (1985) l i s t s the strengths of

n o r m - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s as follows:

1- NRM can be used t o measure a t t r i b u t e s t h a t r e l a t e


to t h e c o g n i t i v e domain where each s t u d e n t i s
allowed and encouraged to learn at maximum
p o t e n t i a l , f o r t h i s reason norm-referenced tests
a r e needed f o r n e a r l y a l l c l a s s r o o m s .
2- NRM i s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e a t
the h i g h e r l e v e l s o f t h e a f f e c t i v e and p s y c h o m o t o r
domains. As performance becomes complex,
c o m p a r i s o n t o o t h e r s becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y
important in interpretation of individuals
p e r f o r m a n c e . ( P . 333)

This type of testing has the ability to discriminate

between individuals and points out the weaknesses of both

students' achievement and teachers' p r e s e n t a t i o n . This type

can also help v^hen we intend to select students. The

employment of both types provides more flexibility and

understanding of student progress and t h e l e v e l o f i n s t r u c t i o n .

c h a p t e r Three -109-
3.3.5.2 D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f Norm-Referenced T e s t s ;

It i s clear that norm-referenced tests are unable to

provide i n f o r m a t i o n about the level o f achievement i n direct

measures. Hopkins (1985) says:

1- Norm - r e f e r e n c e d measurement i s n o t a p p r o p r i a t e
for m e a s u r i n g m a s t e r y o f c e r t a i n m a t e r i a l s and
skills.
2- Norm - r e f e r e n c e d measurement does n o t i n d i c a t e
s p e c i f i c t a s k s a s t u d e n t can p e r f o r m and does n o t
allow direct interpretation of performance.
(PP.333-334)

3.3.6. Criterion-Referenced Testing:

Interpretation of tests scores i s a complicated process

and a t t h e same t i m e a n e c e s s a r y p r o c e d u r e t o t e a c h e r s t o give

meaning to a raw score either by converting i t into a

description of the specific task that the pupil can perform

(criterion-referenced) or converting i t into some type of

d e r i v e d score that indicates the pupil's r e l a t i v e position i na

clearly defined group (norm-referenced). Both criterion-

referenced and n o r m - r e f e r e n c e d a r e two ways of interpreting

t e s t scores. I s h a l l draw a c o m p a r i s o n between t h e s e two t y p e s .

The strengths and weaknesses of each type will also be

highlighted. P u r p o s e s o f each t y p e w i l l be w i t h i n t h e scope o f

our coming d i s c u s s i o n .

chapter Three -110-


Criterion-referenced testing is designed to measure

defined goals of learning. I t s aim i s to provide a useful

description of students' attainment that i s r e l a t i v e to stated

outcomes.

The first use of the term was either i n 1962 o r 1963.

R i o d and H a l a d y n a ( 1 9 8 2 ) s a y :

Glaser (1963) was the f i r s t to use the term


c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d , ( P . 7)

Brown ( 1 9 8 1 ) does n o t a g r e e w i t h Riod and Haladyna that 1963

was t h e b e g i n n i n g o f c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d testing:

1962 was the f i r s t use of criterion-referenced


measures. (P. 23)

Since Glaser's use of criterion-referenced tests, the

literature has accumulated over 600 references to criterion-

referenced t e s t i n g .

Testing individual performance is a topic of common

concern among t h o s e who are interested i n business, i n d u s t r i a l

affairs and e d u c a t i o n . This type o f t e s t i n g was d e v e l o p e d to

answer teachers* questions about individual performance.

Teachers and educators looked a t norm-referenced tests as a

limited type o f t e s t i n g . S a t t e r l y (1985) describes the b i r t h of

this type of t e s t i n g .

c h a p t e r Three -111-
Criterion-referenced t e s t s have been d e v e l o p e d i n
response t o some of the l i m i t a t i o n s o f norm-
r e f e r e n c e d t e s t i n g . (P. 48)

Satterly ( 1 9 8 5 ) goes on t o s a y :

Norm-referenced t e s t s a r e o b v i o u s l y unable t o provide


much o f t h e n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a t e a c h e r who
w a n t s t o g i v e c h i l d r e n as much t i m e as i s p r a c t i c a b l e
to master a g i v e n o b j e c t i v e . (P. 49)

Karmel (1978) expresses educators' views about the

limitation of norm-referenced tests.

Many e d u c a t o r s have come t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n that


c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r s i s n o t a l w a y s t h e b e s t way t o
e v a l u a t e an i n d i v i d u a l . T h e r e f o r e , f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s
t h e t r e n d has been t o d e v e l o p measurement techniques
i n which i n d i v i d u a l s are evaluated i n r e l a t i o n t o
self achievement or t o an unchanged absolute
s t a n d a r d . (P. 377)

What interests teachers i s not the students' position

among others, rather they a r e more interested i n students'

attainment according to a previously established standards.

The appearance o f c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t i n g marked a

new i n t e r e s t i n p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n about i n d i v i d u a l s . During

the seventies, i n t e r e s t i n criterion t e s t i n g has been increased

and many books and a r t i c l e s have been w r i t t e n about t h e term

since i t was popularized i n 1963. I t i s really a recent

chapter Three -112-


addition to the area of individual performance which allows

every p u p i l t o r e a c h an a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l o f p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h o u t

any competitive comparisons which are c o n s i d e r e d t o be of a

d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s . Karmel (1978) says:

Experts s p e c u l a t e t h a t comparisons are particularly


damaging f o r t h e young c h i l d . (P.377)

Since the appearance of criterion-referenced tests, a

number of definitions have been offered. In this chapter,

different definitions h a v e been quoted to highlight the term

and i t s use i n e d u c a t i o n :

1 - The International Encyclopedia of Education (1985)

says:

C r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s are constructed to permit


t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f examinee t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e i n
relation to a set of w e l l - d e f i n e d competences.
( P . 1108)

2- Brown ( 1 9 8 1 ) g i v e s a g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e term;

Assessment t h a t p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s p e c i f i c
knowledge and abilities of pupils through their
p e r f o r m a n c e on v a r i o u s t a s k s t h a t a r e i n t e r p r e t a b l e
i n t e r m s o f what t h e p u p i l s know o r can do, w i t h o u t
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e performance o f o t h e r s . (P. 4)

c h a p t e r Three -113-
3- Billing (1973):

T e s t d e s i g n e d t o measure t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h learning
programme a t t a i n s i t s o b j e c t i v e s . ( P . 156)

4- B u g n a t o and Neisworth (1981)

Instrument designed to identify the presence or


absence o f s p e c i f i c s k i l l s i n terms of absolute
l e v e l s o f m a s t e r y . ( P . 324)

It i s clear that a l l the given d e f i n i t i o n s concentrate on

skills and abilities that are related to the individual's

attainment.

3.3.6.1 l ^ e n to Use Criterion-Referenced Tests:

Criterion-referenced t e s t s a r e used and most a p p l i c a b l e in

the area of skill testing. Usually, criterion-referenced

testing i s t h e most prevalent kind which i s used in schools.

Karmel (1978) says:

Each t i m e a t e a c h e r g i v e s a q u i z o r e x a m i n a t i o n , she
o r he i s p r o b a b l y u s i n g c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t i n g ,
o r m e a s u r i n g a c t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e . ( P . 379)

c h a p t e r Three -114-
This type of testing can also be used to measure

behaviours s u c h as problem solving, there i s also an interest

i n making g r e a t e r use of c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t i n g i n school

a t t a i n m e n t whether i t i s i n t e r n a l or external t e s t i n g . Tuckman

(1975) o u t l i n e s t h e use of c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d testing.

Criterion-referenced i s used by (1) generating or


selecting a set of objectives representing the
desirable p e r f o r m a n c e outcomes o f i n s t r u c t i o n , ( 2 )
d e s i g n i n g o r f i n d i n g i t e m s t o a d e q u a t e l y measure each
objective, (3) presenting acceptable performance
l e v e l s . (P. 296)

I have found that d i f f e r e n t tes4rs give different views

about criterion-referenced testing. Some testers are

enthusiastic when t h e y talk about c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d testing

in that they approve t h e i r use of c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d testing

in the most difficult area: the cognitive domain. Hopkins

(1985) says:

CRM can be used to measure a t t r i b u t e s of the


c o g n i t i v e domain where m a s t e r y o f c e r t a i n m a t e r i a l s
and skills is expected. For this reason, some
c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s a r e needed f o r n e a r l y a l l
c l a s s r o o m s . (P. 327)

Others are less enthusiastic when t h e y t a l k a b o u t t h e use

of the t e r m . Brown ( 1 9 8 1 ) has quoted Henrysson (1974) to tell

us that criterion-referenced t e s t s are only used t o measure low

l e v e l s of activities.

c h a p t e r Three -115-
Criterion-referenced tests are only suitable for
s u b j e c t a r e a s w i t h a s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e . ( P . 10)

While Tuckman ( 1 9 7 5 ) has quoted Ebel (1970) to say:

Criterion-referencing i s most applicable to the


measurement o f complex b e h a v i o u r such as t h i n k i n g and
p r o b l e m s o l v i n g . ( P , 296)

Criterion-referenced tests are mostly used in school

systems t o measure students' individual achievement. Teachers

who are responsible for appraising classroom activities are

sometimes f a c e d with individuals who need s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t on

the basis of their unsatisfactory attainment. In this

situation, teachers can use criterion-referenced tests to

diagnose students weaknesses and decide a remedial

individualized instruction.

Criterion-referenced tests can also help in making

instructional decisions since systematic instruction requires

c l o s e and continuous m o n i t o r i n g of students progress. This type

of testing can also be used in the traditional meaning of

testing, that is; to increase student motivation, assign

grades, evaluate instructions or select students for special

programs. Roid and Haladyna (1982) p o i n t out t h e new uses o f

tests i n systematic instruction:

c h a p t e r Three -116-
F i r s t and f o r e m o s t , t e s t s a r e used t o c e r t i f y that
s t u d e n t a c h i e v e m e n t has been s a t i s f a c t o r y . ( P . 26)

The International Encyclopedia of Education (1985) mentions

the f o l l o w i n g uses o f c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d tests:

I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e competences t h e r e a r e t h r e e common
uses f o r c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d tests scores: ( a ) to
describe examinee performance, (b) to assign
examinees t o mastery states, ( c ) to describe
p e r f o r m a n c e o f s p e c i f i c g r o u p s . ( P . 1108)

It i s obvious now that criterion-referenced tests are

commonly used i n s c h o o l systems. Classroom t e a c h e r s use t h e s e

tests t o be a b l e t o l o c a t e t h e i r students correctly i n school

programs, t o diagnose students' learning deficiencies, and t o

g r a d e s t u d e n t s on t h e e d u c a t i o n a l ladder.

One o f t h e d i a g n o s t i c f e a t u r e s t h a t a r e p r o d u c e d a f t e r t h e

test i s that s t u d e n t s can evaluate their performance with

reference to specific objectives. Test scores provide a basis

for making decisions about learning and teaching. A good

criterion-referenced test tells us about the l e v e l of our

students' achievement and a l s o about o u r way o f p r e s e n t a t i o n .

Tuckman (1975) explains this diagnostic value of criterion-

referenced tests.

Where i n s t r u c t i o n i s o f a g r o u p n a t u r e , t e s t r e s u l t s
must be a p p l i c a b l e t o j u d g m e n t s o f g r o u p p r o g r e s s . I f
group success has largely been attained, then

c h a p t e r Three -117-
i n s t r u c t i o n on new m a t e r i a l s can b e g i n . I f g r o u p
g a i n s h a v e been m i n i m a l , t h e n r e m e d i a l i n s t r u c t i o n
s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d b e f o r e i n s t r u c t i o n can p r o g r e s s t o
new a r e a s . ( P . 300)

In short, criterion-referenced t e s t s can p r o v i d e us with

the necessary information that help us in making a final

decision about classroom situation. They a l s o tell us whether

adjustment o r r e m e d i a l e f f o r t s a r e needed o r n o t .

3.3.6.2. Criterion-Referenced Test Construction:

It i s common i n t e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n t o d e f i n e t h e o b j e c t i v e s

of the course as a first step. As for criterion-referenced

tests, i t is essential to specify clearly the behaviours

d e f i n i n g each competence t h a t i s t o be tested.

I n t h e c a s e o f t e a c h e r s o f E n g l i s h as a f o r e i g n language,

teachers should outline the course content in terms of

vocabulary, grammatical structure such as Past Continuous and

the Simple Past, functions such as comparing, suggesting,

a s k i n g p o l i t e q u e s t i o n s , and t h e aims t o be t a u g h t i n each s t e p

in the teaching process. Such outlines help the classroom

teachers to know when constructing items for a new test,

w h e t h e r o r n o t c e r t a i n e x p r e s s i o n s have been a l r e a d y t e s t e d , o r

have been o v e r u s e d , w h i l e o t h e r i t e m s have been c o m p l e t e l y left

c h a p t e r Three -118-
out. Tuckman ( 1 9 7 5 ) s u g g e s t s steps t h a t we s h o u l d go through

when c o n s t r u c t i n g c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s . The s t e p s a r e :

( 1 ) P r e p a r e a c o n t e n t o u t l i n e l i s t i n g t h e s k i l l s and
k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e t e s t i s an a t t e m p t t o measure, ( 2 )
I d e n t i f y the performance, ( 3 ) I d e n t i f y t h e domain
t h a t each o b j e c t i v e d e f i n e s . ( 4 ) V a l i d a t e t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e s k i l l s and knowledge measured by t h e t e s t
are in fact prerequisite to the performance
o b j e c t i v e s . ( P . 295)

To clarify the idea o f making an outline of course

objectives t o be t e s t e d , I s h a l l g i v e an example. Before we

construct the test the following outline of objectives will

certainly help.

For example, i n Qatar, English i s taught f r o m p r i m a r y 5.

L e t us c a l l this level, t h e lower l e v e l and c o n s i d e r the tasks

which are set f o r this level. The f o l l o w i n g tasks a r e quoted

from English Language Syllabus, Curriculum and Textbook

Department, M i n i s t r y o f Education, (1988)

3.3.6.3 T a s k s f o r L e v e l 1. ( l o w e r ) .

3.3.6.3.1 L i s t e n i n g :

By t h e end o f t h e P r i m a r y stage t h e p u p i l s s h o u l d be a b l e

to:

c h a p t e r Three -119-
1. L i s t e n t o E n g l i s h r e c o r d e d o r on e d u c a t i o n a l and

r e c r e a t i o n a l t a p e s and d e v e l o p t h e d e s i r e t o do so.

2. F o l l o w a s h o r t d i a l o g u e and d e m o n s t r a t e his

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t by r e s p o n d i n g orally, in writing or

by action. The topics have to be restricted to the

pupil's environment, e.g. classroom, school, family-

life, etc.

3. Respond c o r r e c t l y and appropriately t o the classroom

i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n by the teacher i n simple language.

4. L i s t e n t o a s h o r t c o n v e r s a t i o n on a f a m i l i a r t o p i c and

be able to i d e n t i f y t h e main i d e a s , the s i t u a t i o n and

the r o l e of the p a r t i c i p a n t s , t h e r e c o r d i n g t o be clear

and slower than normal speech b u t w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i o n of

natural pronunciation.

5. Respond t o t h e l a n g u a g e ( v o c a b u l a r y and f u n c t i o n s )

related to this stage, as specified i n Components of

the English Syllabus by the Gulf Arab States

E d u c a t i o n a l Research Centre (GASERC).

6. U n d e r s t a n d t h e grammar r u l e s needed t o comprehend t h e

a u d i o - l i n g u a l m a t e r i a l s presented t o the p u p i l s .

3.3.6.3.2 S p e a k i n g :

By the end of the Primary stage the p u p i l should be able

to:

c h a p t e r Three -120-
1 . Take p a r t i n t h e l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s related t o the

listening skill and demonstrate his understanding by

responding orally.

2. P r o n o u n c e a l l t h e l a n g u a g e ( w o r d s and structures) i n

the syllabus clearly using correct and appropriate

intonation.

3. Ask q u e s t i o n s and r e q u e s t h e l p from the teacher or from

classmates u s i n g the a p p r o p r i a t e forms.

4. Respond i n E n g l i s h t o a l i m i t e d numbers o f q u e s t i o n

t y p e s by u s i n g t h e c o r r e c t s h o r t answer forms.

5. P e r f o r m some s h o r t r o l e - p l a y s and rhymes u s i n g t h e tape

o f t h e t e a c h e r as a m o d e l .

6. Use the language ( f u n c t i o n s and v o c a b u l a r y ) r e l a t e d to

this s t a g e as s p e c i f i e d i n Components o f t h e E n g l i s h

S y l l a b u s by G u l f A r a b S t a t e s E d u c a t i o n a l Research

Centre (GASERC).

3.3.6.3.3 R e a d i n g :

By t h e end of the Primary stage the p u p i l s h o u l d be able

to:

1 . Read t h e a l p h a b e t i n c a p i t a l and small l e t t e r s , to

d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e tx^o, t o r e c i t e t h e a l p h a b e t i n

o r d e r and p u t any group of l e t t e r s into alphabetic

c h a p t e r Three -121-
order.

2. Read t h e numbers f r o m one t o 1000 and distinguish

b e t w e e n them.

3. Read t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e t e x t b o o k a s s i g n e d f o r the

Primary stage: a l l words, sentences and discourses as

w e l l as f l a s h c a r d s and t r a n s p a r e n c i e s .

4. Read shop s i g n s , t r a f f i c s i g n s , warning n o t i c e s

e t c . , c o m m o n l y seen i n Q a t a r .

5. Read t h e books and magazines a s s i g n e d for this level.

6. Read u n f a m i l i a r words by u s i n g E n g l i s h s p e l l i n g and

pronunciation rules.

7. Look up t h e meaning o f words i n t h e g l o s s a r y a t t h e end

of the p u p i l ' s Book.

8. Read a l l t h e l a n g u a g e (words and s t r u c t u r e s ) r e l a t e d t o

this stage as s p e c i f i e d i n Components of the English

Syllabus.

9. U n d e r s t a n d t h e grammar r u l e s needed t o comprehend t h e

assigned texts.

3.3.6.3.4 Writing:

By t h e end o f t h e P r i m a r y stage the p u p i l s h o u l d be a b l e

to:

1 . W r i t e a l l t h e l e t t e r s o f t h e a l p h a b e t and t h e numbers

clearly, tidily, and correctly.

c h a p t e r Three -122-
2. Copy s e n t e n c e s and d i s c o u r s e s accurately.

3. Answer, i n w r i t i n g , a spoken o r w r i t t e n question.

4. W r i t e one o r two s e n t e n c e s d e s c r i b i n g f a m i l i a r things

w i t h t h e h e l p o f a model.

5. W r i t e w i t h c o r r e c t s p e l l i n g , most o f t h e words i n t h e

textbook.

6. W r i t e most o f t h e s e n t e n c e s t y p e s f o r t h i s s t a g e as

specified i n Components o f t h e E n g l i s h Syllabus.

7. Use c o r r e c t p u n c t u a t i o n : c a p i t a l and s m a l l letters,

commas, f u l l s t o p s , q u e s t i o n and e x c l a m a t i o n marks and

apos t r o p h e s

These t a s k s c a n p r o v i d e g u i d a n c e a b o u t t h e language skills

to be i n c l u d e d i n language tests. The l i m i t e d nature of the

educational outcomes and s p e c i f i c a t i o n of the learning tasks

clarify t h e use o f t e s t i n g .

Task a n a l y s i s i s a n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e because such an

analysis enables identification of the c r i t i c a l elements

required f o r successful task performance. When t h e o b j e c t i v e s

h a v e been c a r e f u l l y d e f i n e d , we move t o t h e n e x t step which i s

to select t h e most appropriate technique to test these

objectives. We should always keep i n mind that testing isa

process which becomes most effective when i t i s used on t h e

basis o f sound o p e r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s .

When t h e o b j e c t i v e s o r a s p e c t s o f p u p i l performance have

chapter Three -123-


been defined, the testing technique should be selected.

Gronlund (1981) tells us the steps to be followed in

constructing a test.

1- Determining and c l a r i f y i n g what i s t o be e v a l u a t e d


a l w a y s has p r i o r i t y i n t h e e x a m i n a t i o n p r o c e s s .
2- E v a l u a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s s h o u l d be s e l e c t e d i n terms o f
t h e p u r p o s e s t o be s e r v e d .
3- C o m p r e h e n s i v e evaluation requires a variety of
e v a l u a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . (PP. 22-23)

The technique that should be s e l e c t e d i n c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d

test has special characteristics that were given by Hopkins

(1985):

The thrust of test construction f o r criterion-


r e f e r e n c i n g i s toward b u i l d i n g a device t h a t w i l l
g e n e r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t w h e t h e r a s t u d e n t can o r
c a n n o t do t h o s e t h i n g s e x p e c t e d f r o m a l l s t u d e n t s .
(P. 32)

Criterion-referenced tests are constructed so that the

results c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d directly i n terms of the specific

tasks and s k i l l s that the pupils can d e m o n s t r a t e . I f we want

the test t o be v a l i d and p r o v i d e v a l i d description, we should

select each objective and t r e a t i t separately. Although this

technique needs a l o t o f time from teachers t o c o n s t r u c t and

a d m i n i s t e r , some t e s t e r s p r e f e r t o use i t . Gronlund ( 1 9 8 1 ) has

quoted Popham who s t r e s s e s t h i s k i n d o f s e p a r a t i o n .

c h a p t e r Three -124-
Separate t e s t s p e c i f i c a t i o n are needed for each set
o f i t e m s . (P. 71)

Klausmeier and Goodwin (1971) agree with Gronlund that

objectives s h o u l d be tested separately:

Such a t e s t i s u s u a l l y s h o r t , as few as 10 items,


b e c a u s e i t measures a s i n g l e o b j e c t i v e o r small
number o f c l o s e l y r e l a t e d o b j e c t i v e s . (P. 450)

Swezey (1981) also agrees with the previously quoted

quotations:

Compound o b j e c t i v e s a l s o must be b r o k e n i n t o u n i t a r y
o b j e c t i v e s and even f u r t h e r , i n t o t h e i r components,
b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g w i t h t e s t i t e m d e v e l o p m e n t . (P. 32)

When t h e p r e v i o u s l y discussed steps are taken, the teacher

is in a position to s t a r t constructing the target test. Users

of criterion-referenced tests should not stick to just one

p r o c e d u r e when t h e y intend to construct their t e s t s to diagnose

strengths and weaknesses of teaching-learning process. Swezey

(1981) argues:

There i s no single correct way to construct a


c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t . (P. 15)

c h a p t e r Three -125-
Criterion-referenced tests may be a t t r a c t i v e t o c l a s s r o o m

t e a c h e r s because t h e s e t e s t s a r e easy t o c o n s t r u c t and s u i t a b l e

to learning tasks whether long or short in the learning

process.

