Name Date

Clues to Earth’s Past

What evidence do scientists use to determine the ages
of rocks?
Before You Read
Before you read the chapter, think about what you know about determining the ages of rocks. Record
your thoughts in the first column. Pair with a partner, and discuss his or her thoughts. Then record
what you both would like to share with the class in the third column.

Think Pair Share

Chapter Vocabulary
Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3
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NEW NEW NEW

fossil relative age absolute age
catastrophism superposition isotope
uniformitarianism inclusion radioactive decay
carbon film unconformity half-life
mold correlation
cast index fossil REVIEW
trace fossil mineral
paleontologist

ACADEMIC
uniform

A Lesson Content Vocabulary page for each lesson is provided in the Chapter Resources Files.
 Lesson 1 Fossils
Scan Lesson 1. Write three questions that you have about fossils in your Science Journal. Try
to answer your questions as you read.

Evidence of the Define fossil. Include two types of preserved clues in your
Distant Past definition.
I found this on page .
Fossils are the preserved remains or evidence of ancient

living things.

I found this on page . Summarize the principles of catastrophism and

uniformitarianism.

Catastrophism Uniformitarianism

Catastrophism credits Uniformitarianism states

changes to Earth to
quick, violent events over
a short time period.
that geologic processes
that occur today are similar
to those that have
occurred in the past; it
credits changes to Earth
to slower processes over
a longer time.

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Formation of Fossils Identify factors that promote fossilization. Cross out terms
I found this on page . that do not support the likelihood of fossil formation.
buried quickly soft tissue microscopic
decay easily hard parts very large
exposed rotting eaten

I found this on page . Sequence three probable steps of fossil fish formation.
A fish dies The fish is The fish’s
and falls to rapidly body
a river covered decomposes,
bottom. with and hard
sediment. parts change
to rock over
time.
 Answer Key
Clues to Earth’s Past
Lesson 1
Before You Read
1. disagree
2. disagree
Read to Learn
1. the idea that conditions and creatures on Earth change in quick, violent events
2. He noticed that the landscape on his farm changed over the years and hypothesized that
the same process could change Earth’s surface over a much longer time.
3. the principle that processes occurring today are similar to those that occurred in Earth’s
past
4. the presence of organisms with hard parts and burial by layers of sediment soon after death
5. the hard parts
6. c. a fossil about the size of a speck of dust
7. Pressure releases the gases and liquids from the organism’s tissues, leaving behind only
carbon containing the organism’s outline.
8. b. A fossil impression is filled with sediment.
9. tracks, footprints, nests
10. that a fossil that is similar to a living organism probably lived in an environment similar to
that of the living organism
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

11. Students’ Xs should cover the lightest areas on the map.

12. much warmer
After You Read
1. Possible answer: Things that happen to change Earth today are similar to things that
changed Earth in the past.
2.
Fossil Type What They Are/How They Form

Preserved Actual remains that become preserved in ice, tar, or

remains amber

Carbon films Fossilized carbon outline of an organism or part of

an organism left behind after pressure released all
gases and liquids from the tissues

Mineral- Form when minerals replace organic remains

replacement
fossils

Molds and casts Molds are impressions of organisms; casts are

copies of organisms that form when molds are filled
with sediment or minerals

Trace fossils Evidence of the activity of ancient organisms

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

 Lesson 1 | Fossils (continued)

Types of Summarize the processes of fossil formation. Name and

Preservation describe each process.

Fossil Preservation
Process Description
I found this on page . Actual remains of an organism are preserved in a
Preserved
substance that keeps it from being exposed to air or
remains bacteria.
I found this on page . Pressure on the buried organism drives
Carbon films
off gases, leaving a thin outline of carbon.
I found this on page . Mineral Minerals in groundwater fill in pore spaces
replacement or replace tissues of dead organisms.
I found this on page . Sediment hardens around a buried organism;
Molds
the organism leaves an impression.
I found this on page . A fossil copy is made when sediment or
Casts
mineral deposits fill a mold of an organism.
I found this on page . Evidence of the activity of an organism is
Trace fossils
preserved, such as footprints.

Ancient Environments Complete the concept below.

I found this on page .
If a fossil of an organism resembles a modern organism,
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

the ancient organism might have lived in a similar

environment.

I found this on page . Classify evidence of past climates.

Climate Evidence

Warm fossils of ferns and tropical plants

Cool fossils of coarse grasses and mammoths

Fossils provide clues to what happened in the ancient past. Identify a

clue about what might have happened in the recent past in your current environment,
and tell how long that clue is likely to last.
Accept all reasonable responses. Sample answer: The stump of a tree is evidence of

where a tree once grew. Depending on effects of the weather and the size of the tree,

the stump might be around for a few decades.

 Lesson 2 Relative-Age Dating
Predict three facts that will be discussed in Lesson 2 after reading the headings. Write your
predictions in your Science Journal.

