1.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

1.1. PREFACE

The intertidal region is one of the most dyn£imic, fascinating and

exquisite environment, which warrants many more investigations to unravel the
intricate mechanisms of adaptations of different organisms to their rapidly
changing environment. Of all the amazing variety of populations that
encompass the ecosystem of intertidal region, molluscs particularly gastropods
draw a rapt attention because of their occurrence in huge numbers as well as in
different sizes. Moreover, it is interesting to note that they are cosmopolitan in
distribution occurring in a variety of habitats and at different tide levels
ranging from supratidal zone to the infralittoral fringe. They have been
reported from ahnost all the latitudes and such an extensive distribution makes
them to expose to different environmental perturbations. Because of their wide
geographic distribution, gastropod constitute one of the best and interesting
groups for investigations to be carried out (Umadevi, 1983).

The marine gastropods next to crustaceans form the important part of

the fishery, in terms of commercial value. The meat of gastropods has been
considered a delicacy and is eaten in Targe quantities in various parts of the
world. They constitute a good source of protein, glycogen and minerals on a
par with other animal foods conventionally eaten by human (Durve and Bal,
1961; Giese, 1966; Ansari et al 1981; Patterson Edward et al 1992 and Paul
Ravindran, 2003). The magnificent shells of gastropods are used for
decoration, ornamentation and in jewellery and lime making (Somneuk, 1991)
and in the ancient times as utensils. The shells are cleaned, polished and sold as
curios. Further, the opercula of gastropods have also received considerable
attention since they are used in the preparation of dyes, perfumes cosmetics
and medicines (Vovells, 1967).
 In this present investigation based on the above facts an intertidal
gastropod, Thais bufo which is more ubiquitous and abundant in the intertidal
region of Tranquebar, has been selected.

The structure and dynamics of biological communities can be better

understood only if background information is available on the ecology of the
component species (Underwood, 1979). Physical, chemical and biological
features like substratum, temperature, salinity, oxygen, food availability,
predators etc., are important factors which influence the distribution of animals
(Odum, 1963).

Life in aquatic habitats depends upon various physicochemical factors

such as rainfall, temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, hydrogen ion
concentration, turbidity and nutrients like phosphate, nitrate, silicate etc.,
(Anzecc and Armcanz, 2002). Distribution and behaviour of nutrients in the
coastal environments, particularly in the near shore waters and estuaries exhibit
considerable seasonal variations depending on the local conditions like
discharge of sewage waters, rainfall, freshwater inflow, tidal incursion and by
the biological activities like phytoplankton uptake and regeneration. Although
much is knovm about the seasonal distribution of nutrients and various' abiotic
and biotic process affecting the nutrient cycle of different coastal environments
(Choudhury and Panigrahy, 1991), the distribution of the flora and fauna in the
aquatic system are mainly controlled by the fluctuation in the physical and
chemical characteristics of the water body.