3.3.6.4. Characteristics of C r i t e r i o n - R e f e r e n c e d T e s t i n g :

The most important characteristics of a test are

reliability and v a l i d i t y . Now, the discussion will proceed t o

deal with t h e s e two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h relation to criterion

-referenced t e s t i n g .

Reliability refers t o the c o n s i s t e n c y o f t e s t scores over

different occasions. On the other hand we should n o t expect

all test scores t o be p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t since these scores

may be a f f e c t e d by many factors. To d e t e r m i n e reliability we

need to obtain two s e t s o f scores and t h e n compare them, b u t

this i s n o t always possible because test conditions are not

a l w a y s t h e same.

Criterion-referenced test r e l i a b i l i t y is still new. Until

recently a number o f a u t h o r s d i d not know how t o e s t a b l i s h

criterion-referenced test reliability. Swezey (1981) explains

the d i f f i c u l t y of r e l i a b i l i t y establishment:

Most t e c h n i q u e s f o r a s s e s s i n g criterion-referenced
r e l i a b i l i t y a r e e x p l o r a t o r y , and a r e e i t h e r n o t f u l l y

c h a p t e r Three -126-
developed or are based on questionable assumptions
(P. 143)

Satterly (1985) agrees with Swezey that i t is still difficult

to establish criterion-referenced reliability:

T h e r e i s as y e t no u n i v e r s a l l y a g r e e d method f o r
estimating the r e l i a b i l i t y of criterion-referenced
t e s t s . ( P . 218)

Gronlund (1981) stresses the novelty of criterion-

referenced reliability:

A number o f s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s have been p r o p o s e d


for estimating the reliability of criterion-
r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s , b u t methods a r e r e l a t i v e l y new and
s t i l l i n the developmental s t a g e . (P. I l l )

If testing theories are not able to provide classroom

teachers with a satisfactory method for establishing the

reliability of criterion-referenced t e s t what can t e a c h e r s do

to estimate t h e i r t e s t s ' r e l i a b i l i t y ? . We s h o u l d a l w a y s keep i n

mind that where decisions are t o be made a b o u t individuals,

then reliability should be established. Gronlund (1981)

suggests a simple method of estimating criterion-referenced

reliability:

For most classroom use of criterion-referenced


mastery tests some relatively s i m p l e method of

c h a p t e r Three -127-
e s t i m a t i n g r e l i a b i l i t y may be s u f f i c i e n t . Because i n
mastery testing we are p r i m a r i l y interested i n
classifying pupils as m a s t e r s o r n o n m a s t e r s , t h e
consistency of our mastery-nonmastery decisions
s h o u l d be o u r main c o n c e r n . T h i s t y p e o f r e l i a b i l i t y
can be r e a d i l y d e t e r m i n e d by c o m p u t i n g t h e p e r c e n t a g e
o f c o n s i s t e n t d e c i s i o n s o v e r two e q u i v a l e n t f o r m s o f
the t e s t . (P. 112)

Test reliability i s of great importance f o r teachers'

assessment of pupils. I f we e x p e c t t h a t t e s t s p r o v i d e us w i t h

information which will be used t o evaluate pupils and make

decisions about them, t h e n we a r e i n need o f k n o w i n g how much

confidence can be p l a c e d i n the test r e s u l t s .

The simplest advice that can, a t present, be o f f e r e d i s

to interpret the concept of reliability of criterion-

referenced tests i n terms o f t h e c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h which a t e s t

makes a d e c i s i o n a b o u t t h e mastery state of the pupils taking

the t e s t .

We say t h a t a criterion-referenced test is reliable i f

examinees who pass i t on one administration, pass i t on a

repeated administration, provided no instruction i s given

between the two administrations. Validity of criterion-

referenced tests has not received as much attention as

reliability, although i t is commonly agreed that i t is

necessary to this type of testing. Brown (1981) quotes

Hambelton X'lho s a i d :

chapter Three -128-


The usefulness o f any o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s of
criterion-referenced tests will depend on t h e
validity of the intended i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the
c r i t e r i o n r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s c o r e s . ( P . 54)

Validity is concerned with establishing that a test

measures what i t claims t o measure. V a l i d i t y has many types,

the most important f o r criterion-referenced test i s content

validity which means a c c o r d i n g t o Gronlund (1981)

How a d e q u a t e l y t h e sample o f i t e m s represents the


domain o f a c h i e v e m e n t . ( P . 8 5 )

Bro\i7n (1981) stresses t h e importance of content validity in

criterion-referencing.

Most w r i t i n g on v a l i d i t y i n r e l a t i o n t o c r i t e r i o n -
r e f e r e n c i n g has c o n c e n t r a t e d on c o n t e n t validity.
(P. 5 5 ) .

She has a l s o q u o t e d Popham and Husek ( 1 9 6 9 ) who b o t h a g r e e w i t h

Brown on t h e r e l e v a n c e and i m p o r t a n c e of content validity.

C r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e measures a r e v a l i d a t e d p r i m a r i l y
i n t e r m s o f t h e adequacy w i t h w h i c h t h e y r e p r e s e n t
the c r i t e r i a . T h e r e f o r e , c o n t e n t v a l i d i t y approaches

a r e more s u i t e d t o such t e s t s . (P. 5 5 ) .

Swezey ( 1 9 8 1 ) a l s o g i v e s p r i o r i t y t o content validity.

c h a p t e r Three -129-
I t i s g e n e r a l l y agreed that content v a l i d i t y i s of
paramount concern in criterion-referenced
measurement. ( P . 1 4 9 ) .

Since teachers a r e concerned with classroom achievement,

t h e y s h o u l d know t h a t t h e main r e a s o n f o r classroom testing i s

t o make s u r e t o what e x t e n t t h e p u p i l s have m a s t e r e d what t h e y

have been taught. When teachers construct a criterion-

referenced test, t h e y need t o know how w e l l t h e items included

in t h e t e s t m a t c h t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m and t h e r e a l

content of the teaching experiences. Knowing t h e importance

and r e l e v a n c e o f v a l i d i t y and i t s use i n c l a s s r o o m measurement

a r e n o t enough. T e a c h e r s s h o u l d a l s o know how t o j u d g e c o n t e n t

validity. Swezey ( 1 9 8 1 ) e x p l a i n s how we can j u d g e t h i s t y p e o f

validity.

A c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t may be presumed c o n t e n t
v a l i d i f a l l t e s t items a r e c a r e f u l l y d e r i v e d from
t h e r e q u i r e d p e r f o r m a n c e s , c o n d i t i o n s , and s t a n d a r d s
s p e c i f i e d i n t h e o b j e c t i v e s and i f t h e sample o f t e s t
items appropriately represent the objectives.
(P. 149)

3.3.6.4.1 Advantages o f C r i t e r i o n - R e f e r e n c e d T e s t s :

When we construct criterion-referenced tests, we expect

that interpretation of test scores w i l l indicate precisely the

l e v e l o f e a c h s t u d e n t k n o w l e d g e i n terms o f s p e c i f i c objectives

since these tests are o r i g i n a l l y planned t o measure what has

c h a p t e r Three -130-
been t a u g h t i n t h e c l a s s r o o m .

Criterion-referenced tests have t h e advantage of being

helpful i n making t e a c h e r s a b l e t o reach i n d i v i d u a l plans about

their s t u d e n t s and t o make s u r e that what has been taught i n

t h e c l a s s r o o m has been m a s t e r e d by t h e s t u d e n t s , Hopkins (1985)

summarizes some of t h e advantages of criterion-referenced

tests:

CRM c a n be used t o measure a t t r i b u t e s of the


c o g n i t i v e domain where m a s t e r y o f c e r t a i n materials
and skills i s expected. For t h i s reason, some
c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s a r e needed f o r n e a r l y a l l
c l a s s r o o m s , C r i t e r i o n - R e f e r e n c e d measurement a l l o w s
d i r e c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e measure o f p e r f o r m a n c e .
The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n d i c a t e s what s p e c i f i c t a s k s a

s t u d e n t can p e r f o r m ( P . 327)

Test interpretation can point out lacking skills and

knowledge i n students performance. Such interpretation will

certainly help teachers i n constructing direct plans t o face

learning deficiencies. Bush and Waugh (1982) explain the

advantageous aspects o f c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d tests.

C r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l as
guidelines f o r assisting the teacher i n making
i n d i v i d u a l p l a n s f o r c h i l d r e n . Since they a r e geared
more s p e c i f i c a l l y t o w a r d t h e academic m a t e r i a l t a u g h t
i n t h e classroom, t h e teacher can l e a r n which s k i l l
or w h i c h s e t o f knowledge i s l a c k i n g i n a c h i l d ' s
achievement. (P. 31)

c h a p t e r Three -131-
Criterion-referenced t e s t s are n o t only used on i n d i v i d u a l

levels, rather they a r e some times used t o evaluate school

programs. This diagnostic feature of criterion-referenced

tests creates the p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e m e d i a t i o n and change o r a t

l e a s t a d j u s t m e n t t o move s a f e l y . Hambelton ( 1 9 8 5 ) agrees that

criterion-referenced t e s t s have t h i s d i a g n o s t i c feature.

Criterion-referenced tests r e s u l t s are also being


used t o e v a l u a t e v a r i o u s s c h o o l p r o g r a m s . ( P . 1 1 1 1 )

She has a l s o q u o t e d K o s e K o f f and F i n k ( 1 9 7 6 ) who say t h a t .

Such tests are not appropriate f o r use in


large-scale evaluations of the effectiveness of
programmes. ( P . 9 )

3.3.6.4.2.Disadvantages of C r i t e r i o n - R e f e r e n c e d Tests:

Most of the disadvantages of criterion-referenced tests

are tied to one deficiency which can be put like this:

criterion-referenced tests are unable to help teachers to

compare a student with another. Hopkins (1985) lists the

weaknesses o f c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s as f o l l o w s :

( 1 ) S c o r e s f r o m CRM do n o t i n d i c a t e a student's level


of achievement r e l a t i v e t o peers.
(2) C r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s cannot be used t o
measure l a r g e p o r t i o n s o f s u b j e c t matter.
( 3 ) Use o f c r i t e r i o n - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s exclusively

c h a p t e r Three -132-
does n o t a l l o w a t e a c h e r t o compare a student
w i t h o t h e r s t u d e n t performance. ( P . 328)

I think that the weaknesses I have quoted have no

justification since criterion-referenced tests are not

primarily constructed to indicate d i f f e r e n c e s among students.

If we want t o reach such a p o s i t i o n , another t y p e can be used

to determine the desired comparison among students

performances, t h a t i s , norm-referenced testing.

In a word, criterion-referenced tests are of great

importance t o classroom teachers because t h e i r task i s l i m i t e d

to the decision of the level of attainment and n o t h i n g t o do

with comparison. I f comparison i s needed^then, norm-referenced

t e s t s can be u s e d .

3.3.7.1. Differences Between CR. and NR. Tests:

Each o f t h e two t y p e s has an i m p o r t a n t role to play i n

providing information about students, but there are many

differences between them. These differences are of great

importance t o classroom teachers and test users i n general.

The d i f f e r e n c e s c a n be summarized as f o l l o w s :

1- Norm-referenced test items a r e s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s

of how w e l l t h e y d i s c r i m i n a t e among s t u d e n t s .

chapter Three -133-


Criterion-referenced test items are selected on the

basis of how well they represent specific learning

t a s k s . G r o n l u n d ( 1 9 8 2 ) ( P . 20)

2- N o r m - r e f e r e n c e d s c o r e s a r e compared t o how the scores

stand in relation t o scores of others who have taken

the test.

Criterion-referenced scores are compared to a

predetermined criterion to judge whether the score

should be c o n s i d e r e d as passing or failing. Hopkins

(1985) (P. 342)

3- N o r m - r e f e r e n c e d tests are predicated on the assumption

that the distribution of any trait measured will

resemble a normal c u r v e .

Criterion-referenced tests a r e n o t based on t h e n o r m a l

distribution of a trait, but are concerned with the

actual behaviours that a person can perform.

Karmel(1978) (P.378).

4- N o r m - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s s c o r e s i n d i c a t e the p o s i t i o n of a

child's score i n a large normally d i s t r i b u t e d group of

scores.

Criterion-referenced tests indicate the level of

child's mastery of a given objective. I t does not

c h a p t e r Three -134-
refer to the d i s t r i b u t i o n of scores by other pupils.

Satterly ( 1 9 8 5 ) ( P . 54)

5- N o r m - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s a r e used t o see who needs

r e m e d i a l work o r s p e c i a l educations.

Criterion-referenced t e s t s a r e used t o see what kind of

r e m e d i a l a c t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y . S a t t e r l y ( 1 9 8 5 ) ( P . 55)

6- N o r m - r e f e r e n c e d r e l i a b i l i t y i s e s t i m a t e d by u s i n g test-

retest.

Criterion-referenced reliability i s estimated by the

consistency with which the set of items for an

o b j e c t i v e c l a s s i f i e s p u p i l s as m a s t e r s o r non- m a s t e r s .

Satterly ( 1 9 8 5 ) ( P . 55)

7- N o r m - r e f e r e n c e d validity i s examined by reference to

external criteria.

Criterion-referenced validity i s examined chiefly by

comparing the actual content of each item. Satterly

( 1 9 8 5 ) ( P . 55)

8- N o r m - r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s ' r o l e i n e d u c a t i o n i s p r o b a b l y o f

greater interest to researchers than to teachers

a l t h o u g h t e a c h e r s use them f o r s e l e c t i o .

Criterion-referenced tests role in education is to

c h a p t e r Three -135-
evaluate the absolute success o f i n s t r u c t i o n . Satterly

(1985) (P. 56)

Finally, the p r e v i o u s l y quoted d i f f e r e n c e s of both norm-

referenced and criterion-referenced l i e in the respective

purposes, types of scores, their interpretation, and the role

they play i n teaching.

3.3.8.1. Objective Testing:

In the following sections, objective and subjective

testing will be discussed in detail s i n c e we do not want to

limit ourselves to only one type because a good test is that

w h i c h has the advantages of the two t y p e s . On the o t h e r hand,

tests in Qatar did not treat the four skills on a balanced

basis because the tests* constructors limited themselves to

objective types and made no use of the other t y p e . Byrd (1986)

criticizes t e s t i n g i n Qatar saying:

E x a m i n a t i o n s were u s u a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o r e a d i n g and
w r i t i n g ( t i c k i n g o f f o r c i r c l i n g t h e c o r r e c t answer,
f i l l i n g i n b l a n k s , answering q u e s t i o n s ) , the observed
t e s t s d i d not t r e a t o r a l or l i s t e n i n g s k i l l s , f a i l e d to
f o c u s on r e a d i n g s k i l l s , and n e v e r had s t u d e n t s t o
w r i t e i n any a u t h e n t i c g e n r e s . ( P . 21)

Most o f the t e s t s t h a t are i n use i n Qatar l a c k necessary

emphasis on writing which is commonly considered the most

chapter Three -136-


difficult skill i n learning English. I f teachers use only

objective tests, they test recognition rather than language

because the testees only recognize t h e answers and do n o t

construct i t . In subjective tests, the testees a r e asked t o

express t h e i r ideas as a r e s u l t o f a s e r i e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t that

the learner should acquire during the learning process.

Objective tests require the testees t o choose their answers

from a s p e c i f i e d l i s t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s r a t h e r t h a n c r e a t i n g them

by themselves. The t e s t e e s a r e t o w r i t e down a w o r d , a p h r a s e ,

or sometimes a number. This type of test i s widely used t o

m e a s u r e , a p t i t u d e , i n t e l l i g e n c e and a c h i e v e m e n t . The o b j e c t i v e

test i s so c a l l e d because the s c o r i n g procedure is determined

when t h e t e s t i t e m s a r e w r i t t e n . The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f such t e s t s

need p a t i e n c e , creative ability and k n o w l e d g e o f t h e g r o u p t o

be tested .

Objective t e s t s , as o t h e r techniques, have a d v a n t a g e s and

disadvantages. L e t us d i s c u s s them s e p a r a t e l y .

3.3.8.2. Advantages o f O b j e c t i v e Testing:

1- O b j e c t i v e tests have a rapid ability to gather

information.

2- O b j e c t i v e tests do not bring difficulty in scoring

because the scoring procedure i s determined when t h e

test item i s w r i t t e n .

chapter Three -137-


3- O b j e c t i v e t e s t s have no f i x e d procedure to write them,

so t e a c h e r s must spend t i m e t o c o n s t r u c t them and this

will help them to get a better understanding of the

tested contents.

4- The s k i l l needed i n o b j e c t i v e i t e m s c o n s t r u c t i o n can be

acquired t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e and p r a c t i c e .

3.3.8.3. Disadvantages of Objective Testing:

1 - O b j e c t i v e t e s t s have been c r i t i c i z e d because t h e y p l a c e

the testee in a position to recognize rather than

construct t h e answer.

2- O b j e c t i v e tests place great emphasis on reading and

l e s s on writing.

3- O b j e c t i v e i t e m s e n c o u r a g e g u e s s i n g .

4- They may include misleading questions.

3.3.8.4. Types o f O b j e c t i v e T e s t I t e m s :

I t e m s c a n be c l a s s i f i e d either according t o t h e i r form or

function. Here, we are more concerned about the form.

O b j e c t i v e t e s t i t e m s have t h e f o l l o w i n g types:

True-false items, matching, m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e and completion

items.

c h a p t e r Three -138-
3.3.8.4.1 True-False Items:

True-false items are presented t o propose something and

t h e s t u d e n t has to discuss i t m e n t a l l y . Care must be taken to

select important propositions as a basis f o r the test items.

Choppin (1985) g i v e s a r e l i a b l e d e s c r i p t i o n of t r u e - f a l s e items

and t h e i r use in testing.

The t r u e - f a l s e i t e m r e p r e s e n t s a d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t e m e n t and
r e q u i r e s t h e examinee t o i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r he o r she j u d g e s
i t t o be t r u e o r f a l s e . ( P . 3 6 1 7 ) .

Satterly (1985) gives advice on writing true-false items

(freely adapted)

a- A v o i d any s o u r c e o f a m b i g u i t y .
b- A v o i d t h e use o f n e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s .
c- B a l a n c e t h e number o f t r u e and f a l s e s t a t e m e n t s i n
t h e t e s t b u t keep t h e l e n g t h o f s t a t e m e n t s r o u g h l y
equal.
d- A v o i d l i f t i n g s t a t e m e n t s v e r b a t i m f r o m t e x t b o o k s .
(P. 90)

3.3.8.4.2.Advantages of T r u e - F a l s e Items:

1 - They a r e easy t o r e a d and understand.

2- They r e p r e s e n t a s i m p l e way to test factual knowledge,

3- By u s i n g t r u e - f a l s e i t e m s , t h e t e a c h e r can test a great

deal of m a t e r i a l s i n a short time.

4- H o p k i n s ( 1 9 8 5 ) g i v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g advantage:

c h a p t e r Three -139-
G e n e r a l l y , s t u d e n t s can respond t o about two t r u e -
f a l s e i t e m s p e r m i n u t e . ( P . 135)

5-Brown ( 1 9 8 5 ) says:

Although true-false items are looked on with


disfavour by many teachers, they have many
a d v a n t a g e s . They a r e r e l a t i v e l y easy t o c o n s t r u c t and
can be s c o r e d r a p i d l y and o b j e c t i v e l y . G e n e r a l l y t h e
i t e m s a r e s h o r t , so a l a r g e number c a n be i n c l u d e d on
a t e s t . ( P . 52)

3.3.8.4.3.Disadvantages of T r u e - F a l s e Items:

1- Among the serious limitations of true-false items i s

the limitation o f t h e areas that c a n be e v a l u a t e d by

them.

2- E b e l (1965) says:

T r u e - f a l s e i t e m s have been c r i t i c i z e d f o r t r i v i a l i t y ,
for a m b i g u i t y , f o r encouragement o f r o t e l e a r n i n g ,
for susceptibility t o guessing and f o r e x p o s i n g
s t u d e n t s t o e r r o r i n s t e a d o f t r u t h . ( P . 146)

3- S a t t e r l y (1985) gives a general view of true-false

items.