Relative Ages of Rocks Explain why a single rock cannot be described in terms of
I found this on page . relative age.
Relative age is the age of rocks and geologic features with

respect to other nearby rocks and features. Other rocks

must be included in the comparison to describe a rock’s

relative age.

Model the principles of relative age dating below in

drawings and descriptions.

Concept Drawing Description

Drawings should Layers of rock

show multiple layers are arranged
I found this on page . Superposition arranged oldest to oldest to
youngest from youngest from
bottom to top. bottom to top.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Drawings should
Layers of rock
show sediments
can be tilted or
I found this on page . Original deposited in flat
folded, but they
horizontality layers. Students
originated as flat,
might also show the
horizontal layers.
same layers tilted.

Layers of rock are

Drawings should deposited as flat
show same layers as sheets in all
I found this on page . Lateral above with the directions. Erosion
continuity addition of a river can cut into the
cutting through rock, but the order
the layers. of layers does not
change.

Drawings should
A piece of an older
show any rock
rock becomes part
I found this on page . Inclusion shape with smaller
of a newer rock
fragments in the
mass.
rock.
 Lesson 2
Before You Read
3. disagree
4. disagree
Read to Learn
1. Possible answer: Students might put their age in context with other members of their
families.
2. Rock layers can be tilted or folded.
3. the rock layer on the bottom
4. pieces of older rock that become part of a new rock
5. older, because the fault cuts across the dike
6. superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, inclusions, and cross-cutting
relationships
7. Erosion has worn away part of the rock record in an unconformity, producing a
gap in time.
8. A disconformity occurs between sedimentary layers; a nonconformity occurs
between sedimentary layers and igneous or metamorphic layers.
9. superposition, original horizontality, and lateral continuity
10. the Moenkopi formation
11. They can use fossils. If two rock formations contain similar fossils, the formations are
about the same age.
12. Index fossils of a known age indicate that the rocks that contain them are similar in
age.
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

13. Some students may circle a tail on each species; others may circle only the most
“obvious” tails.
After You Read
1. Possible answer: If rocks are not disturbed, younger rocks are on top of older rocks.
2.
Superposition Lateral Original Cross-Cutting
Continuity Horizontality Relationships
In undisturbed Sediment is Most rock- If one geologic
rock layers, deposited in forming material feature cuts
the oldest large, was originally across another,
rocks are on continuous deposited in the feature that
the bottom. sheets. horizontal it cuts across is
layers. older.

3. According to the principle of inclusion, if one rock contains pieces of another rock, the
rock containing the pieces must be younger than the pieces.
 Lesson 2 | Relative-Age Dating (continued)

I found this on page . Order the features in the illustration from youngest to
oldest.
dike fault inclusion sedimentary layers

youngest
fault

dike

inclusion

sedimentary layer
oldest

Unconformities Define unconformity, and identify and describe 3 types.

I found this on page .
Unconformity: a surface where rock has worn away,
producing a gap in the rock record

Type: Type:
angular Type:
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disconformity unconformity nonconformity

Description: Description: Description:
Younger Sedimentary Younger
sedimentary layers are sedimentary
layers are deposited layers are
deposited on on top of tilted deposited on
top of older, or folded older igneous
horizontal sedimentary or metamorphic
sedimentary layers that rock layers that
layers that have eroded. have eroded.
have eroded.
Lesson 2 | Relative-Age Dating (continued)

Correlation Complete the rock-dating concept in the diagram below.

I found this on page . rocks and fossils
matching
+

separate
locations
=
correlation

I found this on page . Characterize organisms that form index fossils.

Organisms that
form index fossils

lived on were lived in many

Earth for abundant locations
short length
of time

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

I found this on page . Analyze the usefulness of index fossils. Write the correct terms.

Index fossils allow scientists to learn the relative ages of

rock formations that are very far apart or on different
continents . Scientists infer that layers with
index fossils found in different locations

are of similar age .

Museums all over the world collect samples of rocks and fossils. What
is the benefit to scientists of these collections?
Accept all reasonable responses. Sample answer: Because a great deal about Earth’s

past is learned from comparisons, access to many samples collected from many

locations is helpful to scientists.

 Lesson 3 Absolute-Age Dating
Scan Lesson 3. Read the lesson titles and bold words. Look at the pictures. Identify three facts
that you discover about absolute-age dating. Write these facts in your Science Journal.

Absolute Ages of Rocks Define absolute age.

I found this on page . the numerical age, in years, of a rock or
Absolute age:
other object

I found this on page . Summarize absolute age and relative age.

Ways to describe the ages of objects

Absolute Age Relative Age

numerical age age described with
determined using respect to another
radioactivity object or person

Atoms Describe the makeup of an atom.