The biological wealth of aquatic realm was amply demonstrated by

Hensen (1987). The biological wealth largely depends upon the dissolved
nutrients and hence ecological studies are very important in eutrophic areas in
determining the changes of water quality and make a general evaluation of that
area (Ward gr a/1998).
 Water temperature regulates ecosystem functioning both directly
through physiological effects on organisms, and indirectly as a consequence of
habitat loss (Anzecc and Armcanz, 2002). Photosynthesis and aerobic
respiration, the growth, reproduction, metabolism and the mobility of
organisms are all affected by changes in water temperature, hideed the rate of
biochemical reactions usually double when temperature is increased by 10°C
within the given tolerance range of an organism (Anzecc and Armcanz, 2002).
Changes in sea surface temperature in marine and coastal waters are also a
suggested indicator for state of environmental reporting (Ward et al 1998).
Most aquatic organisms require oxygen in specified concentration for
respiration and efficient metabolism and dissolved oxygen concentration
changes above or below this range can have adverse physiological effects
(Connell and Miller, 1984). The nutrients, nitrogen and phosphate are elements
and are essential building blocks for plant and animal growth (Choudhury and
Panigrahy, 1991). Nitrogen is an integral component of organic compounds
such as amino acids, proteins, DNA and RNA. Phosphorus is found in nucleic
acids and certain fats. The metals such as copper, zinc, chromium present at
low concentrations in water are essential for life and are called micronutrients
or trace elements.
The pH of coastal waters responds to changes in (i) dissolved carbon
dioxide concentrations (ii) alkalinity (iii) hydrogen ion concentrations and
(iv)in a small way to temperature. The magnitude of the change varies with
salinity because various ions are involved in acid - base reactions, and the
concentration of salt also influences various equilibrium constants
(Hinga,2002).
Most aquatic organisms function optimally within a narrow range of
salinity. When salinity changes to above or below this range, an organism may
lose the ability to regulate its internal ion concentration, consequently shifting
salinity can affect the distribution of macro benthos (Boesch, 1977) as well as
those of rooted vegetation (e.g. Sea grasses) and sessile organisms
(Alber,2002).
 Hence the hydrological study is a pre requisite in any aquatic system for
the assessment of its potentiaUties, distribution of plants and animals and also
to understand the realities between its different tropical level and food webs
(James Nybakken, 2001). In Indian estuaries and seas the physico chemical
characteristics have been carried out by many workers (Chandran, 1982;
Sivakumar, 1982; Chandran and Ramamoorthi, 1984; Thangaraj, 1984;
Jagadeesan, 1986; Prabhadevi, 1986; Lakshmanan et al 1987; Ramaraju et al
1987; Anbazhagan, 1988; Murugan, 1989; Ayyakkannu 1989;
Raveenthiranaath Nehru, 1990; Murugan and Ayyakkannu 1991;
Sampathkumar, 1992; Perumal, 1993; Saraswathi, 1993; Satpathy, 1996;
Rajasegar, 1998; Baskaran Sanjeevi, 2001; Bragadeeswaran, 2002;
Rajaram,2002; Martin Devaprasad, 2002; Jonas Gunasekaran, 2003; Paul
Ravindran, 2003 and Venkatesh Perumal, 2007).

Distribution of molluscs, in general depends on the extent of

adaptability and the boundary of distribution of each species from the interplay
of number of ecological factors such as rainfall, temperature, dissolved oxygen,
salinity and hydrogen ion concentrations (James Nybakken, 2001). These
factors are influencing the variations and abundance of fauna in different areas.
Ecological studies on molluscs in Tranquebar was studied by Maruthamuthu
(1988); Thivakaran (1988); Tagore (1989) and Anandhan (1994).

In the coastal environment, study of hydrological features such as

salinity, dissolved oxygen content, temperature and turbidity are known to
exert influence on the distribution patterns of intertidal communities
(Thorson,1966). Boycott (1936) pointed out certain ecological factors of the
environment have a pronounced influence in the determination of the habitat
and activities.
 Kinne (1967) stated that the salinity might affect functional and
structural response of invertebrates through changes in i. Total osmotic
concentration, ii. Relative proportions of solutes iii. Coefficient of absorption
and saturation of dissolved gases iv. Density and viscosity; and possibly
v.Through changes in surface tension. Salinity is an important "abiotic factor
that has a profound effect on organisms (Vernberg and Vemberg, 1972 and
Newell, 1976). Dexter (1974) pointed out, that in India there are cases of
depletion of marine molluscs due to commercialised fishing and indiscriminate
collection of rare species.

Hence it is essential to know the distribution and abundance of marine

molluscs, further, it is necessary to carryout ecological survey which enables
the researcher to describe and define the animal community of each habitat
(Elton, 1933).

In view of the above considerations evaluation of the role of

environmental factors on the distribution of Thais bufo formed, one of the
objectives in the present investigation.