The d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t r u e - f a l s e items are probably


more a p p a r e n t t h a n t h e i r a d v a n t a g e s . The p r o b a b i l i t y
of o b t a i n i n g a c o r r e c t answer by g u e s s i n g i s h i g h ,
the i t e m s a r e r e s t r i c t e d i n u s e . ( P . 8 9 )

c h a p t e r Three -140-
4- Wood ( 1 9 6 0 ) c r i t i c i z e s t r u e - f a l s e items saying;

One o f i t s draw b a c k s i s t h a t t h e i t e m c o n s t r u c t o r i s
too l i k e l y s i m p l y t o a d o p t v e r b a t i m s t a t e m e n t s f r o m a
t e x t b o o k , w i t h p e r h a p s t h e i n c l u s i o n o f some n e g a t i v e
terms t o make some o f t h e i t e m s f a l s e . Such a
p r a c t i c e encourages r o t e m e m o r i z a t i o n . (P.24)

5- Lindvall and Nitko (1975) speak about true-false

scores:

Scores from true-false tests are typically less


r e l i a b l e . (P. 5 5 ) .

3.3.9.1. Matching I t e m s :

Both matching items and m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e items have a

common set of alternatives, t h e matching test c o n s i s t s o f two

lists o f phrases, t h e stem and t h e r e s p o n s e , then choice i s

made by students, they must match t h e stem t o the correct

response. Wood ( 1 9 6 0 ) warns t e a c h e r s o f f a u l t s i n t h i s type o f

construction:

Two common f a u l t s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m a t c h i n g
i t e m s w a r r a n t m e n t i o n . One t o have t h e same number o f
e l e m e n t s i n each l i s t . S i n c e w i t h such a s e t o f i t e m s
the t y p i c a l p r o c e d u r e i s t o have each answer a p p l y
once o n l y ... A second m i s t a k e t h a t commonly a p p e a r s
i n t h e use o f m a t c h i n g i t e m s i s t o i n c l u d e f a r t o o
many e l e m e n t s i n b o t h l i s t s . ( P . 2 7 ) .

c h a p t e r Three -141-
When a d e c i s i o n has been t a k e n f o r w r i t i n g m a t c h i n g items,

some c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s h o u l d be taken i n t o account. Brown (1981)

p r o v i d e s us w i t h t h e s e remarks:

1 - A l l p a r t s o f t h e i t e m s h o u l d be homogeneous.
2- L i m i t t h e l e n g t h o f each l i s t .
3- Each i t e m s h o u l d have o n l y one c o r r e c t answer,
( P . 53)

3.3.9.2. Advantages of Matching I t e m s :

1- Matching items g i v e a g r e a t o p p o r t u n i t y to the teacher

to t e s t a s s o c i a t i o n s of m a t e r i a l s .

2- G u e s s i n g i n reduced.

3- Short t i m e i s needed.

4- Easy t o c o n s t r u c t and score.

5- They a r e s u i t a b l e t o t e s t d e f i n i t i o n s , names and places

t h a t cannot be measured by o t h e r procedure.

6- They a r e a b l e t o t e s t s c a t t e r e d f a c t u a l knowledge.

7- Satterly (1985) quotes Mehrens and Lehman (1978) who

describe this type as:

Most s u i t a b l e f o r t h e 'Who', 'What', 'When', 'Where',


t y p e s o f l e a r n i n g and f o r any o t h e r s w h i c h i n v o l v e
s i m p l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . (P.99)

c h a p t e r Three -142-
3.3.9.3. D i s a d v a n t a g e s of Matching I t e m s :

1- Matching items are very restricted in testing.

2- They f a i l to test i n s t r u c t i o n a l objectives.

In a word, the o b j e c t i v e types of t e s t are not as easy as

we t h i n k . They impose c e r t a i n measures on the item constructor.

He should, first of a l l , know the limits of his subject,

understands h i s students' abilities and s p e c i f y c l e a r l y what t o

test and why. I think t h a t a l l the objective items fail to

encourage w r i t i n g . They a r e constructed i n a manner t h a t does

not r e q u i r e any i^riting effort, except j u s t copying.

3.3.10.1. M u l t i p l e - C h o i c e Items:

Multiple-choice items are currently the most highly

regarded form of objective test item. The basic structure

consists of two parts; the stem which represents the problem

and a set of tv^o o r three options that represent t h e answer t o

the problem s t a t e d i n the stem.

This type can be used to test many e d u c a t i o n a l outcomes

such as the ability to apply information, knowledge and

reasonable judgement. E b e l ( 1 9 6 5 ) summarizes t h e educational

outcomes t h a t can be t e s t e d by this type:

They are adaptable to the measurement of most


important educational outcomes, knowledge.

c h a p t e r Three -143-
u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and j u d g e m e n t ability t o solve
problems, t o recommend a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n t o make
p r e d i c t i o n s . (P. 149)

When the teacher wants to write the items, certain

suggestions may be u s e f u l t o be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e s e

s u g g e s t i o n s were g i v e n by L i n d v a l l and N i t k o (1967)

1 - A v o i d t h e use o f n e g a t i v e worded stems.


2- Make t h e r e s p o n s e s as s h o r t as p o s s i b l e . ( P . 5 8 )

3.3.10.2. Advantages o f m u l t i p l e - C h o i c e Items:

1- M u l t i p l e - c h o i c e items can be used t o measure many

educational outcomes.

2- Many i t e m s c a n be g i v e n on a t e s t .

3- Brown ( 1 9 8 1 ) says:

R e s e a r c h has shown t h a t m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e i t e m s a r e
more r e l i a b l e and v a l i d t h a n o t h e r t y p e s o f i t e m s .
(P. 45)

4- G u e s s i n g i s r e l a t i v e l y reduced,

5- O b j e c t i v e s c o r i n g .

c h a p t e r Three -144-
3.3.10.3. D i s a d v a n t a g e s of M u l t i p l e - C h o i c e Items:

In s p i t e of the r o l e they play in testing, multiple

c h o i c e i t e m s have n o t escaped t h e a t t e n t i o n o f c r i t i c s . Some o f

the shortcomings are the follov^ing:

1- They a r e ambiguous.

2- They a r e n o t s h a r p l y d i s c r i m i n a t i n g .

3- T h e r e i s a c h a n c e f o r g u e s s i n g .

We conclude, t h a t no t y p e o f t e s t i n g can c l a i m p e r f e c t i o n .

3.3.11.1. S u b j e c t i v e Testing:

A subjective test requires the testees t o express their

ideas in a logical and competent way. On the other hand,

requires the marker(s) to evaluate and not to follow a

predetermined mark s h e e t . S u b j e c t i v e t e s t s p l a c e a premium on

the ability t o produce r a t h e r than to recognize, to integrate

and express rather than to select ready-made answers.

Subjective tests f i l l t h e gap w h i c h was left open by objective

tests and leave the testees approach the problem freely. A

balanced testing procedure would include the use of both

o b j e c t i v e and subjective questions.

c h a p t e r Three -145-
3.3.11.2. The Essay Test:

VJhile t e a c h i n g , t e a c h e r s a l w a y s pay special attention

to make a k i n d o f b a l a n c e d teaching to i n c l u d e the productive

and the receptive skills necessary to master a foreign

language. Of the four skills, writing may be the most

difficult s k i l l because i t needs k n o w l e d g e and expressions to

convey meanings.

This desired standard of p r o f i c i e n c y demands a s e r i e s o f

steps t o be developed by the learner, including knowledge of

vocabulary, spelling, and grammar. Essay tests are probably

used f r e q u e n t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t v a l u e p l a c e d on them, t h a t

is, on their need to organize and express ideas in a reliable

and accepted form. Satterly (1985) gives us h i s p o i n t of view

of essay tests:

T h i s i s p r o b a b l y t h e most e x t e n s i v e l y used t y p e o f
item i n B r i t a i n o u t s i d e m a t h e m a t i c s and p h y s i c a l
sciences. Although i t is not much loved by
measurement t h e o r i s t s , who have d e m o n s t r a t e d its
d e f i c i e n c i e s o v e r many y e a r s , i t r e m a i n a s t a n d a r d
d e v i c e f o r t h e assessment o f achievement over a wide
r a n g e o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m . ( P . 114)

Essay t y p e s are of g r e a t importance to classroom teachers

who d e a l w i t h a c h i e v e m e n t . Brown ( 1 9 8 1 ) q u o t e s S t e c k l e i n ( 1 9 5 5 )

who g i v e s 14 a b i l i t i e s t h a t can be measured by essay items:

1- C o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n two o r more t h i n g s .
2- The d e v e l o p m e n t and d e f e n c e o f an o p i n i o n .

c h a p t e r Three -146-
3- Q u e s t i o n s o f cause and e f f e c t .
4- E x p l a n a t i o n s o f m e a n i n g s .
5- S u m m a r i z i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n a d e s i g n a t e d a r e a .
6- A n a l y s i s .
7- Knowledge o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
8- I l l u s t r a t i o n of rules, principles, procedures and
applications.
9- A p p l i c a t i o n o f r u l e s , l a w s , and principles to new
situations
10- C r i t i c i s m s o f t h e adequacy, r e l e v a n c e , o r c o r r e c t n e s s
of a concept, idea, or i n f o r m a t i o n .
1 1 - F o r m u l a t i o n o f new q u e s t i o n and p r o b l e m s .
12- R e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f new q u e s t i o n s and p r o b l e m s .
13- D i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e t w e e n o b j e c t s , c o n c e p t s o r e v e n t s .
14- I n f e r e n t i a l t h i n k i n g . ( P . 64)

Moreover, teachers can use i t because i t is easy to

construct and develop the habit of relying exclusively on i t

for i t s simplicity, but because i t i s an extremely valid test

to measure students' a b i l i t y to organize their own ideas and

express them i n a highly effective manner. Brown ( 1 9 8 1 ) gives

t h e f o l l o w i n g g u i d e l i n e s f o r w r i t i n g essay q u e s t i o n s :

1 - The q u e s t i o n s h o u l d c l e a r l y d e f i n e t h e t a s k .
2- I n d i c a t e the scope and direction of the answer
required.
3- Use q u e s t i o n s t h a t h a v e c o r r e c t a n s w e r s .
4- A l l o w f o r " t h i n k t i m e " .
5- Use more s h o r t e r - e s s a y s i t e m s r a t h e r t h a n fewer
l o n g e r ones.
6- D e v e l o p a s c o r i n g key b e f o r e a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e t e s t
(PP. 65-67)

c h a p t e r Three -147-
3.3.11.3. S c o r i n g the E s s a y Item:

Although teachers might o b j e c t here t h a t p r e p a r a t i o n of a

scoring key for each test will take time that they cannot

afford, we introduce the two approaches that Satterly (1985)

sugges t s ,

1 - The analytical method.

T h i s c o n s i s t s o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a check l i s t o f
p o i n t s c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l t o a good answer t o t h e
q u e s t i o n . D e c i d i n g i n advance w h i c h p o i n t s t o l o o k
f o r and t h e number o f marks t o be a l l o c a t e d t o each
point.

2- The i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c method.

This a p p l i e s where teachers wish, f o r whatever


r e a s o n , t o award a g r a d e o r mark f o r t h e essay as a
w h o l e . (PP. 120-121)

Scoring t h e essay i t e m s i s n o t e a s y , so t e a c h e r s know t h a t

t h e y s h o u l d be c a r e f u l t o m a i n t a i n t h e same s t a n d o f s c o r i n g t o

all students.

3.3.11.4. Advantages of the E s s a y Item:

1 - Essay tests motivate the students to study and

understand c o n c e p t and principles.

c h a p t e r Three -148-
2- They enable the teacher t o appraise students' ability

to express t h e i r ideas effectively,

3- They have t h e a b i l i t y t o measure complex ideas.

4- The q u e s t i o n i s v e r y easy t o w r i t e .

5- They g i v e s t u d e n t s freedom o f response.

5- G u e s s i n g i s v e r y l i m i t e d i n this type.

3.3.11.5. D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f The E s s a y Item:

1- T r u e and r e a l i s t i c j u d g e m e n t r e q u i r e s much time t o be

spent on t h e s c o r i n g k e y .

2- They need c o m p e t e n t k n o w l e d g e o f t h e c o n t e n t area.

3- T h e i r s c o r e s are u n r e l i a b l e .

4- They r e p r e s e n t a limited sample o f c o n t e n t s .

As an interesting end o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n about o b j e c t i v e

and subjective testing items, i t i s also interesting t o quote

E b e l ( 1 9 6 5 ) who g i v e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two t y p e s ; t h e

o b j e c t i v e and s u b j e c t i v e t y p e s :

1- An essay q u e s t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e s t u d e n t t o p l a n h i s
own answer and e x p r e s s e s i t i n h i s own w o r d s . An
o b j e c t i v e t e s t i t e m r e q u i r e s h i m t o choose among
several designated a l t e r n a t i v e s .
2- An essay t e s t c o n s i s t s o f r e l a t i v e l y few, more
g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n s which c a l l f o r r a t h e r extended
a n s w e r s . An o b j e c t i v e t e s t o r d i n a r i l y c o n s i s t s o f
many r a t h e r s p e c i f i c questions requiring only
b r i e f answers.
3- S t u d e n t s spend most o f t h e i r t i m e i n t h i n k i n g and
w r i t i n g when t a k i n g an essay t e s t . They spend most
o f t h e i r t i m e r e a d i n g and t h i n k i n g when t a k i n g an

chapter Three -149-


objective test.
4- The q u a l i t y o f an o b j e c t i v e t e s t i s d e t e r m i n e d
l a r g e l y by t h e s k i l l o f t h e t e s t c o n s t r u c t o r . The
q u a l i t y o f an essay t e s t i s d e t e r m i n e d l a r g e l y by
the skill o f the reader of student answers.
(PP. 8 4 - 9 1 )

Subjective testing, on t h e o t h e r hand, can o n l y be marked

by human beings, while the objective type can be marked

mechanically. Evaluating a piece ''of w r i t i n g like a free

composition is virtually an e n t i r e l y s u b j e c t i v e matter. Test

reliability may be h i g h i n objectively marked t e s t s like true-

false t e s t s , b u t c a n be l o w i n s u b j e c t i v e l y marked ones like

the essay type,

3.3.12.1. T e s t Types i n Q a t a r :

In a word, t h e classroom teacher f i n d s h i m s e l f faced with

having t o assess the progress of h i s students, t o judge their

readiness f o r one k i n d o f i n s t r u c t i o n o r a n o t h e r . Depending on

the previous assumption, the teacher must d e c i d e out of the

the whole complex o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which has been outlined

above what k i n d o f t e s t he w i s h e s t o make.

In Qatar, The E n g l i s h I n s p e c t o r a t e g i v e s d e t a i l e d outline

of t h e p r o p o s e d o b j e c t i v e s t o be a c h i e v e d i n a year. Teachers

should study these objectives carefully f o r two r e a s o n s . The

first i s to familiarize themselves with these objectives i n

c h a p t e r Three -150-
order t o do every possible attempt t o achieve them, and t h e

second reason i s t o take these objectives into consideration

while preparing to test t h e i r s t u d e n t s . T e a c h e r s use d i f f e r e n t

types of test i n the school environment, but teachers who

construct these t y p e s do n o t know t e s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . T h a t i s

to say, they do n o t know that tests o f language sub-skills

measure t h e s e p a r a t e components o f E n g l i s h s u c h as v o c a b u l a r y ,

grammar or pronunciation, while communicative tests, on t h e

o t h e r h a n d , show how w e l l s t u d e n t s use t h e l a n g u a g e i n a c t u a l l y

exchanging ideas and i n f o r m a t i o n . T e a c h e r s o f E n g l i s h do n o t

know w h e t h e r t h e i r t e s t s are proficiency o r achievement tests.

Their tests are constructed imitatively. We do n o t want a l l

teachers t o be t e s t e x p e r t s , b u t t o know what t y p e o f t e s t they

are using and how to construct classroom tests in an

a p p r o p r i a t e way t o b e n e f i t from testing.

To sum u p , t e a c h e r s o f E n g l i s h i n t h e Q a t a r i schools need

to bridge the e x i s t i n g gap b e t w e e n t h e i r i d e a s on t e s t i n g and

what t e s t i n g r e a l l y means. T h i s w i l l reinforce their a b i l i t y to

play t h e necessary role i n improving the present s i t u a t i o n by

applying d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f t e s t . An a t t e m p t is made, i n t h i s

thesis, to indicate some o f t h e o p t i o n s open t o teachers on

what techniques t o use when t h e y want to test t h e i r students.

Achievement tests that a r e c o n s t r u c t e d by teachers provide a

closer f i t between the tests they construct and the course

c h a p t e r Three -151-
contents they are t r y i n g to achieve. Each t y p e o f t e s t has i t s

own u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , u s e s , a d v a n t a g e s , and limitations.

c h a p t e r Three -152-
C h a p t e r Four

CHAPTER 4. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY-FUNDAMENTAL QUALITIES OF


GOOD TESTING:

Topical Outline

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Validity

4.2.1 L i t e r a t u r e Survey

4.2.2 Types o f V a l i d i t y

4.2.2.1 Face V a l i d i t y

4.2.2.2 Content V a l i d i t y

4.2.2.3 Construct V a l i d i t y

4.2.2.4 Predictive Validity

4.3 Reliability

4.3.1 Introduction

4.3.2 D e f i n i t i o n s of R e l i a b i l i t y

4.3.3 Ways o f E s t i m a t i n g Reliability

4.3.3.1 Test-retest Technique

4.3.3.2 A l t e r n a t i v e Forms o f t h e O r i g i n a l Test

4.3.3.3 Split-Half Technique

chapter Four -153-


C h a p t e r Four

VALIDITY AND R E L I A B I L I T Y

-FUNDAMENTAL QUALITIES OF GOOD TESTING-

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, I shall discuss the general

considerations that a r e always i m p o r t a n t i n test evaluation. A

test c a n be r e g a r d e d as a good test t o the extent that i t

s a t i s f i e s c e r t a i n p r a c t i c a l and t e c h n i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s .

The most important qualities to consider i n the

p r e p a r a t i o n and u s e o f t e s t s a r e v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y . Both

are essential procedures to obtain effective testing. When

teachers t r y to select or construct tests, i t i s important t o

ensure that they actually measure what i t i s intended to

measure, yield accurate scores and be relatively easy to

administer and s c o r e . When I use t h e word s e l e c t , I mean t h e

selection of published tests o f achievement by classroom

teachers. Hopkins and A n t e s (1985) on t h e o t h e r hand, p r e f e r

that teachers should construct tests f o rtheir classes rather

than s e l e c t other tests.

chapter Four -154-


The c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r has a b e t t e r opportunity to
b u i l d v a l i d achievement t e s t s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r class
o f s t u d e n t s t h a n s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t makers do because
t h a t t e a c h e r knows more t h a n any one e l s e a b o u t what
c o n t e n t has been c o v e r e d and t h e b e h a v i o u r s e x p e c t e d .
( P . 298)

All good t e s t s possess v a l i d i t y and reliability and other

qualities such as practicality which means that the test is

appropriate in terms of our objectives and applicable to a

certain situation. Validity has been defined by many

educationalists when they refer to testing. Now, we turn our

attention to what educationalists say about these twin

qualities separately.

4.2. Validity:

4.2.1 Literature Survey:

The literature about validity is relatively l a r g e , so I

shall t r y to quote the most appropriate ideas to c l a r i f y the

term and i t s use in testing i n general and in particular in

classroom achievement testing.

1-Goodwin and Driscoll (1980) d e f i n e v a l i d i t y i n the f o l l o w i n g

words:

chapter Four -155-


The v a l i d i t y o f a measure i s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h i t
fulfils t h e purpose f o r which i t i s intended.
(P. 7 7 ) .

2-Lado ( 1 9 7 7 ) d e f i n e s v a l i d i t y by a s k i n g a q u e s t i o n ;

Does t h e t e s t measure what i t i s i n t e n d e d t o measure?


I f i t does, i t i s a v a l i d test, v a l i d i t y i s not
general, but specific. (P. 3 0 ) .

3-Adkins (1988) gives t h e f o l l o w i n g definition:

A common d e f i n i t i o n o f t e s t v a l i d i t y i s t h e e x t e n t t o
which t h e t e s t serves i t s purpose. (P. 3 1 ) .

4-Gronlund ( 1 9 8 2 ) e x p r e s s e s n e a r l y t h e same i d e a when d e f i n i n g


validity:

Validity i s concerned w i t h t h e e x t e n t t o which test


r e s u l t s s e r v e i t s i n t e n d e d use. ( P . 125)

5-Satterly. (1981)

Assessments a r e made f o r a v a r i e t y o f p u r p o s e s , t h e
s t u d y o f v a l i d i t y , i s t h e r e f o r e t h e s t u d y o f how w e l l
those purposes a r e f u l f i l l e d (P. 2 2 5 ) .

We a r e m a i n l y interested h e r e i n t h e meanings o f v a l i d i t y

with respect t o language testing as opposed t o the general

issues. The c o n c e p t of validity, as used i n testing, can be

chapter Four -156-


clarified by quoting Gronlund ( 1 9 8 2 ) v^ho m e n t i o n s four points

t o be n o t e d when d e a l i n g w i t h validity.

1. V a l i d i t y r e f e r s t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t e s t
r e s u l t s ( n o t t o the t e s t i t s e l f ) .
2. V a l i d i t y i s i n f e r r e d f r o m a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e ( n o t
measured)
3. V a l i d i t y i s s p e c i f i c t o a p a r t i c u l a r use
( s e l e c t i o n , p l a c e m e n t , e v a l u a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g and
so f o r t h ) .
4. V a l i d i t y i s e x p r e s s e d by d e g r e e ( f o r example,
h i g h , m o d e r a t e , o r l o w ) . ( P. 126 )

Validity s e r v e s as an indicator t o h e l p us d e c i d e w h e t h e r

we are i n the r i g h t d i r e c t i o n or n o t . I f the t e s t measures

what we want i t t o measure we say t h a t the t e s t i s valid.

When we d e a l w i t h v a l i d i t y , we s h o u l d keep i n mind t h a t i t

refers to the results of a test for a given group of

individuals, but i t does n o t r e f e r to the instrument itself.

