Cognitive Psychology Chapters 4 & 5 Memory

Chapter 4, Short Term Memory (STM)

• Memory: active system for storing, organizing, and retrieving information

• Encoding: converting information into a usable form.

• Storage: holding this information for later use.

• Retrieval: taking memories out of storage.

• Sensory Memory: an exact copy of incoming information for a few seconds, or

less, and is the first stage of memory.

• Iconic Memory: a mental image or visual representation.

• Echoic Memory: after sound is heard a brief contraction of activity in the auditory
system.

• Short Term (or Working) Memory: a mental “scratchpad”;

o Selective attention; voluntary focusing or selective portion of input.

o Phonetically: storing information by sound sensitively to interference

• Memory is stored on basis of meaning and importance.

• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

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• Duration: Peterson & Peterson (1959) –Recall

• Capacity and Mechanism of Forgetting

• Peterson & Peterson asked people to learn a list of three letters count backwards
and then recall it.
o What they found was that after 18 seconds recall was virtually zero.

o Duration of information in STM is relatively short.

• Capacity measured using span tasks. Participants were presented with a list of
information and then repeat it back – list continues to lengthen until participant
cannot remember.
o Miller (1956) noted that over a variety of span tasks, people commonly
can remember 7 chunks + or – 2.
 • Chunking is a process to mass information together. It is an integrated unit of
information.

• Mechanism of Forgetting:
o Decay: the passage of time causes memory to fade.

o Interference: incoming information interfering with old information

 Retroactive: trying to put new info in that messes up old info

 Proactive: Previous knowledge that blocks new info from being

stored.

• Recording: modifying memory with information chunks.

• Maintenance Rehearsal: repeating memory with information silently to prolong

STM.

• Elaborative Encoding: links new memories with old (existing) memories or refer
it to something personal.

Chapter 5, Long Term Memory (LTM)

• Constructive Processing: updating memories on the basis of logic, reasoning, or

adding new info.

• Pseudo-Memories: false memories that a person believes are true or accurate.

• Redintegration Memory: reconstructed memories that are linked, revised, and fit
together following chains of memory into an association of related memories.
Types of LTM

• Procedural (Skilled): LTMemories of conditioned responses and learned skills.

• Declarative (Facts): Part of LTM that contains factual info.

o Somantic: impersonal facts & everyday knowledge.

o Episodic: personal experiences linked with specific times & places.

• Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) State: feeling that a memory is available but not

retrievable.

• Feeling of Knowing: feeling that can/does know something before hearing it.
Recall
 • Direct Retrieval of facts or information
o Hardest to recall info items in the middle of list: Serial Position Effect

o Easier to recall first & last items in a list.

• Recognition: previously learned material is correctly identified

• Distracters: false items included with a correct item.

• False Positive: false sense of recognition wrong answers on multiple answers.

• Relearning: learning something previously learned that comes back faster.

• Saving Score: amount of time saved when relearning information.

• Explicit: past experiences consciously brought to mind.

• Implicit: a memory not known to exist; memory is unconsciously retrieved.

• Priming: when causes are used to activate hidden memories.

• Eidetic Memory: occurs when a person (usually a child) has a visual images clear
enough to be scanned or retained for at least 30 seconds.
o Usually projected onto a “plain” surface, like a blank page of paper—
usually disappears in adulthood.
Forgetting:

• Nonsense Syllables: Meaningless three letter words that test forgetting.

• Encoding Failure: memory is never committed to memory, correctly.

• Memory Traces: physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that occur when
memories are stored.

• Memory Decay: when traces become weak & fade.

• Disuse: theory that traces weaken when not used or retrieved for a period of time.

• The Curve of Forgetting: the graphical curve to memory loss.

• Memory Cue: any stimulus associated with memory.

• State-Dependent Learning: when body state is the same as something is learned—

memory is improved—ex: Drunks forgetting where they parked.

• Interference: tendency for new memories to impair retrieval and vice versa.
 • Transfer of Training: positive transfer, mastery if one tasks aids learning or
performance.

• Repression: unconsciously pushing painful/threatening/embarrassing memories

out of consciousness. Motivated Forgetting.

• Suppression: conscious putting something painful memories out of mind or trying

to keep from entering awareness.

• Flashbulb Memories: created during times of personal tragedy (significant event)

–not always accurate, positive & negative feelings, and great confidence.

• Retrograde Amnesia: Forgetting events that occur before event.

• Anterograde Amnesia: Forgetting events that occur after event.

• Consolidation: forming a LTM in the brain.

• Electroconvulsive Shock (ECS): mild electric shock passed through the brain
produces a STM loss.
Memory Formation

• Spaced Practice: altering short study sessions with brief rest periods.

• Massed Practice: studying for long periods without rest periods.

• Lack of sleep & hunger hurt retention of information.

• Selection: pulling the most important concepts.

• Organization: putting information into chunks.