The basic morphology of the Stenoglossan snails are quite comparable

to each other and basically show only few similarities in structure and often
varies in bearing spines or stout tubercles or columella and canal. There are
many works done on the shell morphology of the Thaisid gastropods and the
following are worth mentioning: Hornell (1922), Gravely (1941),
Satyamurthy(1952), Habe (1964), Hyman (1967), Dushane and Sphon (1968),
Mc Millan (1968), Dushane and Bremnan (1969), Gosner (1971), Alan
Solem(1974), Jackman (1974), Sundaram (1974), Zeiller (1974), Gunter(1979),
Bhanu (1980) and Crothers (1985b).
 The dog whelk shows an interesting variation in its shell shape.
Thais sp. found in sheltered areas has short and corhpressed shells than its
counterparts found in other exposed shore areas (Crothers, 1983b, 85a, 85b).
Extensive studies on the shell shape variation of Nucella lapillus in different
localities were made from Pembrokeshire (Crothers, 1974a), Bristol channel
(Crothers, 1974b) South coast of England (Crothers, 1975a), Channel Islands
and North Western France (Crothers, 1975b), West Somerset, (Crothers, 1976),
Southern European range (Crothers, 1977) Sollom Voe and Sheltland Island
(Crothers, 1979) Faroese (Crothers, 1981a), Solway Firth (Crothers, 1981b).
Orkney and North Scotland (Crothers, 1981c), West Scotland (Crothers, 1982),
North America (Crothers, 1983a) and Pacific (Crothers 1984).

The force required to break the shell of its predators was studied by
Ebling et al (1964). Kitching (1966) described the N.lapillus shell, body forms
and its ecological significance. Kitching (1976, 77) studied the distribution,
changes in shell forms and niche occupation of Thais emarginata, T.lapillus
and T.canaliculata. Osborne (1977) studied the variations in shell shape of
T.lapillus.

Apart from these studies, many authors have focused attention on dog
whelk's colour, polymorphism and its banding. The notable works are as
follows : Moore (1936), Philip Street (1961), Fretter and Graham (1962),
Emlen (1966), Hyman (1967), Feare (1971), Jackman (1974), Rowland (1976),
Osborne (1977), Underwood (1979), Palmer (1984), Crothers (1985b) and
Tagore (1989). The shell banding in connection with predation was studied by
Feare (1971) and Berry (1983) found variations in banding frequency
associated with environmental changes.

Eventhough information is available on the Thaisid shells in general,

studies on shell morphology of T. bufo are limited (Homell, 1922; Gravely,
1941; Satyamurthy, 1952; Habe, 1964; Dushane and Sphon, 1968;
Sundaram,1974; Bhanu, 1980 and Tagore, 1989). To add more information on
the shell size, shape, colour and other external features, the present study was
undertaken on the shells, operculum and morphological features of the Thaisid
snail T. bufo.

The anatomical studies are more important as the soft anatomy of an

animal is directly related to the animal mode of life. The anatomical
observations of the digestive system of Thaisids are very limited and the
following works are worth mentioning : (Cooke, 1919; Graham, 1941; 1949;
Abbott, 1954; Menzel and Hopkins, 1954; Nakajima, 1956; Arakawa, 1958;
Fretter and Graham, 1962; Arakawa, 1962 a, 1962b; Hyman, 1967; Radwin
and Wells, 1968; Alan Solem, 1974; Gunter et al 191 A; Heningway, 1975;
Krutak, 1977 and Roller et al 1984). Information available on the Thaisids
nervous system is scanty (Mir, 1971). The works carried out on the
reproductive system includes, (Fretter 1941, Morrison, 1943; Fretter 1946;
Menzel and Hopkins, 1954; Fretter and Graham, 1962; D' Asaro, 1966; Belisle
and Stickle, 1978; Gunter, 1979 and Gibbs and Bryan, 1986).

It seems quite clear that there is a paucity of information concerning

the anatomy of T. bufo, (Bhanu et al 1982) and hence the present study was
aimed to determine the structural details of digestive, nervous and reproductive
system of T. bufo.