The second thing t o be remembered i s t h a t validity i s a matter

of degree. I t does n o t exist on an all-or-none basis. As a

result o f t h i s , we should avoid thinking of evaluating results

as v a l i d o r i n v a l i d . V a l i d i t y i s b e s t c o n s i d e r e d i n terms of

categories that s p e c i f y d e g r e e , such as h i g h , m o d e r a t e , and low

validity. Hopkins (1985) says:

T e s t s as used i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s e t t i n g s h o u l d n o t
be c l a s s i f i e d as e i t h e r t o t a l l y v a l i d or totally
i n v a l i d b u t must be c o n c e i v e d as b e i n g v a l i d t o a
p a r t i c u l a r degree. (P. 298).

c h a p t e r Four -157-
4.2.2. Types o f V a l i d i t y :

Validity i s traditionally classified into the following

types: face v a l i d i t y , content v a l i d i t y , c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y and

predictive validity. These four types are essential f o r an

adequate comprehension of v a l i d i t y and i t s r o l e i n t h e aim o f

t e s t i n g . Each o f t h e s e b a s i c t y p e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n turn.

4.2.2.1 Face Validity:

As i t s name shows, f a c e validity implies that the format

of the test reflects the a b i l i t i e s i t tests, t h a t i s t o say,

if i t l o o k s as t h o u g h i t i s t e s t i n g what i t does t e s t , t h e n we

say that t h e t e s t has f a c e v a l i d i t y . I t i s sometimes c o n s i d e r e d

to have g r e a t importance i n evaluating a test. Harris (1977)

says:

The most f r e q u e n t l y employed t y p e o f a l l i s " f a c e


v a l i d i t y " . Here we mean s i m p l y t h e way t h e t e s t l o o k s
- t o t h e e x a m i n e e s , t e s t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , e d u c a t o r s and

the like. (P. 2 1 ) .

Goodwin and Driscoll (1980) also give this type of

validity the same importance that was given by Harris,

m o r e o v e r , t h e y e x p l a i n what i s meant by f a c e validity:

Sometimes a measure i s s a i d t o have f a c e v a l i d i t y .


T h i s means t h a t i t a p p e a r s t o be a p p r o p r i a t e and

chapter Four -158-


adequate, the format, content, administration and
s c o r i n g procedures. (P. 81).

When we as teachers construct tests f o r our students, we

are not able to evaluate our own tests. I f this constructed

test i s shown t o c o l l e a g u e s or friends, they may discover i t s

a m b i g u i t i e s and criticize i t on t h e b a s i s t h a t i t does n o t look

suitable. Heaten (1985) says:

As c o n s t r u c t o r s o f t h e t e s t , we can become i n v o l v e d
i n t h e t e s t t h a t we sometimes f a i l t o s t a n d back and
l o o k a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e s t i t e m s o b j e c t i v e l y . Only
i f t h e t e s t i s examined by o t h e r p e o p l e can some o f
t h e a b s u r d i t i e s and a m b i g u i t i e s t h e n be d i s c o v e r e d .
(P. 153).

As a result of reviewing the literature on testing, I

found that the e d u c a t i o n a l i s t s who are interested in testing

are divided into two groups as far as face validity is

concerned. Some c o n s i d e r face v a l i d i t y as an i m p o r t a n t type of

validity, among them a r e the f o l l o w i n g names: S a t t e r l y (1985),

Goodwin and D r i s c o l l ( 1 9 8 0 ) , and Heaten (1985). Others do not

consider face validity as a type related to validity, among

them are the following: Thorndike (1969, Klausmeier (1971),

Hopkins (1985), Hagen (1969), Lindeman (1971), Marshall and

Hales (1972), Tuckman (1975), Brown (1980), Swezey (1981) and

Doyle (1984). At this stage, i t i s r e l e v a n t to quote Gronlund

(1981) t o represent t h e second g r o u p . He says:

chapter Four -159-


Face validity should not be c o n s i d e r e d as a
s u b s t i t u t e f o r content v a l i d i t y . I n f a c t , t h e term
f a c e v a l i d i t y i s a misnomer; i t i s n o t r e a l l y a t y p e
of v a l i d i t y a t a l l . ( P . 6 9 ) .

Finally, i t seems t o me that content v a l i d i t y can r e p l a c e

face v a l i d i t y and when somebody t r i e s t o judge a test, content

validity must speak l o u d e r t h a n f a c e validity.

4.2.2.2 Content V a l i d i t y :

When classroom teachers construct tests for their

students, they always need to ascertain t o what extent the

s t u d e n t s have l e a r n e d what t e a c h e r s have t a u g h t them d u r i n g t h e

school year. What s t u d e n t s have s t u d i e d was p r e s e n t e d t o them

via a systematic c u r r i c u l u m . Teachers need t o know how well

the items vi7hich make up the test match the curriculum

o b j e c t i v e s and a l s o t h e a c t u a l c o n t e n t o f t h e t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g

experiences. In this situation, content validity i s necessary

to classroom achievement testing. Satterly ( 1 9 8 5 ) speaks o f

the concept o f content v a l i d i t y saying:

C o n t e n t v a l i d i t y i s an e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t
f o r a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s and r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e t e a c h e r
or t e s t c o n s t r u c t o r b u i l d s i n t o the t e s t not only the
t o p i c s which were c o v e r e d , b u t a l s o items which
demand t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s k i l l s . ( P . 227)

chapter Four -160-


Weir (1988) also expresses t h e same importance of content

validity:

P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d t o c o n t e n t v a l i d i t y
i n an a t t e m p t t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e sample o f a c t i v i t i e s
t o be i n c l u d e d i n a t e s t i s as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e
t a r g e t domain as i s p o s s i b l e , ( P , 2 5 ) .

Hopkins and Antes (1985) give special priority to content

validity when t h e t e s t constructor i s concerned w i t h classroom

testing

For tests developed in the classroom t h e most


important type of v a l i d i t y t o be c o n c e r n e d a b o u t i s
c o n t e n t v a l i d i t y . (P. 299)

In t h e c l a s s r o o m , we teach d i f f e r e n t skills as w e l l as

many aspects of the target language. I f teachers want to

ascertain that what they construct are v a l i d tests, t h e y can

follow a set of useful guidelines f o r establishing content

validity. Weir (1988) quotes Anastasi (1982) who p r o v i d e s

these g u i d e l i n e s t o be as f o l l o w s :

1-" t h e b e h a v i o u r domain t o be t e s t e d must be


s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a n a l y s e d t o make c e r t a i n t h a t a l l
m a j o r a s p e c t s a r e c o v e r e d by t h e t e s t i t e m s and i n
the c o r r e c t p r o p o r t i o n s " ;
2- " t h e domain under c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d be f u l l y
d e s c r i b e d i n advance, r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g d e f i n e d
a f t e r t h e t e s t has been p r e p a r e d " ;
3- " c o n t e n t v a l i d i t y depends on t h e r e l e v a n c e o f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l ' s t e s t responses t o t h e behaviour area

c h a p t e r Four -161-
u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n on the apparent
relevance of item content". (P.25),

Content validity is of fundamental importance in

a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s . When a t e a c h e r w a n t s t o c o n s t r u c t a t e s t , he

s h o u l d examine c a r e f u l l y t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e u n i t he i s going to

test and make sure that the unit-content is faithfully

represented i n the c o n s t r u c t e d t e s t . I t should be pointed out

that classroom teachers can show b e t t e r content validity than

published t e s t s do because p u b l i s h e d t e s t s c o n s t r u c t o r s a r e not

able to build specificity into a test as well as classroom

teachers, Hopkins and Antes ( 1 9 8 5 ) speak i n an a s s e r t i v e tone

in this respect.

The c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r has a b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t y t o
b u i l d v a l i d achievement f o r a p a r t i c u l a r class of
s t u d e n t s t h a n s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t makers do, because
t h a t t e a c h e r knows more t h a n anyone e l s e a b o u t what
c o n t e n t has been c o v e r e d and t h e b e h a v i o u r s expected.
(P. 2 9 8 ) .

Quite obviously from the above, content validity is

suitable for achievement testing because the students'

achievement is based on a certain plan which the classroom

teachers follow to achieve specific objectives during the

course of their t e a c h i n g and the tests t h a t classroom teachers

construct should represent these objectives. Lindeman (1971)

connects i t w i t h achievement testing.

chapter Four -162-


C o n t e n t v a l i d i t y i s most a p p r o p r i a t e l y c o n s i d e r e d i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h achievement t e s t i n g . (P. 3 7 ) .

Goodwin and D r i s c o l l (1980) agree w i t h Lindeman when t h e y s a y :

The e x t e n t t o w h i c h t e s t i t e m s o r t a s k s r e p r e s e n t t h e
c o n t e n t and p r o c e s s e s o f a c u r r i c u l u m u n i v e r s e o r
domain i s known as c o n t e n t v a l i d i t y , most often
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h achievement t e s t s . (P. 7 8 ) .

It i s interesting t o say that content validity can be

judged before the test i s used, p r o v i d e d that we have a clear

idea of the curriculum being tested. The contents of the

curriculum should be i n agreement with the test items being

included to test that the students have mastered these

contents. Lindeman ( 1 9 7 1 ) speaks o f t h e a g r e e m e n t :

The o v e r a l l j u d g e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g c o n t e n t v a l i d i t y i s
based on t h e e x t e n t o f agreement between t h e t e s t and
the i n s t r u c t i o n a l p l a n . (P. 37)

In a word, content validity i s easily judged by teachers

when they c o n s t r u c t classroom tests because i t has n o t h i n g t o

do vi?ith statistical aspects of tests also because i t has

nothing t o do w i t h test scores.

chapter Four -163-


4.2.2.3 Construct Validity:

In addition t o content validity which helps us determine

how well test scores represent t h e achievement of certain

learning outcomes, we may wish to interpret test scores in

terras of some general psychological quality. Construct

validity gives us a d d i t i o n a l understanding of the individual.

This type of validity c a n be w e l l understood i f we try to

review the various definitions that have been given to

construct validity.

1 - Karmel (1978)

C o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y i s a s c e r t a i n e d by investigating
what t r a i t s a t e s t measures, t h a t i s , v^hat t h e t e s t
s c o r e t e l l s us a b o u t a p e r s o n . ( P . 1 0 8 ) .

2- G r o n l u n d (1985)

A c o n s t r u c t i s a p s y c h o l o g i c a l q u a l i t y t h a t we assume
e x i s t s i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n some a s p e c t s o f b e h a v i o u r .
Mathematical reasoning i s a c o n s t r u c t and so a r e
intelligence, creativity, reading comprehension.
(P. 7 2 ) .

Construct validity i s connected with the personality of

the individual. I f testers want to explain t h e reason that

scores differ from h i g h t o low o r from low t o h i g h i n d i f f e r e n t

situations, they t r y to hypothesize personality theoies that

chapter Four -164-


might help them to explain what is going on within

theindividual. Such k n o w l e d g e c a n n o t be o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y , b u t

through c o n t r o l l e d observations of the i n d i v i d u a l ' s performance

in school. Construct validity is necessary to achievement

t e s t i n g s i n c e achievement i s a meaningful c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the

pupil. This type of v a l i d i t y can s e r v e as an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e

relationship b e t w e e n what we p r e d i c t and what t e s t s c o r e s show.

Gronlund ( 1 9 8 1 ) g i v e s an example a b o u t how prediction works i n

relation to construct validity.

L e t us suppose t h a t we w i s h t o c h e c k t h e c l a i m t h a t a
n e w l y c o n s t r u c t e d t e s t measures i n t e l l i g e n c e . From
what i s known a b o u t i n t e l l i g e n c e , we m i g h t make t h e
following predictions:
1- The raw s c o r e s on t h e t e s t w i l l i n c r e a s e w i t h age.
2- The t e s t s c o r e s w i l l p r e d i c t success i n s c h o o l
achievement, e t c .
Each o f t h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s , and o t h e r s w o u l d t h e n be
t e s t e d , one by one. I f p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s are obtained
for each p r e d i c t i o n , t h e combined evidence lends
support to the claim that the test measures
i n t e l l i g e n c e . (P. 8 2 ) .

Dealing with construct validity is a difficult procedure

b e c a u s e i t demands some s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . The Encyclopedia

of E d u c a t i o n ( 1 9 7 1 ) q u o t e s Cronbach and Thomas t o i n d i c a t e this

difficulty.

Statements a b o u t c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y may use v a r i o u s


statistics t o support i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the t e s t .
(P. 170)

c h a p t e r Four -165-
Gronlund (1985) also says:

In general, t h e process of construct validation


i n v o l v e s : ( 1 ) i d e n t i f y i n g and d e s c r i b i n g , by means o f
a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k , t h e meaning o f t h e c o n s t r u c t
t o be measured. ( 2 ) d e r i v i n g h y p o t h e s e s . ( P . 7 3 ) .

Construct v a l i d i t y i s very necessary t o classroom teachers

s i n c e they d e a l w i t h achievement i n l e a r n i n g . I t provides them

with additional i n f o r m a t i o n about students individually. Sax

(1986) g i v e s reason f o r determining construct v a l i d i t y :

Determining the v a l i d i t y of a construct i s important


when t h e t e s t d e v e l o p e r o r t e s t u s e r w i s h e s t o l e a r n
more a b o u t t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l q u a l i t i e s . ( P . 2 9 5 ) .

Construct validity i s of great importance i n nearly a l l

types of testing, b u t we are mainly interested in classroom

achievement t e s t i n g s i n c e achievement i s a meaningful indicator

of every individual pupil. I n a word, c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y aims

at identifying the nature and the strength of a l l factors

influencing t h e s t u d e n t s ' p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e i n t e n d e d test. I f

an achievement test has high construct validity, i t should

clearly distinguish between students who have achieved high

scores at different levels and those v/ho have achieved low

scores a t t h e same l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y .

In language testing, teachers are concerned with

motivation, and c r e a t i v i t y . Associated with each of these^a

chapter Four -166-


group of highly related behaviours. I f teachers want t o make

sure that their prediction of the a b i l i t y the students will

demonstrate on a g i v e n test, they c o n s t r u c t a t e s t i n s p e c t i o n

can be used t o determine whether the t e s t has construct

validity. I f the test has c o n s t r u c t validity, scores on t h e

test will vary from student t o student t h e same way t h a t t h e

t h e o r y f o r t h a t c o n s t r u c t would predict.

4.2.2.4 Predictive Validity.

This i s the t h i r d type of v a l i d i t y . I t c a n be used f o r

predicting the individuals* future performance or selection.

Sax (1980) says:

P r e d i c t i v e v a l i d i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s are usually obtained


f o r s e l e c t i o n and p l a c e m e n t p u r p o s e s . ( P . 2 9 7 ) .

Harris ( 1 9 6 9 ) e x p r e s s e s t h e same i d e a saying:

I f we use a t e s t o f E n g l i s h as a second l a n g u a g e t o
s c r e e n u n i v e r s i t y a p p l i c a n t s and t h e n c o r r e l a t e t e s t
s c o r e s w i t h g r a d e s made a t t h e end o f t h e f i r s t
semester, we are attempting t o determine the
p r e d i c t i v e v a l i d i t y . (P. 2 0 ) .

A t t h e end o f t h e s c h o o l - y e a r , s t u d e n t s always t h i n k about

the courses they w i l l take o r t h e c o l l e g e s they w i l l choose t h e

chapter Four -167-


following year. High school c o u n s e l l o r s want t o be sure about

the present capability of their students. To reach such a

decision, they may use tests t o o b t a i n t h e needed i n f o r m a t i o n

about the individuals' future performance which serves as an

indicator f o r students' selection.

If we want to judge a certain t e s t , we may say that this

test is valid and that one is invalid. In this case, our

judgment i s not c o r r e c t since the purpose of test validation

must be mentioned. A c e r t a i n t e s t may be v a l i d f o r one purpose

and at the same time invalid for another. Dyer (1965)

explains:

A g i v e n t e s t may s e r v e a l l t h r e e p u r p o s e s ( c o n t e n t ,
c o n s t r u c t o r p r e d i c t i v e ) more o r l e s s w e l l , o r i t may
have h i g h v a l i d i t y f o r one p u r p o s e and low f o r
a n o t h e r , t h u s , i t i s not meaningful t o r e f e r t o the
validity of a t e s t w i t h o u t q u a l i f y i n g the term.
(P. 3 7 ) .

On the basis of classroom t e s t i n g . As I see it, teachers'

prediction i s n o t a l w a y s v a l u a b l e and n e c e s s a r y . They need not

do that since their task is not prediction, rather i t is

concerned w i t h teaching i n tbe f i r s t p l a c e , so t h e y s h o u l d know

more a b o u t c o n t e n t validity and how to c o n t r u c t a content v a l i d

test

Now l e t us examine t h e c l a s s r o o m tests t h a t a r e i n use in

Qatari schools with relation to the previous types of validity.

chapter Four -168-


Teachers, in a l l levels of learning i n Qatar, Primary,

P r e p a r a t o r y and S e c o n d a r y , a r e n o t c o n c e r n e d with this quality

of good testing. Most o f them do n o t c a r e a t a l l about

validity when t h e y c o n s t r u c t classroom tests because t h e y know

in advance that neither the classroom teacher nor the

e d u c a t i o n a l management e v e r think of analysing test scores f o r

any o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l purposes of testing. Finally, classroom

tests i n Qatar a r e n o t checked for validity. I t i s of great

value t o g i v e an example a b o u t real classroom tests i n Qatar.

At t h e Secondary l e v e l ( s e c o n d a r y o n e ) U n i t one i s c a l l e d "The

World o f t h e Unknown". When one o f t h e t e a c h e r s who t e a c h e s a t

this stage wanted t o t e s t h i s s t u d e n t s , he c o n s t r u c t e d a t e s t

and included items that are not related t o t h e aims and

f u n c t i o n s o f t h e u n i t he was t e s t i n g . The f u n c t i o n s o f U n i t One

are the f o l l o w i n g :

1. Comparing: i t ' s like, i t looks like.

2. S u g g e s t i n g : come o n ; l e t ' s g o ; l e t ' s g e t o u t o f h e a r .

3. A s k i n g p o l i t e q u e s t i o n s : c o u l d you...?

4. E x p r e s s i n g d i s b e l i e f : I d o n ' t b e l i e v e i t .

5. I n t r o d u c i n g and e x p r e s s i n g o p i n i o n s : as I see i t

6. T a l k i n g a b o u t f u t u r e : I'm g o i n g o u t o f h e r e .

When t h e t e a c h e r \vanted t o t e s t these unit functions, he

constructed a t e s t saying i n the f i r s t item:

c h a p t e r Four -169-
"Read t h e f o l l o v ; i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n and t h e n answer t h e q u e s t i o n s

b e l o w " . The teacher i n t r o d u c e d a c o n v e r s a t i o n w h i c h was taken

directly from the textbook and asked the students to find

examples o f :

1. Comparison:

2. S u g g e s t i o n :

3. A d v i c e :

4. O b l i g a t i o n :

If we compare the functions that the teacher asked t h e

students to identify, we can get the impression that the

teacher d i d n o t s t u d y \ i 7 e l l U n i t One f u n c t i o n s . He asked them t o

find examples of advice and obligation. These two functions

were n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e u n i t functions listed above. I n t h i s

situation we say that his test i s not content valid since i t

did not respect the r u l e s of content validity. The degree o f

content validity i s determined by making a c o m p a r i s o n between

the content of the test with the content of classroom

instruction t o t e s t how w e l l t h e i n s t r u c t e d m a t e r i a l s have been

achieved by t h e s t u d e n t s d u r i n g a p r e d e t e r m i n e d length of time.

The adequacy of sampling i s also important here. That i s t o

say, the test should represent the taught m a t e r i a l s . I n the

previous example, the teacher tried to test only two f u n c t i o n s

out of s i x that were included i n the u n i t functions above.

Thus, the teacher d i d not respect t h e adequacy of sampling i n

his test.

chapter Four -170-


4.3 Reliability:

4.3.1 Introduction:

Those who are interested in testing give validity and

reliability primary c o n s i d e r a t i o n when e v a l u a t i n g a t e s t . This

quality o f good testing gives the test user the extent of how

far he can depend on the t e s t r e s u l t s as a r e a l i n d i c a t i o n of

the ability b e i n g measured by the test.

Basically, t h i s s e c t i o n attempts to deal w i t h the problem

of the c o n s i s t e n c y of testing. Readers a r e then introduced to

the meaning o f r e l i a b i l i t y through reviewing d i f f e r e n t opinions

about t h i s e s s e n t i a l term.

4.3.2 D e f i n i t i o n s of Reliability:

An i m p o r t a n t aim i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of

tests is to identify potential sources of error in a given

measurement of language a b i l i t y and to minimize the e f f e c t of

these factors on that measurement. The classromm teacher

sometimes a s k s , "How similar w o u l d each s t u d e n t ' s s c o r e s be on

the first test and a subsequent test i f the same t e s t s were

used?" The answer to this question is based on the test

reliability. The following definitions of reliability will

c o n c e n t r a t e on the s t a b i l i t y of the t e s t scores.

chapter Four -171-


1-Lindeman (1971)

R e l i a b i l i t y i s d e f i n e d as t h e c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h which
a t e s t measures w h a t e v e r i t measures. ( P . 4 3 )

2-Tuckman ( 1 9 7 5 )

R e l i a b i l i t y i n d i c a t e s t h e degree t o which a t e s t i s
c o n s i s t e n t i n m e a s u r i n g w h a t e v e r i t does measure. The
d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e t e s t measures t h e same t h i n g t i m e
a f t e r t i m e . ( P . 254)

3-Harris (1977)

By r e l i a b i l i t y i s meant t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t e s t s c o r e s .
A test cannot measure anything well unless i t
measures c o n s i s t e n t l y . ( P. 14 )

4-Gronlund (1985)

R e l i a b i l i t y r e f e r s t o t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f measurement,
that i s how consistent test scores or other
evaluation results are from one measurement t o
a n o t h e r . ( P . 86)

All t h e p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d q u o t a t i o n s c o n c e n t r a t e on one

t h i n g , which i s the consistency o f t e s t scores w i t h which test

performances are evaluated. I am mainly interested i n the

c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e s c o r e s because t h e y a r e a f f e c t e d by a number

of factors, chief among them b e i n g t h e adequacy o f t h e s a m p l i n g

c h a p t e r Four -172-
of the tasks being tested. The second factor that affects

reliability is the difference from one administration to

another. That i s , d i f f e r e n t markers give d i f f e r e n t scores to

the same t e s t . F i n a l l y , t h e purpose o f t h e t e s t a l s o affects

reliability on t h e b a s i s that a certain test may be r e l i a b l e

for one p u r p o s e and u n r e l i a b l e f o r another. These a r e n o t a l l

the factors that affect reliability, b u t t h e most important

ones. The f a c t o r that affects t h e scores has been l o o k e d a t

differently by testers. Hopkins (1969) relates i t to the

individual, while Sax (1980) relates i t to the item itself.