I found this on page . smallest
An atom is the part of an element that has all
the properties of the element. Each atom contains smaller
particles called protons , neutrons , and electrons .
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Protons and neutrons are located in an atom’s

nucleus . Electrons surround the nucleus.

I found this on page . Define isotopes.

Isotopes: atoms of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons

I found this on page . Explain how radioactive decay releases energy from
unstable atoms.

Radioactive isotopes decay, releasing energy

and forming new, more stable atoms .

The element that decays is The new element that forms

called the parent is called the daughter

isotope. isotope.
 Lesson 3
Before You Read
5. disagree
6. agree
Read to Learn
1. Relative age is an age in relation to other objects. Absolute age is a numerical age given
in years.
2. in the number of neutrons they contain
3. different numbers of neutrons
4. Hydrogen is the parent; helium is the daughter.
5. the time required for half of the parent isotopes to decay into daughter isotopes
6. 6.25% parent and 93.75% daughter
7. the ratio of the amount of parent isotope to the amount of daughter product
8. C-14 stays the same in a living organism and decays in a dead organism.
9. Sedimentary rocks formed from grains of igneous or metamorphic rock. Dating these grains
would give the ages of the original materials, not of the sedimentary rock.
10. They would have enough parent isotope to measure.
11. rubidium-87
12. between 4.03 billion and 4.28 billion years old
13. 3 × 48.8 billion years = 146.4 billion years
After You Read
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1. Possible answer: Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different numbers of
neutrons. Carbon-14, uranium-235, and potassium-40 are radioactive isotopes.
2. constant; decays; stays the same; C-14; C-12
3. Students should describe how vocabulary cards helped them remember the meanings of
important words.
Lesson 3 | Absolute-Age Dating (continued)

I found this on page . Calculate the change in isotopes during radioactive

decay.

Percent Percent
Parent Daughter

Original materials 100 0

One half-life 50 50

Two half-lives 25 75

Three half-lives 12.5 87.5

After many more close to close to

half-lives 0 0

Radiometric Ages Describe why radiometric dating can be used to determine

I found this on page . an object’s age.

Radiometric Dating

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Radioactive isotopes decay at a constant rate ,

so they can be used to measure age .

The ratio of parent isotope to daughter product is

used as a measure.

I found this on page . Explain how radiocarbon dating uses decay to help
determine age.

Organism Description

• The organism takes in C-14 .

Alive • The ratio of radioactive carbon, or
C-14 to C-12 , remains constant.

• C-14 begins to decay.

Dead
• The ratio of C-14 to C-12 changes.
 Lesson 3 | Absolute-Age Dating (continued)

I found this on page . Identify two reasons that radiocarbon dating can be used to
measure the ages of once-living things accurately.
1. The ratio of C-14 to C-12 is used to determine how long
the organisms have been dead.

2. With a half-life of 5,730 years, C-14 is useful for

measuring the age of remains up to 50,000 years old.

I found this on page . Explain why radiometric dating is not useful for determining the
age of sedimentary rock.
Sample answer: Radioactive isotopes would probably

measure the ages of the grains that make up the rock, not

the time when the sediments were deposited.

I found this on page . Identify five radioactive isotopes that can be used for dating
rocks. Circle the two isotopes with the longest half-lives.

1. uranium-235 4. potassium-40

2. uranium-238 5. thorium-232
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3. rubidium-87

I found this on page . Summarize the conclusions that scientists have made about
Earth’s age.

Earth, the Moon, and Radiometric dating of Moon

meteorites formed at rocks indicates that Earth is
about the same time . 4.5 billion
years old.

You find a piece of petrified wood. Explain whether radiocarbon dating

could be used to date your find. If not, what could be used?
Sample answer: Petrified wood was once a living organism, and radiocarbon dating

works on once-living objects. However, during the fossilization process, the organic

material of the wood was replaced with rock-forming minerals, so radiocarbon dating

would not work. Instead, radiometric dating with any of the other radioactive isotopes

could be used.
Review Clues to Earth’s Past
Chapter Wrap-Up
Now that you have read the chapter, think about what you have learned.

Use this checklist to help you study.

Complete your Foldables® Chapter Project.
Study your Science Notebook on this chapter.
Study the definitions of vocabulary words.
Reread the chapter, and review the charts, graphs, and illustrations.
Review the Understanding Key Concepts at the end of each lesson.
Look over the Chapter Review at the end of the chapter.

Reread the chapter Big Idea and the lesson Key Concepts. To
illustrate how geology is a type of detective work, write a summary of the kinds of
changes that have affected Earth’s surface according to geological clues. Identify at
least three types of changes.
Accept all reasonable responses. Sample answers: Layers of rock are bent upward

to form mountains. Large cuts erode into rock and form canyons. Earth’s climate

has changed over time.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Challenge Build a three-dimensional model representing geological layers. Include features such
as unconformities, inclusions, faults, and fossil clues in your model. Show and explain your model
to your class.