The knowledge on the biochemical composition of any edible organism

is extremely important, since the nutritive value is reflected in its biochemical
components (Nagabushanam and Mane, 1978). Further, according to above
authors, a newer species should be recommended for human consumption only
after assessing the nutritive value of the species. With regard to its nutritional
merits Giese (1969) revealed that investigations on biochemical composition in
different body parts will be more meaningful than the whole animal.
Pronounced seasonal variations in the biochemical constituents of gastropods
were reported by (Lambert and Dehnel, 1974; Stickle, 1975; Suryanarayanan
and Nair, 1976; Ansari et al 1981; Anandhakumar, 1986; Shanmugam, 1987;

7
Maruthamuthu, 1988; Thivakaran, 1988; Ramesh and Ayyakkannu 1992;
Jamila Patterson et al 1994; Stella, 1995 and Paul Ravindran, 2003). Though
information is available on the biochemical composition of gastropods, detailed
and systematic information on the biochemical composition of intertidal
prosobranchs is lacking. Based on the above factors an attempt has been made
to investigate the biochemical composition of T.bufo, an intertidal prosobranch.

Infectious diseases, account for high proportion of health problems in

the developing countries like India (Sashikumar et al 2003). Microorganisms
have developed resistance to many antibiotics and this has created immense
clinical problem in the treatment of infectious diseases (Davis, 1994). The
resistance of the organisms has increased due to indiscriminate use of
commercial drugs commonly used for the treatment of infectious diseases. This
situation forced the scientists to search for new antimicrobial substances from
various sources including marine organisms.

Marine organisms have been used for medicinal purposes in India,

China and Europe since ancient times. In the recent past, several
pharmacological substances of marine origin have been developed Bioactive
substances from marine molluscs have gained prominence in recent years
(Rajaganapathi, 2002).

The molluscs constitute the largest single group of biotoxic marine

invertebrates, widely distributed throughout the world (Halstead, 1967). In
gastropods, several species viz. Haliotis rufescens (Li, 1960), Australian dorid
nudibranchs (Gunthrope and Cameron, 1987), Spanish Dancer, a nudibranch
(Pawlik, 1992) have been reported to have high microbial activity. Also, the
bivalves Ostrea virginica and Mercenaria mercenaria inhibit the
microorganisms (Prescott and Li, 1966). The haemolymph of Mytillus
galloprovincialis, Ostrea edulis and Crassostrea gigas inhibits the bacterial
growth (Hubert et al 1996a). The Magainin - I is an effective antimicrobial
compound, extracted from Ostrea edulis (Morvan et al 1994). The mercenene

8
is an antineoplastic compound extracted from the liver of clam Mercenaria
mercenaria (Li et al 1968). In India, a collaborative work with Russian team
has shown that the marine mussels Perna viridis and P. indica are very good
source of antiviral drugs (Chatterji et al 1999).

Ink of the cuttle fish Seploteuthis lessoniana has shown to have

antiseptic effect against Staphylococcus aureus (Mochizuki, 1979). An
antitumour compound has been isolated from ink of the squid Illex argintinus
(Takaya et al 1994a). Some of the molluscs are believed to cure certain
diseases like asthma and rickets and seed pearls are said to be specific in
healing certain skin ailments (Jones, 1971).

Today, most infectious diseases can be brought under control with

natural or synthetic drugs. We are still in great need of safer, cheaper and
effective drugs. The potential of marine molluscs as a source of biologically
active products is largely unexplored in India, Hence, screening of marine
molluscs for bioactive compounds is necessary. A thorough understanding of
chemical structures and biological activity will lead us to formulate novel
drugs with specific actions. Since few works are available on the antibacterial
activity of marine gastropod, the antibacterial activity of T. bufo assumed
importance in this investigation.