Hopkins (1969) says:

When we h a v e e x t r a c t e d two s c o r e s from a s i n g l e


testing, both scores n e c e s s a r i l y represent the
i n d i v i d u a l as he i s a t t h e same moment o f t i m e .
Every event l a s t i n g o n l y a few minutes w i l l a f f e c t
b o t h s c o r e s . (P. 184)

Sax ( 1 9 8 0 ) p u t s i t i n a n o t h e r way:

The number of items on a test also affects


r e l i a b i l i t y . The more i t e m s t h e r e a r e , t h e h i g h e r
r e l i a b i l i t y w i l l be. ( P . 270)

It seems t o me that both the individual's p h y s i c a l mood

such as illness or recovering from illness or even h i s

psychological characteristics a t t h e t i m e o f t h e t e s t such as

motivation or fatigue, and the test item quality such as

c h a p t e r Four -173-
objectivity and d i f f i c u l t y affect the test scores. I conclude

t h a t v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y a r e o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e when t e s t

evaluation i s taken i n t o account. B o t h o f them a r e needed and

e a c h one i s n e c e s s a r y t o the other

4.3.3 Ways o f E s t i m a t i n g Reliability:

Reliability, as we h a v e seen i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n s , may be

obtained by one o f s e v e r a l p r o c e d u r e s . The c h o i c e depends on

the use o f t h e t e s t scores. Although t h e r e a r e v a r i o u s methods

of estimating reliability, t h e most commonly used are those

t h a t h a v e been m e n t i o n e d by K a r m e l ( 1 9 7 8 ) t o be as f o l l o w s :

1 - R e t e s t s u b j e c t s v / i t h t h e same t e s t .
2- A l t e r n a t e f o r m o f t h e o r i g i n a l t e s t .
3- S p l i t - h a l f w h i c h i n v o l v e s a d i v i s i o n o f t h e t e s t
i n t o two p a r t s . ( P . 1 1 2 )

Now, I s h a l l d e a l w i t h t h e s e t h r e e ways s e p a r a t e l y .

4.3,3.1 T e s t - r e t e s t Technique.

T h i s i s t h e s i m p l e s t way t o e s t i m a t e r e l i a b i l i t y . In this

way, we t e s t t h e same s t u d e n t s w i t h e x a c t l y t h e same t e s t . The

obtained scores from t h e same i n d i v i d u a l s are expected t o be

c h a p t e r Four -174-
the same. Satterly (1985) considers this technique as t h e

easiest to administer.

T h i s i s p r o b a b l y one o f t h e e a s i e s t t o o b t a i n s i n c e
i t i n v o l v e s o n l y two a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e same t e s t
to a g i v e n group o f c h i l d r e n . (P. 196)

Karmel (1978) gives an interesting example to explain this

technique.

I f a p h y s i c i a n , f o r e x a m p l e , wanted t o check on t h e
a c c u r a c y o f a n u r s e ' s a b i l i t y t o measure p a t i e n t ' s
w e i g h t and h e i g h t . The p h y s i c i a n m i g h t a s k t h e same
n u r s e t o measure each p a t i e n t t w i c e , u s i n g t h e same
procedure. (P. 112)

While r e p e a t i n g t h e same t e s t twice, particular attention

should be p a i d t o the time interval that separates t h e two

administrations. Quite obviously, the obtained scores will

sometimes v a r y b e t w e e n t h e two a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . I f t h e s t u d e n t s

have t h e chance o f two o r t h r e e days i n t e r v a l between t h e two

tests, they w i l l o f t e n g e t e i t h e r t h e same s c o r e s o r t h e second

will be b e t t e r than t h e f i r s t . This i s because t h e s t u d e n t s may

avoid their previous mistakes on t h e second t e s t . Whatever t h e

interval, i t has a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s . Gronlund (1985)

says:

One important factor t o keep i n mind when


interpreting measures of s t a b i l i t y i s the time

chapter Four -175-


i n t e r v a l between t e s t s . I f t h i s time i n t e r v a l i s
s h o r t , s a y a day o r t w o , t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e
results will be inflated, because pupils will
remember some o f t h e i r answers f r o m t h e f i r s t t e s t t o
t h e s e c o n d . I f t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l i s l o n g , say a b o u t a
y e a r , t h e r e s u l t s w i l l be i n f l u e n c e d n o t o n l y by t h e
i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e , b u t a l s o by
a c t u a l changes i n t h e p u p i l . ( P . 9 0 )

The scores variation depends monsr less on the time

interval which has i t s c l e a r e f f e c t even on t h e i n d i v i d u a l s

themselves. Some o f them may l o s e interest i n taking the test

again. Lado ( 1 9 7 7 ) e x p l a i n s t h i s p o i n t s a y i n g :

Some s t u d e n t s may l o s e i n t e r e s t when asked t o r e p e a t


a t e s t , w h i l e o t h e r s may n o t , t h e y may be o c c u p y i n g
d i f f e r e n t s e a t s on t h e r e t e s t and t h i s may a f f e c t
t h e i r performance. T h e r e may be d i f f e r e n c e s i n n o i s e
o t h e r d i s t u r b i n g e l e m e n t s a t t h e t i m e o f t h e two
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . (PP. 333-334)

The f i n a l w o r d on t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s t h a t i t has n o t h i n g t o

do with classroom testing. I t i s of great importance to

c o n s t r u c t o r s o f s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t s when t h e y want t o a s c e r t a i n

the reliability of their tests.

4,3.3,2 Alternate Forms o f t h e O r i g i n a l T e s t :

The second way o f e s t i m a t i n g r e l i a b i l i t y of a test i s the

alternate forms of t h e same test. I n this technique two

different forms o f t h e same test a r e used. These two forms

chapter Four -176-


should be equivalent i n length, difficulty, time limits and

format. Other aspects may a l s o be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n such

as t h e area o f k n o w l e d g e on w h i c h t h e two t e s t s will depend.

K a r m e l ( 1 9 7 8 ) p u t s a g r e a t emphasis on t e s t - i t e m s :

Each f o r m s h o u l d c o n t a i n t h e same number o f i t e m s


c o v e r i n g t h e same k i n d o f c o n t e n t and a r r a n g e d i n t h e
same f o r m a t . A l l a s p e c t s o f t h e t e s t i n c l u d i n g t h e
degree o f c o n t e n t , d i f f i c u l t y , instructions, time
l i m i t s and so f o r t h - must be c o m p a r a b l e . ( P . 114)

Our time interval is still existing even in this

t e c h n i q u e , b u t i t i s recommended t o be a s h o r t t i m e between t h e

two forms a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . Gronlund (1985) suggests that:

The two f o r m s o f t h e t e s t a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o t h e
same g r o u p o f p u p i l s i n c l o s e s u c c e s s i o n ( P . 9 1 )

Thorndike (1964) agrees w i t h Gronlund saying:

They may f o l l o v ^ each o t h e r i m m e d i a t e l y i f we a r e n o t


i n t e r e s t e d i n s t a b i l i t y over t i m e . ( P . 182)

This technique i s usually used f o r school-wide standardized

tests.

chapter Four -177-


4.3.3.3 S p l i t - h a l f Technique:

In this technique, t h e same test i s divided into halves

for scoring after a single administration. In this situation,

two scores will be o b t a i n e d f o r each individual s t u d e n t . The

two h a l v e s w i l l be s c o r e d as G r o n l u n d (1985) suggests:

To s p l i t t h e t e s t i n t o h a l v e s t h a t a r e most
e q u i v a l e n t , t h e u s u a l p r o c e d u r e i s t o s c o r e t h e even-
numbered and t h e odd-numbered items separately.
(P. 92)

During t h e t i m e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , we c a n n o t be s u r e that

the individual s t u d e n t was i n t h e same mood i n t h e two p a r t s o f

the same t e s t . T h i s means t h a t a kind o f l i m i t a t i o n s h o u l d be

taken into c o n s i d e r a t i o n . At t h i s stage, i t i s necessary to

g i v e an answer t o t h o s e who may a s k "How c a n we make t e s t s more

reliable. The answer i s given by Hughes (1990) through many

suggested procedures:

1 . Take enough samples o f b e h a v i o u r .

2. Do n o t a l l o w c a n d i d a t e s much f r e e d o m .

3. W r i t e unambiguous i t e m s .

4. P r o v i d e c l e a r and e x p l i c i t i n s t r u c t i o n s .

5. C a n d i d a t e s s h o u l d be f a m i l i a r w i t h f o r m a t and

testing techniques.

c h a p t e r Four -178-
6, Use i t e m s t h a t p e r m i t s c o r i n g w h i c h i s as

o b j e c t i v e as p o s s i b l e ,

7. P r o v i d e a d e t a i l e d s c o r i n g k e y . (PP. 36-41)

4.4 R e l a t i o n s h i p Between R e l i a b i l i t y and V a l i d i t y :

The most important quality, test users must take into

consideration, is validity. Reliability is necessary for

validity i n t h e sense that test scores that are not r e l i a b l e

cannot provide a basis f o r valid interpretation and use o f

language tests. Reliability i s very important procedure to

obtain v a l i d i t y . Gronlund (1982) says:

R e l i a b i l i t y i s a necessary, but not a sufficient,


c o n d i t i o n f o r v a l i d i t y . (P. 33)

During the test c o n s t r u c t i o n procedure, when a teacher

tries t o choose t h e sample of the learning o b j e c t i v e s t o be

included i n his test means that he i s on the r i g h t way t o

establish content validity. On the other h a n d , when adequate

numbers o f i t e m s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e s a m p l i n g this a l s o means

that he i s moving toward establishing reliability. When we

increase the r e l i a b i l i t y o f o u r measures, we a l s o s a t i s f y i n g a

necessary condition f o rvalidity; i n order f o r a t e s t score t o

c h a p t e r Four -179-
be valid, i t must be reliable. Most d i s c u s s i o n s o f these two

i m p o r t a n t q u a l i t i e s o f good t e s t i n g speak a b o u t the d i f f e r e n c e s

between t h e s e two q u a l i t i e s , r a t h e r than t h e i r s i m i l a r i t i e s . I

believe that both of them can be better understood by saying

that they are complementary aspects of estimating sources of

variance in test scores. Bachman (1990) speaks about the

difference b e t w e e n t h e s e two qualities:

I n e s t i m a t i n g r e l i a b i l i t y we a r e c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y
w i t h examining v a r i a n c e i n t e s t scores themselves. I n
v a l i d a t i o n , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , we must c o n s i d e r o t h e r
s o u r c e s o f v a r i a n c e , and must u t i l i z e a theory of
abilities t o i d e n t i f y these sources. That i s , i n
o r d e r t o examine v a l i d i t y , we need a t h e o r y t h a t
s p e c i f i e s t h e l a n g u a g e a b i l i t i e s t h a t we h y p o t h e s i z e
will affect test performance. The process of
validation t h u s must l o o k beyond r e l i a b i l i t y and
examine t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e and
f a c t o r s o u t s i d e t h e t e s t i t s e l f . ( P . 239)

The two qualities are always of great importance to those

who construct tests, but i f a kind of choice i s t o be made,

validity i s more i m p o r t a n t t o be a c h i e v e d by the tester.

In Qatar, there is no sign that either validity or

reliability are c o n s i d e r e d . That i s to say, t e a c h e r s do not

care a t a l l about t h e s e two e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t i e s o f a good test.

These two qualities were dealt with only on experimental

b a s i s V'jhen the M i n i s t r y of Education asks a testing expert to

evaluate classroom t e s t s . Teachers o f E n g l i s h do n o t c a r e about

these tv^o q u a l i t i e s because t h e y do n o t know how to deal with

c h a p t e r Four -180-
them. They think that any set of questions can be called a

test.

c h a p t e r Four -181-
Chapter F i v e

CASE STUDY BASED ON "THE CRESCENT ENGLISH COURSE"

Topical Outline:

5.0 Introduction, (course background)

5.1 Course objectives.

5.2 A n a l y s i s o f three teacher-produced tests,

5.3 T e s t one.

5.3.1 Testees' background.

5.3.2 Test s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

5.4 Test two.

5.4.1 Testees' background.

5.4.2 Test s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

5.5 Test three.

5.5.1 Testees''background.

5.5.2.Test s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

5.6. Implication for future practice.

chapter Five -182-


Chapter F i v e

CASE STUDY -BASED ON "THE CRESCENT ENGLISH COURSE"

5.0 Introduction: (course background)

In this chapter, t h e survey i s meant to identify present

conditions to provide i n f o r m a t i o n on w h i c h I c a n base sound

recommendations. I t i s an e x p l o r a t o r y c h a p t e r i n nature, with

emphasis on breadth rather than deep discussions. I am

concerned here with determining the current status of testing

in t h e "Crescent E n g l i s h Course".

As p o i n t e d o u t i n c h a p t e r one, i n Q a t a r we are teaching

and testing "The C r e s c e n t English Course" which i s based on

the communicative approach. The M i n i s t r y o f Education aims

at producing bilingual students able to interact effectively

with other English-speaking communities. Taking this into

consideration, the Ministry o f Education decided to put the

communicative approach i n t o action t o provide the students not

only with formal knowledge of the target language, but also

with the a b i l i t y t o communicate and use E n g l i s h effectively.

The course i s based on the current understanding of the

communicative nature o f l a n g u a g e . Lessons a r e d e s i g n e d , as f a r

as possible, around activities which are motivating in

themselves and t o some extent reflect the interests of the

chapter Five -183-


students to introduce them to the social use of language

through the w e l l defioeD a c t i r i t y o f g r o u p w o r k and p a i r work.

The materials were produced by Oxford University Press

(OUP), e i g h t - l e v e l Crescent English Course, a Communicatively-

based s e r i e s t h a t was specially written f o r A r a b l e a r n e r s by a

British team. A p p e n d i c e s f r o m 4 t o 10 show t h e m a t e r i a l s . The

organization of the course varies in length with each level.

The teacher's guide, however, not only breaks the materials

i n t o u n i t s but also i n t o steps (see appendix 11).

The recorded materials play an important part also in

introducing the students to the target language spoken by

native speakers of English. The course is well organized,

progressing from listening and speaking to reading and writing.

Repetition, r e c y c l i n g and r e v i s i o n of the taught m a t e r i a l s are

well planned and built into the c o u r s e . There are 188 schools

in Qatar in addition to another 4 specialized schools.

Religious ( 2 ) , Commercial ( 1 ) , I n d u s t r i a l ( 1 ) .

chapter Five -184-


5.1 Course Objectives:

When I use t h e word " o b j e c t i v e s " , I mean what t h e s t u d e n t s

should be a b l e t o do a f t e r a prescribed time of instruction.

The C r e s c e n t Course was c r i t i c i z e d on t h e b a s i s t h a t i t was p u t

i n t o a c t i o n w i t h o u t c l e a r l y prepared o b j e c t i v e s . The o b j e c t i v e s

of t h e "Crescent Course" should have been s e t i n advance.

Qotbah (1990) says:

What i s s t r a n g e about t h e "Crescent Course" i s t h a t


it was w r i t t e n w i t h o u t c l e a r o b j e c t i v e s i n mind.
(P. 31)

The o b j e c t i v e s s h o u l d be s e t i n advance to help teachers

to t r y t o achieve them. I f t e a c h e r s do n o t know what t h e y a r e

aiming a t , they will n o t be a b l e t o decide whether they have

reached the destination or not. I could not establish a

definite date of the production of the Crescent Course

o b j e c t i v e s . There i s a c o n t r a d i c t o r y s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f date as

far as the o b j e c t i v e s are concerned. Dr. Bratton, English

Language Consultant i n Qatar, says in a report which v/as

presented i n a seminar i n Bahrain 12-15, November, 1983:

The aims and o b j e c t i v e s o f E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e i n Q a t a r


a r e s e t down i n a document p r e p a r e d i n June 1983 by
a s u b - c o m m i t t e e o f t h e ELT S u p e r v i s o r y Committee.
(P. 91)

chapter Five -185-


While Qotbah ( 1 9 9 0 ) says:

I n 1985 E n g l i s h t e a c h i n g o b j e c t i v e s were f o r m a l l y
p r o d u c e d by t h e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n . ( P . 3 2 )

The o b j e c t i v e s t h a t have been s e t by t h e the Ministry of

Education for the three levels of learning (Primary,

Preparatory and S e c o n d a r y ) a r e l i s t e d i n appendices 1 , 2, and

3.

As p o i n t e d o u t i n c h a p t e r one, t e s t s i n Qatar a r e c a r r i e d

o u t a t s e v e r a l p a r t s each t e r m . The f i r s t two m o n t h l y t e s t s and

the m i d - t e r m a r e c o n s t r u c t e d by c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s . A t t h e end

of term, p u p i l s are given tests that a r e c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e

Inspectorate to reflect t h e aims of t h e Crescent English

Course. These tests also serve the purpose of allowing

comparison between s t u d e n t s from d i f f e r e n t schools and s e t t i n g

n a t i o n a l standards f o r a l l schools.

In principle both kinds o f test are introduced t o f u l f i l

the same purpose, that i s , they are tests of achievement.

Similarly they should have t h e same kind of v a l i d i t y and

reliability.

chapter Five -186-


5.2 A n a l y s i s o f T h r e e Teacher-Made T e s t s :

As t h e r e a r e t h r e e s t a g e s o f l e a r n i n g we d e c i d e d t o focus

on one t e s t from each stage. The t e s t s were selected i n the

following way. A c o l l e c t i o n of tests has been e s t a b l i s h e d o v e r

ten years from schools and colleagues. From this

collection, three have been selected from among examples o f

weak t e s t s . We c a n say h e r e , however, t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e

an i n c r e a s i n g number o f good tests, this i s due m a i n l y to

imitation of tests used by o t h e r t e a c h e r s , and t h e use o f t h e

sample t e s t s p r o v i d e d by t h e t e x t b o o k . Our p u r p o s e i n s e l e c t i n g

these examples o f weak tests i s primarily t o demonstrate the

depth o f t h e problem i f teachers are n o t helped with test-

construction. Classroom tests are generally prepared,

administered and scored by one teacher. In this situation,

t e s t s s h o u l d be based d i r e c t l y on c o u r s e objectives.

As we have seen i n c h a p t e r t h r e e , l a n g u a g e t e s t s have many

p u r p o s e s and q u i t e often t h e same t e s t may be used f o r two o r

more r e l a t e d p u r p o s e s . I n our a n a l y s i s , the f o l l o w i n g procedure

will be f o l l o w e d . The t e s t d e f i c i e n c i e s w i l l be p o i n t e d o u t as

compared t o what s h o u l d be done i n t h e same s i t u a t i o n .

Classroom tests constructed t o measure achievement a r e

made up o f t a s k s based on t h e c o n t e n t c o v e r e d during a period

of time. The p r o b l e m o f t h e testmaker i s to select from

t h a t v e r y l a r g e number a sample w h i c h b e s t r e p r e s e n t t h e t a u g h t

chapter Five -187-


materials. The test i s best considered as a sample i f i tis

composed of set of items chosen from a large number of

activities t h a t have been t a u g h t t o t h e s t u d e n t s .

The b e s t way t o s t a t e o u r case i s t o g i v e a c t u a l examples

of teacher-produced tests. L e t us c a l l them " T e s t One, Two, and

Three". Test One is a typical example of Primary level, two

represents Preparatory level, and three stands f o r Secondary

level.

chapter Five -188-


5.3. T e s t One: ( s e e appendix 12)

5,3.1 Testees* Background:

The t e s t e e s are young l e a r n e r s of E n g l i s h from Qatar and

many o t h e r Arab c o u n t r i e s . They are between 10-11 years old.

They a r e in their second y e a r of l e a r n i n g English (Primary 6 ) .

They wish to use English for a number of purposes in their

c o u n t r y and t o make o u t s i d e c o n t a c t s when t h e y grow up.

5.3.2. Test Specifications:

A paper-and-pencil t e s t used t o measure a c h i e v e m e n t should

be made o f t a s k s b a s e d on the c o n t e n t covered i n the classroom.

These t a s k s should relate t o what s t u d e n t s have s t u d i e d d u r i n g

a l i m i t e d p e r i o d o f t i m e . T e s t i n g s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d in a way

that i t i s intended t o make a change for the b e t t e r as

noted in chapter three.