Parpam is a type of internal medicine white in colour and powder in

form. Parpam is equivalent to calx, prepared by the process of calcination. The
raw material for the preparation of parpam may be either organic or inorganic.
Bones, horns, shells, metals, minerals, ores and salts are used as raw material.
In Indian traditional system of medicine, conch shells are used in the treatment
of ulcer, dysentery, dyspepsia, indigestion and jaundice Pandit et al (2000) and
Joseph Vedhagiri (2005). Conch shell has been described in the Puranas and
Epics and considered as one of the materials and even today for the preparation
of sangu parpam.
 The raw materials are highly complex and carmot easily absorbed by
the human body. The calcination processes in the preparation of sangu parpam
convert the complex substances into simpler, colloidal form and increase the
rate of dissolution and bioavailability (Joseph Vedhagiri, 2005). Though
Sangu parpam is one of the ancient Siddha medicines, it doesn't have any
scientific validation or standardization. Scientific validation and
standardization of the drug is the need of the hour and the purpose of
standardizing traditional drugs is to ensure therapeutic efficacy and safety.

Based on the above factors, Sangu parpam preparation through

"Pudam" and standardization of parpam with the help of SEM, SEM-EDS,
FTIR and XRD analysis were included in the present investigation.

Thus a perusal of literature reveals that, works on an intertidal rocky

shore fauna Thais bufo are scanty, since the Southeast coast of hidia is lacking
natural rocky shore. Only few works on T. bufo like imposex, morphology and
anatomy have been reported from Pondicherry, Mandapam and Tranquebar and
hence to fill up the lacuna to some extent the present work has been designed
with the following objectives .

10
1.2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

To analyse the hydrological parameters such as rainfall, dissolved

oxygen, salinity, temperature and hydrogen ion concentration and
nutrients like phosphate, silicate, nitrate and calcium and their
influence on the population of Thais bufo in Tranquebar coastal
area.

- To update our knowledge on the morphology and anatomy of

T.bufo and histology of tissues like foot, mantle, gill, stomach,
intestine, digestive gland and gonad.

- To evaluate the biochemical composition of whole animal and

tissues like foot, digestive gland and gonad of male and female
T.bufo.

- To assess the antibacterial activity of hypobranchial gland crude

extract of T. bufo and

- To understand the scientific validation of Sangu parpam (Siddha

medicine) with T. bufo shell and to elucidate variations through
spectral investigations.

11
 1.3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Previous studies are restricted to important investigations on seasonal
variations pertaining to physico-chemical and biological parameters in various
biotopes in the Indian east and west coasts and foreign countries and also
works related to biochemical, morphological, anatomical, histological,
antibacterial and spectral investigation.
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Author(s) Year Title / Remarks

Karman 1980 The hydrobiological features in the near

shore and estuarine waters of Portonovo.

Balasubramanian 1981 Dissolved organic matter in the coastal

waters of Portonova.

Olivia Fernando 1981 Studies in the intertidal region of the Vellar

estuary.

Chandran 1982 The hydrological parameters in relation to

plankton production in the gradient zone of
the Vellar estuary.

Naxayanaswamy and 1982 The physical characters of the Navapur and

Vishwanatha Sarma Umbharat.

Narayanaswamy and 1982 The tidal mixing pattern in Dahj creek

Vishwanatha Sarma waters.

Balakrishnan Nair et al 1983 The physico-chemical features of water and

sediments of Ashtamudi estuary.

De Sousa 1983 The behaviour of nutrients during

premonsoon in the Mandovi estuary.

12
Nair and Ganapathy 1983 The hydrographical and chemical feature in
the Adaiyar-Sadras estuarine system.

Sarala Devi et al 1983 The nutrients in some estuaries of Kerala

coast.

Chandran and 1984 The physico-chemical parameters in the

Ramamoorthi . gradient zone of the Vellar estuary.

Thangaraj 1984 The eco-biology of marine zone of the

Vellar estuary.

De Sousa and Sen Gupta 1986 The variation in the dissolved oxygen in
Mandovi-Zuari estuaries.

Lakshmanan et al 1987 The hydrobiological features of the Cochin

backwaters.

Urs et al 1987 The relationship between salinity and fresh

water flow into the Kuttiyadi estuary,
Kamataka.