In this analysis, I shall t r y to apply the ideas discussed

i n chapters two and t h r e e on each o f t h e s e l e c t e d t e s t s . When a

teacher wants t o t e s t h i s s t u d e n t s , he should have a c l e a r and

predetermined aim f o r h i s t e s t . To a c h i e v e t h i s aim o r a i m s , he

must prepare test specifications and then pick out the most

p r o m i s i n g areas f o r t e s t i n g t h e w e l l known s k i l l s i n learning a

chapter Five -189-


foreign language, that i s , listening, speaking, reading and

writing. I f we l o o k a t appendix A, we can find that the test

tries to t e s t the f o l l o w i n g areas:

1. Identification.

2. T i m e .

3. Completion.

4. Opposites.

5. Numbers.

6. D e s c r i p t i o n o f locations.

7. D e s c r i p t i o n o f p e o p l e .

8. W r i t i n g a r e p l y t o an invitation.

The specifications that the test is trying to measure

s h o u l d be selected carefully from a l a r g e r domain. A classroom

test should be developed in a way t o p r o v i d e feedback which

will serve as a reliable indicator to inform students and

parents about s t u d e n t p r o g r e s s . To clarify the p o i n t , l e t us

list the predetermined objectives of the Unit the test is

trying t o measure. The U n i t aims t o t e a c h :

1. P a r t s o f the body.

2. Colours,

3. P o s s e s s i v e adjective.

4. Q u e s t i o n s about identity.

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5. Q u e s t i o n s about locations.

6. Plurals.

7. The r e c o g n i t i o n and w r i t i n g of the c a p i t a l alphabet.

8. Numbers: 1-12.

9. To teach: reasons, directions. Past Simple, expressions

of time.

In t h i s t e s t , we can find the f o l l o w i n g shortcomings:

1. The test c o n s t r u c t o r d i d not take the u n i t o b j e c t i v e s

into consideration, although the obectives are sufficient to

generate balanced test activities t o measure pupils' abilities

that have been acquired during classroom instruction. As we

have seen i n c h a p t e r t h r e e , t h e a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s h o u l d be used

to monitor the l e a r n i n g process and t o cover a l i m i t e d segment

of instruction such as a unit and attempts to measure a l l

i m p o r t a n t outcomes o f t h a t unit.

2. Question No. 2 i s mainly written to test the pupils'

mastery o f numbers 1-12. I f we have a l o o k a t t h e q u e s t i o n , vi/e

will find that the numbers have already been given in the

instructions. What i s r e q u i r e d from the pupils is just to

write the word "O'clock". I f the teacher wants to test the

pupils' ability to w r i t e t h e word " O ' c l o c k " , he can test i t in

one item but not i n three consecutive items.

3. To test the Past Simple and the Present Continuous,

the teacher tried to test these two tenses i n q u e s t i o n No. 3,

but failed to design the appropriate question. The teacher

chapter Five -191-


asked the pupils t o complete three sentences;

1. We a r e p l a y i n g i n t h e ....

2. Y e s t e r d a y , I a t e a....

3. We t o school.

In the f i r s t sentence, t h e P r e s e n t C o n t i n u o u s has a l r e a d y

been u s e d i n t h e s e n t e n c e . We c a n a s k what i s t h e t e a c h e r g o i n g

to test? The sentence should have been introduced i n the

following way. "We (play) i n t h e garden now". The

teacher c a n , t h e n , make s u r e w h e t h e r the pupils know how t o

form t h e Present Continuous or n o t .

The t e s t l a c k s c o n t e n t v a l i d i t y because t h e emphasis is

not placed on m e a s u r i n g mastery of learning tasks that have

been i n t r o d u c e d i n the unit o b j e c t i v e s and i t does n o t p r o v i d e

feedback to the pupils about s p e c i f i c learning errors i n areas

where t h e y have n o t y e t a c h i e v e d m a s t e r y . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e t e s t

does n o t make s u r e t h a t a l l t h e m a j o r a s p e c t s o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d

m a t e r i a l s a r e c o v e r e d by t h e t e s t i t e m s . As we have p o i n t e d o u t

in chapter three, t h e purpose o f classroom t e s t i n g i s t o allow

the teacher t o achieve certain aims after a completion of a

part o f the learning course. I n t h i s test, the teacher w i l l not

be able to plan remedial teaching t o overcome deficiencies

pointed up i n t h e t e s t i n g procedure that has been a p p l i e d i n

the classroom.

The t e s t a l s o lacks reliability because i t does not give

adequate sampling of the taught m a t e r i a l s . As we have seen i n

chapter Five -192-


chapter four, t h e more samples of students' performance we

take, t h e more reliable will be our assessment of pupils'

k n o w l e d g e and a b i l i t y .

chapter Five -193-


5.4 T e s t Two ( s e e appendix 13)

5.4.1 Testees' Background:

The testees are young learners in their 5 t h year of

learning E n g l i s h . They a r e b e t w e e n 14-15 y e a r s o l d . They wish

to learn English f o r general purposes.

5.4.2 Test Specification:

This t e s t i s supposed t o be an a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t w h i c h must

be a s y s t e m a t i c procedure f o r measuring the extent t o which a

person has acquired certain i n f o r m a t i o n o r mastered certain

skills as a r e s u l t of s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n as n o t e d i n Chapter

Three,

The s e l e c t e d t e s t tries t o measure o n l y two s k i l l s . That

is, reading and writing. I t does not f a i t h f u l l y r e f l e c t the

objectives t h a t have been t a u g h t throughout the school year. I n

the real classroom situation, the teacher d i d n o t teach only

reading and writing b u t new vocabulary and grammar as well.

Thus, the test lacks content validity. Reliability is also

affected by the inadequacy of sampling of tasks. Byrd (1986)

emphasizes the idea that testing i n Qatar i s restricted to

r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g :

chapter Five -194-


Testing generally received a separate sort of
emphasis. While the day-to-day learning materials
g e n e r a l l y e m p h a s i z e d t h e f o u r s k i l l s and o f t e n were
e n g a g i n g and s t i m u l a t i n g , t h e t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s —
particularly important examinations--were the
o p p o s i t e . U s u a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g .
( P . 21)

chapter Five -195-


5.5 T e s t T h r e e ( s e e appendix 14)

5.5.1 Testees' Background:

The testees are young l e a r n e r s from Qatar and other Arab

c o u n t r i e s , t h e y a r e i n t h e i r 6 t h y e a r o f l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h . They

are between 15-18 years old. They hope to use English for

g e n e r a l purposes i n t h e i r future life,

5.5.2 Test Specifications:

Classroom tests can be used f o r a v a r i e t y o f purposes as

noted i n chapter t h r e e . This test should have been d e s i g n e d to

monitor pupils' l e a r n i n g progress and to provide feedback to

pupils and teachers. I t was given during instruction to decide

whether pupils possess the prerequisite skills needed to

succeed i n p a r t o f the c o u r s e , to r e i n f o r c e successful learning

and r e v e a l l e a r n i n g weaknesses i n need o f c o r r e c t i o n . The test

did not fulfil the p r e v i o u s l y mentioned purposes because the

teacher d i d not take t h e m a t e r i a l s he has taught to his pupils

i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n when he c o n s t r u c t e d t h e t e s t . The test tries

to measure two units, one and three, two i s omitted. Let us

list the o b j e c t i v e s these u n i t s a r e supposed t o teach:

chapter Five -196-


Unit One:

Functions:

1. Comparing: I t is like, i t looks like.

2. S u g g e s t i n g : Come on; l e t us go; l e t us g e t o u t o f

here.

3. A s k i n g p o l i t e q u e s t i o n s : C o u l d y o u . . . ? ; Would you

mind,..?

4. E x p r e s s i n g d i s b e l i e f : I do n o t b e l i e v e i t .

5. I n t r o d u c i n g and e x p r e s s i n g o p i n i o n s : I am convinced;

t h e r e i s no d o u b t i n my mind; as I see i t .

6. T a l k i n g a b o u t the future.

Grammar:

1. R e f e r r i n g pronouns t o t h e i r subjects.

2. P a s t C o n t i n u o u s and the Simple Past.

3. D i r e c t and reported speech.

Unit Three:

Functions:

chapter Five -197-


1. Suggesting: How a b o u t . . . ; you s h o u l d , . . ; you ought to...; i f

I were y o u . , . ; we'd b e t t e r . . . ; d o n * t you t h i n k you m i g h t . . . ;

the b e s t t h i n g f o r y o u t o do i s . . . ; I'dprefer to...

Grammar:

1. Question forms (including question intonation)

2. F i r s t / t h i r d p e r s o n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .

3. D i r e c t / r e p o r t e d s p e e c h .

4. P r e s e n t P e r f e c t .

Test F a i r n e s s : T h i s q u a l i t y means t h a t each s t u d e n t should

have an e q u a l chance t o demonstrate h i s k n o w l e d g e . As f a r as

test t h r e e i s concerned, the test lacks this essential quality

b e c a u s e i t c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e w r i t i n g skill, which i s t h e most

difficult skill, more t h a n the other s k i l l s ( e . g . No. 1-2B-3-4

& 5 ) . These q u e s t i o n s require the student t o express himself

in his own words using information from what has been

instructed t o h i m and f r o m h i s own b a c k g r o u n d and knowledge b u t

not factual information. The expected result will n o t be

satisfactory because the teaching process itself and t h e

classroom t e a c h e r do n o t e n c o u r a g e p u p i l s t o o r g a n i z e t h e i r own

ideas to express them effectively. On the c o n t r a r y , the

classroom teacher usually dictates ready-made answers t h a t he

thinks may be included i n the test. This device retards the

chapter Five -198-


students' role i n organizing their ideas.

I f we make a c o m p a r i s o n between what t h e t e s t i n c l u d e s and

the o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e two u n i t s , we c a n f i n d out that the test

lacks both content v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y because i t d i d n o t

test what i t i s supposed to test. As we have seen i n c h a p t e r

four, teachers need t o a s c e r t a i n t o what e x t e n t t h e i r students

have l e a r n t what t h e y have t a u g h t them d u r i n g t h e s c h o o l year.

How c a n t h e c o n s t r u c t o r o f t h i s test reach a d e c i s i o n t h a t h i s

students have mastered the predetermined objectives? Content

validity has become a p r o b l e m here because of the d i f f i c u l t y

involved i n defining t h e areas o f the course from which the

sample i s t o be s e l e c t e d . The c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r d i d n o t make a

s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s o f t h e domain t o make s u r e t h a t most o f t h e

major aspects are covered by the test items in correct

proportion. The test d i d not include either reading or

writing. I t i s just quick jumps from one i d e a t o another, i n

contrast to test two w h i c h concentrated only on r e a d i n g and

writing.

In Qatar, school examinations are not r e a l l y a reliable

indicator of the students' actual achievements because t h e

present testing procedures do n o t make a r e a s o n a b l e balance i n

testing the four skills. The t h r e e selected teacher-produced

t e s t s g i v e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e r e i s no r e l a t i o n s h i p between

t e a c h i n g and t e s t i n g . These t e s t s s h o u l d be based d i r e c t l y on a

detailed specification, o f t h e course objectives. As n o t e d i n

chapter Five -199-


chapter t h r e e , classroom tests s h o u l d make an a d e q u a t e sampling

of the taught materials.

The secondary school examinations should test the

development of competence through the teacher's effort to

select the appropriate items . t h a t may serve t h e purpose o f

testing i n this advanced level of learning. The d i f f i c u l t y of

the test items t o be i n c l u d e d i n the classroom test depends

largely on w h e t h e r the test i s being designed t o describe the

specific learning tasks t o be measured t o make s u r e that the

students can perform (Criterion-Referenced) test o r t o rank

students i n order o f t h e i r achievement (Norm-Referenced) test.

These three selected tests may be classified as Criterion-

referenced tests because the classroom teacher is more

interested i n learning t a s k s and t h e s t u d e n t s m a s t e r y o f these

tasks rather than r a n k i n g them i n order of t h e i r achievement.

T h i s i s what r e a l l y happens i n t h e p r e s e n t t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n i n

Qatar.

In chapter o n e , we have indicated that testing i n Qatar

plays an i m p o r t a n t r o l e only i n deciding the students' future

position. We have a l s o p o i n t e d o u t t h a t testing i n Qatar i s an

objective in itself more than a means o f i m p r o v i n g learning.

These three selected tests indicate that t h e assumption is

true. There i s no need t o repeat what we have said earlier

about t h e problems o f t e s t i n g i n Qatar.

chapter Five -200-


5.6 Implications For Future P r a c t i c e :

It i s being increasingly realized that just testing does

n o t mean a n y t h i n g unless we make use o f t h e t e s t results. This

procedure will certainly help i n taking the students to a

better stage o f l e a r n i n g . Teachers, on the other hand, can

benefit from having detailed understanding of the i n d i v i d u a l

p u p i l s who t h e y a r e c u r r e n t l y teaching.

There a r e many s h o r t c o m i n g s i n the school examinations

that are currently i n use i n Q a t a r . Testing i n Qatar can be

looked a t as an o b j e c t i v e i n i t s e l f . I f we want t o examine t h e

present problems of testing i n Qatar, we can d i a g n o s e t h e

following:

1-The i d e a o f c e n t r a l i z a t i o n has one a d v a n t a g e and one

disadvantage. When t h e E n g l i s h - I n s p e c t o r a t e members c o n s t r u c t

school examinations, they take into consideration only the

o b j e c t i v e s o f each c l a s s . T h i s i s commonly c o n s i d e r e d a good

and important step i n test c o n s t r u c t i o n , but not the only

one. They c a n h a r d l y j u d g e t h e areas of concentration while

the teaching process i s i n action. I t is of great

importance t o s t a t e here that the idea of c e n t r a l i z i n g school

examinations h a s a t l e a s t one a d v a n t a g e w h i c h i s s e t t i n g one

standard to a l l pupils taking the test.

chapter Five -201-


2-The s e c o n d m a j o r problem i n t h e t e s t i n g domain i s t h e l a c k o f

concentration on the importance of vocabulary. Needless to

say, v o c a b u l a r y i s t h e b a s i s o f any sentence construction. I t

is a fact that a skilled reader recognizes words of the

target language as a w h o l e . He does n o t have t o examine the

word letter by letter. This i s so in t h e case of familiar

words. The same a p p l i e s , of course to the recognition of

strings o f w o r d s , such as "once upon a t i m e " , "on the other

hand" etc. Although the previous idea i s more r e l a t e d to

teaching than testing, i t is needed in the testing

procedures. The justification for this idea i s that we, as

teachers, always face a problem while administering school

examinations. P u p i l s a l w a y s ask questions such a s " How can

we answer t h i s i t e m ? What i s meant by this q u e s t i o n ? ". I f

the pupils have t h e a b i l i t y to recognize the word-formation,

they can easily read them and i f they can read correctly,

then there w i l l not be any problem w h i l e answering the test

items. Another fact, which leads to bad results, is that

teachers should train their pupils now and then on how to

answer i t e m s o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s . I f t h e t e s t i n s t r u c t i o n s are

continuously repeated, they w i l l be familiar t o the pupils.

This problem s h o u l d be d e a l t w i t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f Primary

(5) where the pupils begin to learn the target language.

Instead of solving the problem at this stage, v;hat happens

is that t h i n g s a r e done by halves. We must n o t l e a d a hand

chapter Five -202-


to mouth existence without taking the future into

consideration.

The u s e o f t h e A r a b i c i n t h e e x a m i n a t i o n s ' instructions

retards the students' progress i n understanding what their

teachers want them to do. When they are given the

instructions i n the target language, they always either

complain o r ask f o r t r a n s l a t i o n . This i s a result of the

lack of practice about how t o answer a given item. So

teachers ought t o make s u r e that their pupils are familiar

with question headings. I t i s necessary t o admit that the

English Language-Inspectorate members do t h e i r b e s t t o s u p p l y

teachers, a t a l l levels of teaching, with t h e needed q u e s t i o n

headings a t t h e beginning o f each s c h o o l year. When t h i s i s

done, we can g i v e our pupils the opportunity to achieve

comprehension and h e l p them pass t o the production stage

through enough practice t o use t h e t e s t instruction in the

target language.

3-The i d e a o f t e s t i n g i s n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d by most teachers.

They think that the role of testing i s finished when they

finish scoring the test. This i s t h e obvious reason behind

testing. The idea that testing helps teachers, through

appropriate instruments, to set realistic standards of

achievement f o r group o r i n d i v i d u a l s , i s n o t y e t r e a l i z e d by

most teachers.

chapter Five -203-


4- The present examinations l a c k r e a d a b i l i t y . That i s t o say,

these examinations are useless i f students cannot read them.

The examinations must be w r i t t e n i n the students' reading

l e v e l , not i n that of teachers.

5- D u r i n g t h e t e s t - t i m e , a h i g h percentage o f t h e s t u d e n t s ' time

is sometimes spent on r o u t i n e (non-work) instructions. For

example, some teachers may interrupt the students while

answering the questions saying: "attention please, when you

finish, please go t o room No. 4 t o have y o u r o r a l test"

or "Please t r y t o come on t i m e t o m o r r o w " T h i s means t h a t t h e

s t u d e n t s a r e a l w a y s d i s t u r b e d by t h e s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l who a r e

in charge of tests' administration. The classroom, during

the test, s h o u l d n o t be d o m i n a t e d by them, i n s t e a d i t s h o u l d

be work-centred classroom to provide the pupils with the

needed a t m o s p h e r e t o t h i n k quietly.

"6-Although the o r a l t e s t i s the best o p p o r t u n i t y f o r the

classroom teacher to test the pupils' ability t o use t h e

t a r g e t l a n g u a g e and where t h e t e a c h e r has a u n i q u e chance f o r

examining the pupils' mastery of the strategies of

negotiation, classroom teachers do n o t b e n e f i t from this

opportunity because they always c o n s i d e r that bad s c o r e s on

an oral test leave irreparable damage t o t h e t e s t e e ' s final

standing. Taking this into c o n s i d e r a t i o n , teachers give the

chapter Five -204-


testee endless c h a n c e s t o i m p r o v e h i s s i t u a t i o n . As a result

of this situation, t h e r e i s a l w a y s a gap between t h e t e s t e e ' s

marks on the w r i t t e n examination and the o r a l . I t is true

that experienced t e a c h e r s use n e i t h e r c r i t e r i a nor a rating

sheet and score according to their past experience, b u t as

f a r as the s i t u a t i o n i n the Qatari schools i s concerned, not

all teachers have much e x p e r i e n c e . I n general, or at least

according t o my understanding, no confidence can be placed

either i n the oral testing procedures or i n the test's

results.

chapter Five -205-


Chapter S i x

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Introduction

In t h i s chapter, I shall t r y t o demonstrate how my e a r l i e r

chapters and my investigation o f t h e problems of testing i n

Qatar have l e d me to the following c o n c l u s i o n s . The c h a p t e r

will be o f two p a r t s ; the f i r s t will summarise the earlier

chapters and w i l l also concentrate on t h e c o n c l u s i o n s I have

reached as a result of investigations and a n a l y s i s of the

present state of testing i n Qatar. The second part will be

suggestions about what needs t o be done about the present

s i t u a t i o n , based on my e a r l i e r r e v i e w and a n a l y s i s o f t e s t i n g .

When we talk about testing i n the teaching-learning

process, we a r e r e a l l y talking about a serious problem that

needs urgent solution. I think that testing is still

problematic i n Qatar. The absence o f good testing i s one o f

the most i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n s f o r t h e l o w s t a n d a r d s o f achievement

in Q a t a r i s c h o o l s . The p r e s e n t t e s t i n g procedures a r e unable t o

achieve any e d u c a t i o n a l g o a l s .

Chapter S i x -206-
As indicated i n chapter o n e , t h e main purpose of the

thesis i s t o survey the present system o f t e s t i n g i n Q a t a r and

relate i t t o t h e development o f t e s t i n g i n g e n e r a l i n order t o

place t e s t i n g i n Qatar i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e stage o f development.

Another purpose, t h e study i s t r y i n g t o achieve, i s t o describe

the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t e s t i n g and t e a c h i n g i n Q a t a r . I t was a l s o

stated that i t would be of benefit to propose ways of

m o d i f i c a t i o n s f o r improvement.

Chapter 2 deals with the history and development of

language testing i n general. This will also enable us t o

justify our ideas about t h e needed modification. I t also

relates, i n particular, t h e stages o f development of testing.

The a i m i s t o be a b l e t o know o u r p o s i t i o n i n this development.

With regard t o the Qatari testing state, t h e time i s highly

suitable t o dismiss t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s o f t e s t i n g and a p p l y

modern techniques.

As we have seen i n chapter two, t e s t i n g should p l a y an

important role i n teaching to help both the teacher and t h e

student a t t h e same time by m e a s u r i n g the progress that has

been made t o a c h i e v e the predetermined o b j e c t i v e s and sometimes

to modify t h e ways o f p r e s e n t a t i o n . Classroom t e s t s s h o u l d be

analysed by e d u c a t i o n a l p e r s o n n e l t o overcome p r e s e n t problems

or t o r e d u c e t h e weaknesses and r e i n f o r c e the strengths of the

teaching-learning process. Existing tests can never diagnose

the shortcomings o f the textbooks being taught or the teaching

Chapter S i x -207-
procedures t h a t teachers adopt.

C h a p t e r 3 o f f e r s an in-depth look i n t o the s i g n i f i c a n c e of

testing i n the classroom and i t s purposes. I t also deals with

the burdensome responsibility of teachers to construct their

own classroom tests. Objective and subjective tests are

thoroughly dealt with.

Chapter 4 provides a d e s c r i p t i o n of the two essential

qualities of good testing, validity and reliability and the

c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e qualities.

Chapter 5 provides a discussion o f what i s going on in

Qatar as f a r as testing English i s concerned. This discussion

is based on specific teacher-produced tests to point out the

d e f i c i e n c y of classroom t e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n .

In this chapter a summary o f the principal ideas of the

whole thesis will be given in order to help finalize the

research conclusions and to suggest the appropriate

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t o remedy t h e situation.