Veeran Kutty and Rebacca 1987 The mathematical model for salinity
Thomas intrusion in estuarine waters of Kerala.

Zingde et al 1987 The temperature, salinity, pH, suspended

solids, dissolved oxygen and nutrients in
Maharastra coast.

Hussain et al 1988 The physico-chemical parameters of the

Kamafully estuary.

Patterson Edward 1988 Studies on the ecology of Coleroon estuary.

13
Ranga Rao et al 1988 The salinity and current distribution in the
Godavari estuary in relation to tide and
freshwater discharge.

Upadhyay 1988 The spatial and temporal changes in various

physico-chemical parameters of the
Mahanadi estuarine system.

Morton 1989 The hydrobiology of the intensively

modified Nerang river, Australia .

Panda et al 1989 The distribution of nutrients, temperature,

salinity, dissolved oxygen and transparency
in the Chilka lake.

Segar and Hariharan 1989 The physico-chemical characteristics of the

fishing ground of the Mangalore.

Joseph and Kurup 1990 The stratification and distribution of salinity

in relation to tides and freshwater
discharges in Cochin estuary.

Mitra et al 1990 The seasonal variations of some

hydrographical parameters near Digha in
West Bengal.

Rivonkar et al 1990 The physico - chemical characteristics of

the fishing grounds of the Mangalore.

Shibu et al 1990 The spatial and temporal variation of

inorganic nutrients in a tropical estuary.

Choudhury and 1991 The seasonal distribution and behaviour of

Panigrahy nutrients in the creek and coastal waters of
Gopalpur.

Murugan and 1991 The physico-chemical parameters in the

Ayyakkannu Uppanar backwaters, Cuddalore.

14
Saraladevi et al 1991 The distribution and levels of phosphate,
nitrate, nitrite and ammonia in Cochin
backwaters.

Anilakumary and 1992 The distribution of nutrients in Poonthura

Abdul Azis estuary, Thiruvananthapuram.

Narayana Pillai 1993 The occurrence of oxygen content of coastal

waters along the Southwest coast of India.

Reddi et al 1993 The various physico-chemical parameters of

the Swamamuki estuary.

Sujatha et al 1993 The variations in physico chemical

parameters of the Bahuda estuary.

Bijoy Nandan and Abdul 1994 Studies on BOD concentration and

Azis dissolved oxygen concentration in
Kadinamkulam Kayal of Southern Kerala.

Erftemeijer 1994 The concentration of dissolved oxygen

phosphate, ammonia, nitrate and nitrite in
different sites of south Sulawesi, Indonesia.

Valsaraj and Rao 1994 The hydrobiological characters in the

inshore waters.

Mishra and Panigrahy 1995 The seasonal distribution of some

hydrographical parameters and
micronutrients in the Bahuda estuary,
Orissa.

Mathew et al 1996 The seasonal variation in salinity in relation

to tide and rainfall in Korapuzha estuary
(Calicut, Kerala).

Swami et al 1996 The hydrography and micronutrient profile

of Karwar coastal waters.

15
Das et al 1997 The effects of tides over different seasons
on the chemical and physical properties of
Mahanadi estuary.

Rajasegar 1998 The environmental inventory on Vellar

estuary in relation to shrimp farming.

De Sousa 1999 The effect of mining on the nutrients

chemistry of Mandovi estuary.

Padma and Periakali 1999 The geochemical and hydrobiology of

Pulicate lake.

Padmavathi and 1999 The distribution of nutrients and major

Sathyanarayana elements in the estuarine and adjoining
coastal waters of Godavari and Bay of
Bengal.

Panigrahy et al 1999 The influence of various physico-chemical

parameters on coastal water quality of
Orissa.

Vinithkumar et al 1999 Studies on organic matter, nutrients and

major ions in the sediments of corals reefs
and seagrass beds of Gulf of Mannar
Biosphere Reserve.

Sasi Nayar et al 2000 The spatio-temporal distribution of selected

physico-chemical parameters in Talapady
lagoon.

Rajaram 2002 The hydrobiological parameters from

Uppanar estuary, Cuddalore.

16
 MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES

Author(s) Year Title / Remarks

Wu 1965 Comparative functional studies of the

digestive system of muricid
gastropods Drupa ricina and Morula
granulata

Radwin and Wells 1968 Comparative radular morphology and

feeding habits of muricid gastropods
of Gulf of Mexico

Fuse 1981 Biology of Haliotis varia and Haliotis

asinina

Kamala 1983 Some aspect on the biology of the top

shell Euchelus asper

Dyrynda 1985 Studies on structure of epibenthic

communities.

Reid 1985 Habitat and zonation patterns of

Littoraria sps.

Sampath 1985 Some aspects on the biology of Oliva

oliva

Shanmugam 1987 Studies on Pythia plicate

Smagowicz 1989 Polymorphism of shells in juveniles of

Rapana thomasiana

Carlton 1990 Molluscan invasions in marine and

estuarine communities

Harikantra and 1990 Population distribution of meiofauna

Parulekar in relation to some environmental
features in the intertidal region of Goa

17
Shengtoa et al 1990 Morphology of reproductive system of
Rapana venosa

Hou Lin et al 1991 Morphology of reproductive system of

Rapana venosa

Middle fart 1992 Morphology and anatomy of

Chicoreus hrunneus

Stella et al 1992 Analysis of size class distributions of

Chicoreus ramosus

Subba Rao and 1993 Contribution to the knowledge of

Surya Rao Indian marine molluscs

Sahin 1997 Investigation on biology of sea snail

Rapana venosa

Green 2000 Morphological variation of three

populations of the veined Rapa whelk,
Rapana venosa

Nairn Ismail and 2000 Population structure and shell

Elkarmi Ali morphology ofDrupella cornus.

Son et al 2000 Sexual dimorphism of Nucella lapillus

Paongan iim et al 2001 Size distribution of male and female

shell Trochus niloticus

18
 ANATOMICAL AND HISTOLOGICAL STUDIES

Author(s) Year Title / Remarks

Cooke 1919 The radula in Thais, Drupa, Morula, Corcholepus,

Cronia and Ispas

Graham 1939 Structure of alimentary canal of the style bearing

prosobranchs.

Graham 1941 Oesophagus of the stenoglossan prosobranch

Carriker 1943 Structure and function of the proboscis in common

oyster drill Urosalpinx cinerea

Holm 1946 Histological and functional studies on the genital

tract of Lymnaea stagenalis apressa

Graham 1949 The moUuscan stomach

Nakajima 1956 Structure and function of the mid gut gland of

moUusca

Arakawa 1957 Remarkable sexual dimorphism of the radula of

Drupella venus

Arakawa 1958 Some notes on the radula of Purpura echinulata

Arakawa 1962 Study on the radula of Japanese muricidae, the

genera Purpura, Thais and Maninella

Houston 1976 The structure and function of neogastropod

reproductive system with special reference to
Columbellafuscata

Kalyani 1979 Histochemical studies on reproductive glands and

egg envelops of Achatinafulica.

19
Bhanu et al 1982 Histological and histochemical studies on the
albumen and capsular gland of Thais bufo

Thivakaran 1984 Comparative studies on Nassa dorsala and Nassa

stolata

Garrido and Jorquera 1985 Sperm morphology in Nucella crassilabrum

Sampath 1985 Biology of Oliva oliva of Portonova coast

Crothers 1985 Biology of Nucella lapillus

Gallrado and Garrido 1989 Sperm morphology in the marine gastropod

Nucella crassilabrum with an account of
morphometric patterns of spermatozoa variation in
the family muricidae.