Chapter Six -208-


6.2 Conclusions

The conclusions may i n c l u d e the following:

1. I t was observed i n chapter One that t h e r e was a shift in

the Qatari situation in the form of a change from the

Structural Approach to the Communicative Approach to

overcome the deficiencies of the the previous approach

which neglected to a great extent the listening and

speaking skills. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the new adopted approach

still neglects listening and speaking while teaching and

testing. Testing the students' oral production is also

still traditional. I mean t o say that although the oral

test is one good opportunity for the students to apply

what they have learnt to express their ideas, most

teachers use stereotyped questions at a l l levels.

2. The Structural Approach in teaching and testing was

abandoned because i t used to concentrate on asking the

students t o memorize list o f v^ords t o pass the exam. I n

t h e new adopted approach. Communicative Approach, the idea

of memorization has been changed f r o m memorizing l i s t s of

words to include short passages from the curriculum to

pass t h e t e s t . T h a t i s , t h e r e i s l e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the

skill of writing.

Chapter Six -209-


3. Teachers' p r e p a r a t i o n , by the Ministry of Education, i s

n o t enough n e i t h e r i n t e a c h i n g n o r i n t e s t i n g . They should

be a d e q u a t e l y prepared f o rtheir future t a s k . The t r a i n i n g

courses i n Qatar failed t o achieve the intended results

because the time was n o t enough to familiarize teachers

with textbooks, teaching and testing procedures the

teachers must f o l l o w w h i l e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e Communicative

Approach.

4. The l e a r n e r s l a c k a d e q u a t e m o t i v a t i o n t o l e a r n a foreign

language, a fact which was clearly identified by both

testing e x p e r t s and r e s e a r c h e r s .

5. The t e s t i n g procedures that a r e i n use i n Q a t a r i schools

are still traditional i n t h e sense that they are not

analysed t o p o i n t o u t weaknesses o r s t r e n g t h s i n s t u d e n t s '

achievement, b u t t o pass students to a higher stage o f

learning.

6. The important role of teachers i n the testing domain i s

ignored. This may make them negative i n improving their

knowledge on testing. I t means that the English Language

I n s p e c t o r a t e members do n o t t r u s t teacher-made tests.

7. I n the present testing process, no n o t i c e i s t a k e n o f the

importance of the r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y of the tests

b e i n g used i n t h e c l a s s r o o m .

Chapter S i x -210-
6.3. Recoaimendations and Suggestions:

Recoimaendation 1 :

T h e r e s h o u l d be more c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e s k i l l s o f l i s t e n i n g

and speaking when t e s t i n g s t u d e n t s * achievement:

It may seem r a t h e r odd t o t e s t l i s t e n i n g s e p a r a t e l y from

speaking, since t h e two skills are t y p i c a l l y exercised

together i n oral interaction i n testing, but i n real life

situations there are occasions, such as l i s t e n i n g t o the

radio, listening to lectures, or listening to railv/ay

station announcement, when no speaking i s called f o r .

Because o f t h e emphasis t o d a y on d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n ina

foreign language, the s k i l l of l i s t e n i n g has become t h e

object of growing attention. I n the teaching process,

students must rely on t h e i r ears t o understand what t h e

teacher i s saying i n the class i n order t o achieve overall

comprehension. While testing the s k i l l of l i s t e n i n g , the

main objective of a listening test is to evaluate

comprehension. In learning E n g l i s h as a f o r e i g n language,

we c a n n o t and must n o t i g n o r e t h e l i s t e n i n g s k i l l because

we sometimes use taped radio broadcasts and recorded

passages f r o m the textbooks t o test the students' ability

to achieve overall comprehension. Valette ( 1 9 7 7 ) g i v e s an

Chapter Six -211-


example t o e x p l a i n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of o v e r a l l comprehension

in learning a foreign language:

A person learning English as a second language and

who i s f a m i l i a r w i t h v o c a b u l a r y and s t r u c t u r e but who

possesses only the most rudimentary ideas about

pronunciation will easily be able to distinguish

between t a k i n g a bus and taking a taxi s i n c e bus and

taxi sound considerably different. But this same

foreigner may not be able to understand the

difference between "Dad i s washing t h e dog outside"

and "Dad i s watching t h e dog o u t s i d e " P. 15

Like w r i t i n g , speaking is a complex skill requiring the

simultaneous use o f a number o f d i f f e r e n t a b i l i t i e s which

often develop a t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s . Teachers should not ask

stereotyped questions which are supposed to be the

beginning of the oral interview. The interview should

begin w i t h s o c i a l q u e s t i o n s such a s : "How a r e you today?"

"What c i t y do you come f r o m ? " "How l o n g have you s t u d i e d

English?" Such questions, at the beginning of the

interview, will serve the double purpose of helping to

p u t t h e c a n d i d a t e a t ease and how w e l l can he f u n c t i o n i n

s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . What happens i n Q a t a r i s that teachers

often ask o n l y the s o c i a l questions at a l l levels.

Chapter Six -212-


Recomniendation 2.

T h e r e s h o u l d be more c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the s k i l l of writing;

There is a noticeable lack of emphasis on the writing

skill both i n teaching and testing. The absence o f such

emphasis has resulted in incorrect presentation of

sentences on any writing test. Writing tests must

consequently be s t r u c t u r e d t o measure t h e v a r i o u s aspects

of students' progress toward the acquisition of this

difficult skill. We have to set writing tasks that are

properly representative of the population of the tasks

that we expect the students t o be able to perform. Some

teachers are not aware o f importance of w r i t i n g . Most of

them think that the Communicative Approach stresses the

idea of o r a l p r o d u c t i o n a p a r t from writing.

Recoramendation 3.

T e a c h e r s ' of E n g l i s h s h o u l d be a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r e d i n t e s t i n g ;

Teachers' preparation is not enough in the present

situation i n Q a t a r . They s h o u l d be w e l l p r e p a r e d on how to

test the language they teach. The existing training

courses failed to achieve the intended results to

Chapter Six -213-


familiarize teachers with the most recent procedures on

testing English as a foreign language because the

inspectors who are responsible for training the teachers

are not well qualified in testing. Personal experience i s

not enough i n t h i s respect. The M i n i s t r y of Education has

appointed Mr. Roger Nunn, native speaker, as a testing

coordinator but he has been r e c e n t l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o Q a t a r

University to teach English at the English Language

Teaching U n i t (ELTU). T e a c h e r s o f E n g l i s h i n Qatar should

be adequately prepared for their f u t u r e task not only in

teaching the communicative approach, which Qatar adopts,

but also in testing this approach e f f e c t i v e l y . The three

teacher-produced tests provided i n appendices 1. 2, and 3

reveal the teachers' lack of knowledge about test-item

construction.

Recommendation 4.

Testing should act as an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the students * lack

of motivation;

The learners lack the adequate motivation to learn

English. I t i s the teachers' responsibility to r a i s e this

lov; m o t i v a t i o n through appropriate procedures of testing.

Chapter Six -214-


This l o w m o t i v a t i o n i s n o t an a s s u m p t i o n but a fact which

was c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d by t e s t i n g e x p e r t s and r e s e a r c h e r s

alike.

Recommendation 5.

Teachers should a n a l y s e s c h o o l - t e s t s to d i a g n o s e weaknesses

to p r o v i d e b a s i s f o r remedial teaching:

The p u r p o s e o f c l a s s r o o m t e s t i n g s h o u l d be t o d i a g n o s e t h e

weaknesses of t h e t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g process i n order t o

devise suitable remedial t e a c h i n g . Teachers who do n o t

test t o diagnose their ways of p r e s e n t a t i o n cannot do

their j o b properly.

Recommendation 6.

Teachers' involvement i n assessing the learning process is a

prerequisite;

In the future. Clearly teacher involvement i n assessing

the learning process i s of urgent need to realize the

newly applied ideas in the testing domain. This

involvement will maximize the opportunity f o r teachers to

experiment their ideas and g a i n experience on improving

Chapter Six -215-


the quality and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i r t e s t i n g techniques.

Teachers should be given more freedom, after their

preparation i n testing, to test their students because

they l i v e the classroom life i n i t s real meaning.

Recommendation 7.

Clear indication should be given to the importance of

r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f c l a s s r o o m tests;

Most treatments of the subject put v a l i d i t y first, as

being the most important quality of a good test.

Reliability, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , g e n e r a l l y a f f e c t s validity

and v a l i d i t y c a n n o t be f u l l y appreciated without a basic

understanding of r e l i a b i l i t y . Without these tuo q u a l i t i e s ,

a test would be a poor investment i n time and money.

Teachers should certainly understand what these concepts

mean and how t o a p p l y them.

The present testing i n Qatar concentrates on measuring

the s t u d e n t s ' power o f r e c a l l r a t h e r t h a n t h e b a s i c s k i l l s . The

result of such procedure i s very clear when we find some

s t u d e n t s who know t h e meaning o f many E n g l i s h w o r d s , b u t t h e y

fail to communicate with others fluently. I f v;e want to

evaluate the present testing procedures, we can say t h a t there

Chapter S i x -216-
is no agreement between teaching and testing. Learning

m a t e r i a l s g e n e r a l l y emphasize t h e f o u r s k i l l s , while testing i s

the opposite, usually restricted to reading and w r i t i n g . The

writing skill i s no more t h a n ticking off, circling the c o r r e c t

answer, filling i n blanks, or answering questions. Thus the

present t e s t i n g procedures f a i l t o f o c u s on w r i t i n g i n t h e r e a l

meaning of t h e v\?ord and do not treat the o r a l or listening

skills. Tests as t h e y a r e now, b e a r l i t t l e relationship t o what

i s happening i n t h e E n g l i s h language c u r r i c u l u m .

Present testing i n Qatar i s not able t o cope with the

c u r r e n t communicative c l i m a t e . I t i s axiomatic that test tasks

should as f a r as possible reflect realistic situations. They

should cover as w i d e as p o s s i b l e a r a n g e o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s t h e

s t u d e n t s have l e a r n t d u r i n g t h e i r school year. Despite our best

efforts to provide clear instructions and precise task

specifications, test takers do n o t always respond i n ways we

expect. The way we test our students i s not the i d e a l one

b e c a u s e what we p r e s e n t t o them does n o t r e f l e c t what t h e y have

been taught i n t h e c l a s s and o u r t e s t format does n o t c o v e r as

vfide as p o s s i b l e t h e a c t i v i t i e s we t a u g h t i n o u r c l a s s e s .

The p r o b l e m we face i n Qatar i s that teachers of English

often t r y to simplify the textbook t h r o u g h , what t e a c h e r s think

to be, additional and remedial exercises to reinforce the

s t r e n g t h s and r e d u c e t h e weaknesses i n the students' productive

ability. What really happens is exactly the opposite. The

Chapter Six -217-


s t u d e n t s depend c o m p l e t e l y on t h e p r o v i d e d e x e r c i s e s w h i c h will

damage t h e s t u d e n t s ' a b i l i t y t o learn the target l a n g u a g e . The

clear result o f t h i s way o f t e a c h i n g i s that when we t e s t o u r

students, we test their memory production rather than their

language competence.

The role of testing i n teaching has many p u r p o s e s and i t

s h o u l d be used t o d i r e c t t h e l e a r n i n g - t e a c h i n g process n o t only

for the benefit o f t h e p u p i l s and t e a c h e r s , b u t those outside

the classroom s u c h as t h e M i n i s t r y of Education, other schools

and universities t h a t depend upon r e l i a b l e knowledge o f p u p i l s *

achievement.

T h e r e i s a gap b e t w e e n t e a c h e r s , on t h e one hand, and t h e

Inspectorate on the other. We can e x p l a i n this i n t h e sense

that there is no cooperation between teachers and the

Inspectorate. The Inspectorate members construct some sample

tests and d i s t r i b u t e them t o teachers when they visit their

schools. Distributing these papers t o the teachers i s the goal

of their c o n s t r u c t i o n and n o t h i n g else. Inspectors n e v e r ask

about t h e feedback of tests that are being applied i n the

classroom by t e a c h e r s . We suggest that when t h e I n s p e c t o r a t e

members c o n s t r u c t t e s t s , they supervise the application of the

suggested procedures and ask classroom teachers about the

expected interpretation of tests results i n order to achieve

the highest possible effects of these tests. The second

important procedure that should be taken is to train

Chapter S i x -218-
inexperienced teachers on how to construct their tests to

e v a l u a t e what they teach i n the classroom. There i s a teacher

t r a i n i n g course f o r i n e x p e r i e n c e d t e a c h e r s v/hich l a s t s o n l y f o r

ten days at the beginning o f every school year. This course

concentrates on dealing with t h e Communicative Approach i n

teaching to help those teachers t o teach t h e Crescent English

Course e f f e c t i v e l y , little is said about testing. The

I n s p e c t o r a t e has a l s o t o c o n v i n c e teachers to get r i d of their

rigidity and b e g i n t o accept t h e n e w l y added i d e a s on t e s t i n g .

Problem-solving ability depends on real cooperation

b e t w e e n t e a c h e r s and t h e I n s p e c t o r a t e members s i n c e t h e d e s i r e d

improvement cannot be done on an individual basis. The

traditional methods o f t e s t - c o n s t r u c t i o n s h o u l d be r e p l a c e d by

the most recent methods and techniques i n testing and t h e

theoretical suggestions should a l s o be moved from the theory

framework t o t h e f i e l d o f p r a c t i c e . T h i s change p r o c e s s i s the

key factor i n the modification.

In the thesis, we have been mainly concerned with

classroom testing rather than external examinations. Most

chapters i n t h i s study deal w i t h classroom t e s t s t h a t s h o u l d be

able t o produce a s a t i s f a c t o r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n which d i r e c t s the

teaching-learning process. When we accurately test our

students, we increase o u r own e f f e c t i v e n e s s w h i c h will affect

t h e s t u d e n t s ' l e a r n i n g and p r o v i d e them v ^ i t h an o p p o r t u n i t y t o

show their abilities t o produce correct forms of the target

Chapter S i x -219-
language.

We should always keep i n mind that there is a harmony

between what we teach and v;hat we t e s t . The r e s u l t s we g e t

a b o u t o u r s t u d e n t s have v a l u e s in the teaching-learning

process. When a teacher decides to test his/her students,

he/she s h o u l d keep i n mind c e r t a i n s t e p s t o be t a k e n b e f o r e t h e

t e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n . These s t e p s i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g ;

1- Determining t h e purpose o f t h e intended test.

2- I d e n t i f y i n g and d e f i n i n g the intended learning outcomes.

3- P r e p a r i n g the test specifications.

4- C o n s t r u c t i n g r e l e v a n t t e s t items.

5- S c o r i n g the test

6- i n t e r p r e t i n g the test scores

The present situation i n Q a t a r needs a m o d i f i c a t i o n t h a t

concentrates on a d e q u a t e students' training on how t o r e s p o n d

to c e r t a i n headings. T e a c h e r s need t o t r a i n their s t u d e n t s how

to deal with words such as "Distinguish-Correct-Match the

sentences-Select", and t h e l i k e . A large percentage of the

s t u d e n t s v/ho f a i l a test l a c k t h e needed u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the

test headings. I have n o t i c e d so many times i n t h e p a s t few

years t h a t many s t u d e n t s a s k a b o u t t h e h e a d i n g s d u r i n g t h e t e s t

administration. They often ask f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n of certain

headings. When t h e headings are o r i g i n a l l y written i n the

native language, the results will certainly be better. I do

Chapter S i x -220-
n o t blame the students, but teachers a r e t o be blamed because

they do not train their students on how t o respond t o such

headings. We want the Inspectorate to continue i t s constant

attempts to improve school examinations, but not within the

confines of t r a d i t i o n a l methods. I n s p e c t o r s ought to l i s t e n now

and then t o teachers who have the a b i l i t y t o suggest certain

ideas t o improve testing procedures.

Chapter Six -221-


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APPENDICES

Appendices -245-
APPENDIX ( A )

PRIMARY L E V E L OBJECTIVES:

1-Listening:

1 - P u p i l s s h o u l d be a b l e t o r e c o g n i s e f o r m s o f g r e e t i n g and

introduction.

2- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d the teacher's instruction

in English.

3- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d the teacher's classroom

questions (Where i s y o u r book ? D i d you do y o u r homework ?)

4- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o l i s t e n t o a short simple story or a

s h o r t d i a l o g u e and u n d e r s t a n d t h e main p o i n t s (When, Where

Who, how much e t c . )

5- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e g e n e r a l meaning o f a

s h o r t p a s s a g e even i f a few words a r e unknown t o them, which

t h e y s h o u l d guess f r o m t h e c o n t e x t .

2-Speaking:

1 - P u p i l s s h o u l d be a b l e t o use t h e b a s i c c o u r t e s i e s o f

g r e e t i n g s , i n t r o d u c t i o n s and a p o l o g y

2- They s h o u l d answer t h e t e a c h e r ' s q u e s t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h

s c h o o l and study

3- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o r e p l y t o s i m p l e q u e s t i o n s based on

s h o r t w r i t t e n p a s s a g e s o r p i c t u r e s o f p e o p l e and things.

Appendices -246-
4- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o a s k q u e s t i o n s r e q u e s t i n g b a s i c

i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t d e a l s w i t h c l a s s r o o m E n g l i s h ( What i s t h e

m e a n i n g o f ,,.? How t o do t h i s exercise.,.?).

5- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o g i v e s i m p l e o r d e r s and a s k f o r t h i n g s

from t h e i r classmates o r from t h e i r teacher .)

6- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o t a l k a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r

hobbies

7- They s h o u l d be w i l l i n g t o use E n g l i s h i n g r o u p

activities, games.

8- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o p e r f o r m t h e " O r a l Performance "items

at their level and t o r e a d a l o u d some s h o r t s e n t e n c e s and

short paragraphs i n order t o p r a c t i c e pronunciation.

3-Reading:

1 - P u p i l s s h o u l d be a b l e t o r e c o g n i s e and r e a d a l o u d t h e l e t t e r s

of the alphabet,

2- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o r e a d t h e s e n t e n c e s and p a r a g r a p h s

contained i n t h e i r books

3- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o r e c o g n i s e and r e a d words and p h r a s e s

from f l a s h cards,

4- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o manage a r e a d e r a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e

level and t h e y s h o u l d be a b l e t o r e a d s i m p l e comics.

5- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o use a s u i t a b l e p i c t u r e dictionary.

Appendices -247-
4-Writing:

1 - The p u p i l s s h o u l d be a b l e t o w r i t e c o r r e c t l y i n s m a l l and

capital l e t t e r s and numbers

2- The s h o u l d be a b l e t o w r i t e most o f t h e words t h e y have

l e a r n e d c o r r e c t l y and o t h e r s r e c o g n i z a b l y .

3- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o w r i t e t h e i r own names and a d d r e s s e s ,

copy down t h o s e o f o t h e r pupils.

4- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o w r i t e a s e n t e n c e i n r e p l y t o a w r i t t e n

o r spoken question.

5- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o compose one o r two s e n t e n c e s o f t h e i r

own a b o u t f a m i l i a r o b j e c t s when p r o m p t e d by a model.

Appendices -248-
APPENDIX ( B )

PREPARATORY L E V E L OBJECTIVES:

1-Listening:

By t h e end o f t h e p r e p a r a t o r y l e v e l , t h e p u p i l s s h o u l d be

a b l e t o do t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1- L i s t e n t o o r d e r s and i n s t r u c t i o n s and c a r r y o u t a t a l k

( p l a y i n g a game, filling i n a form, translating directions

etc.)

2- L i s t e n t o a u t h e n t i c E n g l i s h t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h t h e media o r

a i r p o r t announcement o r a t e l e p h o n e conversation, and be

able

to e x t r a c t specific information.

3- L i s t e n and u n d e r s t a n d s h o r t e x t r a c t s f r o m t h e media l i k e t h e

news c o m m e n t a r i e s and p l a y s ,

4- L i s t e n t o and i d e n t i f y t h e b a s i c theme o f a s h o r t

c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n two s p e a k e r s , as w e l l as t h e i r

o p i n i o n s and k i n d o f r e l a t i o n s h i p t h e y have ( f r i e n d l y o r

otherwise ) .

5- U n d e r s t a n d t h e m a i n i d e a and i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s o f a s t o r y o r a

dialogue.

6- I d e n t i f y t h e s i t u a t i o n from t h e context o f a conversation

Appendices -249-
b e t w e e n two p e o p l e (a v i s i t to the doctor, buying something

from a s t o r e e t c . )

2-SPEAKING:

By t h e end o f t h e p r e p a r a t o r y l e v e l , t h e p u p i l s s h o u l d be a b l e

to express themselves i n a c l e a r and a c c e p t a b l e way i n

different s i t u a t i o n s such a s :

1- Taking p a r t i n a s h o r t s o c i a l c o n v e r s a t i o n concerning home,

s c h o o l , t r a v e l , media and l o c a l environment.

2- C o p y i n g w i t h E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n s as h e l p i n g a

f o r e i g n e r i n t h e market o r t h e s t r e e t ; g i v i n g him simple

d i r e c t i o n ; g i v i n g explanations of s i t u a t i o n s r e l a t e d tothe

local environment.

3- H a n d l i n g l a n g u a g e s i t u a t i o n s i n a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y where

E n g l i s h i s t h e means o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s .

4- T a k i n g part i n a t e l e p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n t o g i v e an

invitation, make an a p o l o g y or question a certain personal

or practical situation.

5- T e l l i n g a s t o r y o r d e s c r i b i n g an a c c i d e n t o r r e l a t i n g an

incident.

6- P a s s i n g a t e l e p h o n e o r p e r s o n a l message o r r e p o r t i n g

i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m a w r i t t e n o r spoken source.

Appendices -250-
3-Reading:

By t h e end o f t h e p r e p a r a t o r y l e v e l , the p u p i l s should be

a b l e t o r e a d and u n d e r s t a n d the f o l l o w i n g :

1 - A s h o r t s t o r y o r e x p o s i t o r y passage i n s i m p l e E n g l i s h w i t h

o n l y a few unknown vi/ords, m a k i n g an i n t e l l i g e n t guess a t t h e

meaning o f unknown words f r o m t h e i r c o n t e x t .

2- E x t r a c t i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m a l e t t e r o r an a r t i c l e and a c t

accordingly.

3- I n t e r p r e t and f o l l o w w r i t t e n i n s t r u c t i o n s and a c t a c c o r d i n g l y

4- U n d e r s t a n d t h e news, r e p o r t s and advertisements.

5- E x t r a c t i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m an a l p h a b e t i c a l l i s t ( t e l e p h o n e

d i r e c t o r y and i n t e r p r e t maps, d i a g r a m s , t a b l e s and g r a p h s .

6- Use s i m p l e dictionaries.

4-Writing:

1 - P u p i l s s h o u l d be a b l e t o w r i t e about themselves, their

f a m i l i e s and s c h o o l .

2- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o summarise a spoken s t o r y o r w r i t e

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f i n c i d e n t s t h e y have witnessed.

3- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o w r i t e l e t t e r s (e.g.to a pen-friend)

asking f o r information or advice.

4- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o f i l l i n f o r m s s u c h as t h o s e f o r

passports a t the a i r p o r t .

5- They s h o u l d be a b l e t o w r i t e down a s i m p l e summary o f

i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m a map o r a d i a g r a m .

Appendices -251-
APPENDIX ( C )

SECONDARY L E V E L OBJECTIVES:

1-Listening:

By t h e end o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s t a g e , p u p i l s s h o u l d be a b l e t o

understand spoken E n g l i s h i n v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s such as :

1 - A c o n v e r s a t i o n on a g e n e r a l t o p i c b e t w e e n s p e a k e r s o f v a r i o u s

accents.

2- A c o n v e r s a t i o n on a f a m i l i a r t o p i c between two n a t i v e

s p e a k e r s so as t o be a b l e t o r e p o r t i t t o a t h i r d person.

3- E n g l i s h t h r o u g h t h e a u d i o - v i s u a l media e.g. r a d i o , TV, news

broadcasts, p l a y s and f i l m s .

4- A n o n - a c a d e m i c t a l k , e.g., by a t o u r i s t guide.

5- A s h o r t t a l k ( m i n i - l e c t u r e ) t a k i n g notes w h i l e listening.

6- F o l l o w a s e t o f i n s t r u c t i o n s and c a r r y them o u t , f o r

e x a m p l e , r e a d a map, f i l l i n a form o r q u e s t i o n n a i r e , c a r r y

out a s c i e n t i f i c experiment.

2-Speaking:

By t h e end o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s t a g e , p u p i l s s h o u l d be a b l e t o

c o m m u n i c a t e c l e a r l y and s p e c i f i c a l l y i n English i n various

s i t u a t i o n s s u c h as :

1 - T a k i n g p a r t i n a s h o r t c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h o u t a m a j o r breakdown

Appendices -252-
in communication.

2- G i v i n g a s h o r t talk from notes.

3- G i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g a s e r i e s of points.

4- S u m m a r i z i n g v e r b a l l y a w r i t t e n o r spoken message o r r e p o r t .

5- N a r r a t i n g a story or incident .

6- E x p r e s s i n g i n t e r e s t s and p e r s o n a l a t t i t u d e s .

7- T a l k i n g on e i t h e r l i t e r a r y or s c i e n t i f i c t o p i c i n a media-

style interview

8- G i v i n g d e t a i l s o f an i n c i d e n t (e.g., car accident , theft);

describing symptoms o f i l l n e s s and r e q u e s t i n g treatment.

9- Commenting on a play,

10- A c t i n g out a sketch with other pupils, role play,

3-Reading:

By t h e end o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s t a g e , p u p i l s s h o u l d be a b l e t o

use t h e i r reading s k i l l s t o do t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1- C o n s u l t r e f e r e n c e books;

2- Read and u n d e r s t a n d a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d passage o f a b o u t

300 words c o n t a i n i n g some u n f a m i l i a r i n f o r m a t i o n and

vocabulary,

3- A s u i t a b l e o r i g i n a l novel,

4- P e r s o n a l and b u s i n e s s letters,

5- C a b l e s , a d v e r t i s e m e n t , common a b b r e v i a t i o n s , menus, theatre

and sports programmes, t o u r i s t b r o c h u r e s e t c .

6- W r i t t e n i n s t r u c t i o n s o n , f o r e x a m p l e , how t o use e l e c t r i c a l

appliances, take medicine.

Appendices -253-
7- Work o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f unknown words and p h r a s e s f r o m a

specific context.

8- E x t r a c t information from graphs, c h a r t s , and r e f e r e n c e s .

4-Writing:

By t h e end o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s t a g e , p u p i l s s h o u l d be a b l e t o

1 - E x p r e s s t h e i r p o i n t s o f v i e w on t o p i c s o f p e r s o n a l o r

scientific interest.

2- O r g a n i s e a r e p o r t on i n f o r m a t i o n from d i f f e r e n t sources,

3- W r i t e d e t a i l e d p e r s o n a l and b u s i n e s s l e t t e r s using correct

formats

4- F i l l i n forms o f d i f f e r e n t sorts, such as t h o s e f o r

p a s s p o r t s , a i r p o r t , customs c l e a r a n c e , e n t r a n c e to university

or institute.

Appendices -254-
APPENDIX ( 1 A)

DESCRIPTION OF THE COURSE MATERIALS:

The m a t e r i a l s a r e p r o d u c e d by t h e O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s (OUP) i n B e i r u t , Lebanon, They a r e d i v i d e d into

teacher's materials and p u p i l ' s materials.

Primary F i v e : ( Y e a r 1: F i v e p e r i o d s p e r w e e k ) .

Teacher, Pupils.

1 , T e a c h e r ' s Book 1 , Pupil's Book 1 .

2, T e a c h e r ' s C a s s e t t e l A , I B , Pupil's Cassette 1.

3. T e a c h e r ' s Pack 1 ( f l a s h c a r d s ) . P u p i l ' s Workbook 1 .

4, OHP T r a n s p a r e n c i e s . Pupil's H a n d w r i t i n g Book 1&2

Appendices -255-
APPENDIX ( I B )

PRIMARY S I X : ( y e a r 2: F i v e p e r i o d s p e r week)

Teacher. Pupils.

1 . T e a c h e r ' s Book 2. P u p i l ' s Book 2.

2. T e a c h e r ' s C a s s e t t e 2A, 2B. Pupil's Cassette 2.

3. T e a c h e r ' s Pack 2 (flashcards) P u p i l ' s Workbook 2.

4. OHP Transparencies. P u p i l ' s H a n d w r i t i n g Book 1&2

Appendices -256-
APPENDIX ( 2 )

PREPARATORY ONE: ( y e a r 3: s i x p e r i o d s p e r week),

Teacher Pupils

1 . T e a c h e r ' s Book 3. P u p i l ' s Book 3.

2. T e a c h e r ' s C a s s e t t e 3A, 3B. P u p i l ' s C a s s e t t e 3.

3. W a l l s h e e t s . P u p i l ' s Workbook 3.

4. OHP Transparencies. P u p i l ' s H a n d w r i t i n g Book 1&2

Appendices -257-
APPENDIX ( 3 )

PREPARATORY TITO: ( y e a r 4: S i x p e r i o d s p e r week).

Teacher Pupils

1 . T e a c h e r ' s Book 4. P u p i l ' s Book 4.

2. T e a c h e r ' s C a s s e t t e 4A, 4B. P u p i l ' s C a s s e t t e 4.

3. Wallsheets. P u p i l ' s Workbook 4

4. OHP Transparencies. O x f o r d E.A. D i c t i o n a r y .

Appendices -258-
APPENDIX ( 4 )

PREPARATORY THREE: (year 5: S i x periods per week).

Teacher Pupils

1. Teacher's Book 5. P u p i l ' s Book 5.

2. Teacher's Cassette 5A, 5B. P u p i l ' s Cassette 5,

3. W a l l s h e e t s . P u p i l ' s Workbook 5

4. OHP T r a n s p a r e n c i e s . Oxford E.A. D i c t i o n a r y .

Appendices -259-
APPENDIX ( 5 )

SECONDARY ONE: (year 6: S i x periods per week),

Teacher Pupils

1. Teacher's Book 6. P u p i l ' s Book 5.

2. Teacher's Cassette 6A, 6B. P u p i l ' s Cassette 6.

3, OHP T r a n s p a r e n c i e s , P u p i l ' s Workbook 6.

Appendices -260-
APPENDIX ( 6 )

SECONDARY TITO: (year 7: A r t s ) .

Boys: 8 p e r i o d s per week (one p e r i o d translation)

Girls: 7 p e r i o d s per week (one p e r i o d translation),

Teacher Pupils

1. Teacher's Book 7, P u p i l ' s Book 7,

2. Teacher's Cassette 7A, B, & C. P u p i l ' s Cassette 7A, 7B,

3. OHP T r a n s p a r e n c i e s , P u p i l ' s Workbook 7.

* E x t r a f o r Science S e c t i o n 1 ,
(Teacher's Book 1 ) . ( P u p i l ' s Book 1 ) , (Teacher's Cassette 1 ) .

Appendices -261-
APPENDIX ( 7 )

SECONDARY THREE: (year 8)

Arts: 8 p e r i o d s per week, (one p e r i o d t r a n s l a t i o n )

Science 6 p e r i o d s per week, (one p e r i o d t r a n s l a t i o n )

Teacher Pupils

1. Teacher's Book 8. P u p i l ' s Book 8.

2. Teacher's Cassette 8A, B, & C. P u p i l ' s Cassette 8A, 8B.

3. OHP T r a n s p a r e n c i e s . P u p i l ' s Workbook 8

4. --F
1 1 (
A. Reader's D i c t i o n a r yJ .^
• L\ ^ (_-4 VJ. ^ *J J-* J - w •—• * •

* E x t r a f o r Science S e c t i o n 2.
(Use S c i e n t i f i c English 2 ) .
(Teacher's Cassette 2 ) . ( P u p i l ' s

Appendices -262-
APPENDIX (8)

DESCRIPTION OF COURSE CONTENTS

I s h a l l t r y t o summarize t h e course c o n t e n t s i n the

following figure.

Course contents:

Level No. of Units No. of Steps

1-Primary 5 04 105

2-Primary 6 04 078

3-Preparatory 1 04 100

4-Preparatory 2 08 094

5-Preparatory 3 09 073

6-Secondary 1 12 106

7-Secondary 2 12 118

8-Secondary 3 08 098

Appendices -263-
APPENDIX (9)

MARKS ALLOCATION: (Monthly exams)

1 Oral Performance, ( L i s t e n i n g and speaking),

Level Harks a l l o c a t e d

1-Primary 06

2-Preparatory 08

3-Secondary 10

Appendices -264-
APPENDIX (10)

2. WRITTEN EXAMS, ( f o r a l l l e v e l s )

Level Marks a l l o c a t e d

1-Primary 24

2-Preparatory 32

3-Secondary 1 32

4_Secondary 2 & 3 A r t s 50

5-Secondary 2 & 3 S c i e n t i f i c 32

Appendices -265-
APPENDIX (11)

3. MARKS DISTRIBUTION ON WRITTEN EXAMS: ( f o r a l l l e v e l s ) .

Level Reading Writing Vocab Grammar Textbook Translation

Prim, 05 06 06 06 * a.

Prep. 08 08 06 06 04

Seco.ScOS 08 04 04 04 04

Seco,Ar,11 11 07 07 07 07

Key:

Prim.= Primary,

Prep,= P r e p a r a t o r y ,

Seco,= Secondary,

Sc. = Scientific,

Ar, = Arts,

* = No marks a r e a l l o c a t e d ,

Appendices -266-
APPENDIX ( 12 )

Appendices •=267-
Ministry of Education Secret No.

QATAR

Subject

Mark

No. Marker Reviser

4
FINAL REMARKS -
5 (In Figures)
{In Words)
6

10

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Final
Revision
MINISTRY OF HDUCATION , PROMOTIOK EXAMINATION
PRIMARY 6 Rorailah School ^ ^ i r l s ) ^^^^ ^ ^^^^

:^ ili^ ^ dJ^J
1- F I L L IN TiD^ ].'OLLOv/ING CARD :

Namf : .
Age : ,
Weight :
Heiglit
( 2 )

\
2- Cmplete t h e s u i t a b l e tirae . O '

3 I t i s three . . I

It is six

I t i s nine

(3 Mi

3- Complete The F o l l o w i n g Sentences. " • ^

1- v/e a r e p l a y i n g i n t h e

2- Ye£.!tc:.?day I a t e a
5- We t o school ( 3 M,)

4- Give t h e p p p o s i t e s .

1- black

2- l a t e
3- . o l d
1 ( 8 M.)
4- sad
5- \Jrito t h e f o l l o w i n g numbers i n l e t t e r s :

lyvo
74';)9
2000 ( 3 M, )

6- D e s c r i b e t h i s map o f Ahmad's house


- ( 2 )

Bathroom* Kitchen

Bedroom D i n i n g rooni

Hall
way
Bedroom
L i v i n g room

i''ront door

The house has

7- You have r e a d i n t h e nev/spaper t h a t "two boys were l o s t i n a" b i g

c i t y . D e s c r i b e t h e two boys t o t h e p o l i c e • ( 2 )
8- You are asked t o come t o Sami's p a r t y . You; do n o t want t o come
w r i t e a r e p l y t o Sarai ,

Dear Saml ,

Yours
Ahmed

( 1 M. )
APPENDIX ( 13 )

Appendices -273-
Ministry of Education Secret No.

QATAR

Subject :

Mark

No. Marker Reviser

4
FINAL REMARKS -
5
(In Figures)
{In Words)
6

10

Totalling
Final
Revision
STATE OF QATAR

Ministry o f Education

GENERAL PREPARATORY EDUCATION CERTIFICATE ATO RELIGIOUS PREPARATORY EDUCATION

CERTIFICATE EXA/^ir^ATION

S E C a O SESSION 1402/1403 - 1982/1983

ErO-ISH (WRITTEN) T ii.-ne: 2 Hours

1. Read t h e f o l l o w i n g , then l i s t the dorgers:

"Accidents c a n be p r e v e n t e d . . Already this year nore

than f i v e hundred people have been k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d

in accidents i n their hc:--ies. Electric kitchen knives

work f a s t , b u t they can c u t f i n g e r s as w e l l as f o o d i

And gas cookers .nay hove i.-nproved l i f e i nthe kitchen,

b u t g a s c a n c o s t you y o u r life. I f you t h i n k you

SfTiell a gas l e a k , don't l i g h t a rratch Electricity i s dongerous t o o ,

if n o t used c o r r e c t l y . For example, you s h o u l d never touch s w i t c h e s i f your

hands a r e w e t . But o f course even i f you a r e a v e r y c a r e f u l p e r s o n , you

could still fall d o w n s t a i r s end break a leg. A home c a n be a d a n g e r o u s

place:"

List t h e dangers which c a n c a u s e a c c i d e n t s i n t h e home:

2. _^

4. .

2. (A) Read t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h e n onswer t h e q u e s t i o n s :

SERGEANT EDWARDS: Y o u ' r e n o t a v e r y good t h i e f , a r e you, Horry? Imagine

jP^^^ f a l l i n g a n d b r e a k i n g a l e g w h i l e y o u w e r e h a r d a t work

robbing a housel Crime i s a dangerous business, isn't i t ?

f-iARRY It wasn't the best t i m e t o have o n a c c i d e n t , was i t ? I

couldn't see i n t h e d a r k , that's what i t was.


SERGEANT EDWARDS : K n o w i n g y o u , H a r r y , I'm s u r p r i s e d y o u d i d n ' t switch a l l the
house lights o n ........ T e l l me w h a t h a p p e n e d , exactly.

Well, I saw t h o t t h e f a m i l y - Brown was t h e n o n e , wasn't i t ? -


HARRY
were g o i n g o u t f o r t h e e v e n i n g . I f o l l o w e d them t o a c i n e m a ,

and a f t e r I h o d mode s u r e t h e y g o t i n , I w e n t b a c k t o t h e i r

house a n d b r o k e a window. I c l i / i i j e d i n t o t h e house. Couldn't

see a t h i n g , o f c o u r s e .

SERGEANT EDWARDS What h a p p e n e d next?

I was o n my way u p s t a i r s t o t h e b e d r o o m - t h a t ' s where y o u


HARRY
usually find jewellery, y o u know, s e r g e a n t - when I f e l l

over t h e edge o f a c a r p e t . I fell downstairs and broke

my l e g . I t was a w f u l I c o u l d h a r d l y move. I

h a d t o phone f o r an ambulance. Crime doesn't pay I

SERGEANT EDWARDS : You're r i g h t there, Harry. By t h e way, I s e e you've g o t a

cut on your hand ?

: The b r o k e n g l a s s . S e r g e a n t . No, d o n ' t laugh


HARRY

1. Why d o e s S e r g e a n t Edwards say "Crime i s a d a n g e r o u s b u s i n e s

2. a) How d i d t h e Brown family spend t h e e v e n i n g '

b) Why d i d H a r r y follow them

3. What was H a r r y interested i n stealing?

4. Why d i d n ' t H a r r y l e a v e t h e house?

5. How d i d H a r r y c u t h i m s e l f ?
2.(B) What h a p p e n e d n e x t ? W r i t e w h a t y o u t h i n k hoppened a l t e r Horry

telephoned f o r an ambulance: ? tiL) J a*, aJt L • <_» „ x

Reod S e r g e a n t Edward's interview w i t h Harry again, then w r i t e t h e

sergeant's report. (These words w i l l h e l p you - ask, reply, admit,

confess) p-^ « \Jj^^ LSJIA^ Jcj^\ 'ijj]

REPORT OF INTERVIEW WITH HARRY GREEN

Read w h a t t h e r e p o r t e r soys, t h e n w r i t e ^A^s. Brown's reply:

"Mrs. Brown, I'm a r e p o r t e r with t h e K t e r n i n g News. I'd like

t o ask you about what happened l a s t night when H a r r y Green

broke into your house. What d i d i t f e e l like t o cone back

from t h e cinema a n d see a p o l i c e c o r ond an ombulance o u t s i d e

y o u r home? D i d H a r r y s a y a n y t h i n g t o you? How d i d t h e

rest o f the family feel? Oh - a n d M r s . Brown - w h i c h film

had y o u been t o s e e ? "

- 3 -
Now w r i t e M r s . B r o w n * s reply:

H.I0 the reporter bv p u t t i n g t h e s e headlines i n the r i g h t pert ofthe

newspaper:

iI

' Doctor a t Hamad HHosp


ospital Wins Prizej
Ktore o i l f o u n d i n Gulf

New Programmes on C h a n n e l 37
THIEF BREAKS L E GA T '^RK!

b -CLASSICAL KiJSIC REVIEW:


Q a t a r ' s Team t o be A n n o u n c e d Toda

1. H e a l t h News: __.

2. Crime Section: _

3. TV Page :

4. The A r t s : .

5. B u s i n e s s News :

d. Sports Page:
APPENDIX ( 14 )

Appendices -280-
Ministry of Education Secret No.

QATAR

School Year:
Session:
Year :

Subject :
Date :

Mark

No. Marker Reviser

4
FINAL REMARKS -
5
{In Figures)
6 {In Words)

10

Totalling
Final
Revision
KHSLIFA SECONDARY SCHOOL ,J

ENGLISH EXAM SECONDARY ONE (PAPER TWO)

^^•"^ C l a s s ...

I . Change these, sentences i n t o I n d i r e c t Speech :

T. " r b e l i e v e that people have seen something " . s a i d F a u z i a •

2. " I don't b e l i e v e that a ufo come from, another world " . s a i d A l i

II, Complete the. f o l l o w i n g sentences :


I. I f I were you , 1 . ,

2. I f I have money , 1 * . .

I I I , Give; the opposite of :

belie.f : ,.. quiet : •

ti*ue : slow :

I V . F i l l i n the. s p a c e s with any s u i t a b l e words :


1i, are signs of disease .

2, JJFOS produce a ..humming n o i s e •


******************************** *^^^^#»»*##*^(.*

V, T r a n s l a t e i n t o Arabic :

The f i l m was r e a l l y great.There were l o t s o f f i g h t s between strange


ilue. c r e a t u r e s i n f l y i n g saucers and u s Earth people .The f i l m was f r i g h
eiiing but I l i k e that •
B) . Trcoislato ;

ry?. Cotnpleto t h i s j j h q n e cA^A, JbQ.'t^KQQQL _JA^A"!-S^^A -^ho. nunso s

Nurse: This, i a Hamad H o s p i t a l ; Good morning;:.


Jasims Good morning* * . . i . . . . * . i , i , i . . . . r i

Nurso: Sorry. Dr. Abdullah i a out. May 1 know who i s


;Speaking> pleaso?
- Jaaim: ^ ; ^ i .

Nurse; Jasim A i i . OK. V/hat can I do fotr you, Jasira?

Jasira: Woxild you p l e a s o

Nurse: OK, I ' l l t e l l the doctor that you need him immediately.
Anything else?
Jasims Yes, T b l l him that ,

NursB; Your f a t h e r has been vomiting a l l morning. Oh dear,'


, , . , . . . . . . , . , . . , . » . . ?

Jasira: 846219
Nurse: ....'..?
Jasitn: Yes, t h a t ' s a l l . Thank you*

V^. Complete i n a meaningful way;

1, I'm convinced *.

2. I t ' s very u n l i k e l y

J.S.J,

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