Andrews 1991 Fine structure and function of salivary glands of

Nucella lapillus

Jaramlillo 1991 Female genital system of Chorus giganteus

Middlefart 1992 Morphology and anatomy of Chicoreus brunneus

Kool 1993 Phylogenetic analysis of Rapanidae

Chung and Kim 1997 Cytological studies on testicular maturation and

cyclic changes in the epithelial cells of the seminal
vesicle of the male purple shell Rapana venosa

Sahin 1997 Biological characteristics of sea snail Rapana

venosa

Ksyunin 2000 Size-age and sexual structure of rapa whelk

Rapana thomasiana

20
 BIOCHEMICAL STUDIES

Author(s) Year Title / Remarks

Barry and Mundy 1959 Carbohydrate levels in Patella

Durve and Bal 1961 Studies on chemical composition of oyster

Crassostrea virginica

Ansell et al 1964 Studies on hard shell clam Venus mercenaria

Giese et al 1967 Seasonal changes in the body component

indices and chemical composition in Tivelo
stultorum

Webber 1970 Changes in the metabolism of abalone

Haliotis cracherordii

William 1970 Seasonal variations in the biochemical

composition of edible winkle Littorina
littorea

Zwann and Zandeez 1972 Seasonal changes in the glycogen content of

common sea mussel Mytilus edulis

Ansell et al 1973 The biochemical composition of four

common invertebrates

Pillai and Nair 1973 Biochemical changes in the gonads of Uca

annulipes, Portunus pelagicus and
Metapenacus affinis

Stickle and Mrozek 1973 Seasonal changes in the body component

indices of prosobranch, Fusitriton
oregonensis

Ansell 1974 Seasonal changes in the biochemical

composition of the bivalve Abra alba

21
Ansell 1974 Seasonal changes in the biochemical
composition of the bivalve Chlamys
septemradiata

Ansell 1974 Seasonal changes in the biochemical

composition of the bivalve Nucella sulcata

Ansell 1974 Seasonal changes in the biochemical

composition of the bivalve Lima hians

Lambert and Dehnel 1974 Seasonal variations in biochemical

composition of an intertidal gastropod Thais
lamellosa

Vijayaraghavan et al 1974 Changes in the biochemical composition of

mole crab Emerita nolthisi

Stickle 1975 Seasonal changes in the biochemical

composition of Thais lamellosa

Suryanarayanan and 1976 Seasonal variation in the biochemical

Nair constituents of Cellona radiata

Nagabhushanam and 1977 Seasonal variations in biochemical

Dhamne constituents of clam

Ansari et al 1981 Seasonal changes in the meat weight and

biochemical composition of black clam
Villorita cyprinoides

Rajagopale/^a/ 1981 Ecology of polymorphic prosobranch snail

Umbonium vestiarium

Sundet and Vahl 1981 Seasonal changes in dry weight and

biochemical composition of island scallops,
Chlamys islandica

22
Krishna Rao 1982 Studies on intertidal limpet Cellona radiata

Nagabhushnan and 1982 Changes in body component indices in

Deshpande relation to reproductive cycle in chiton.

Patil and Mane 1982 Levels of protein, fat and glycogen in the
limpet Cellona rota.

Rajagopal 1982 Studies on intertidal mollusc Umbonium

vestiarium

Uma devi 1983 Seasonal changes in the biochemical

constituents of an intertidal gastropod
Morula granulata.

Maruthamuthu 1984 Studies on Littorina scabra

Thivakaran 1984 Comparative studies on Nassa dorsata and

Nassa stolata

Krishnakumari 1985 Ecological and biochemical studies with

special reference to pollution on selected
species of molluscs from Bombay.

Thilaga 1985 Studies on Bullia vittata

Anandhakumar 1986 Biochemical works on gastropod, Hemifusus

pugilinus

Maruthamuthu 1988 Studies on Littorina littoria

Thivakaran 1988 Studies on the Littorinids Littorina

quadricentus and Nodilittorina pyramidalis

Tagore 1989 Studies on Thaisids Thais biserialis and

Thais bufo

23
Rosoiu and Panait 1990 Research on the biochemistry of principle
species of benthic mussels of Romanian coast
of the Black Sea.

Patterson Edward et al 1992 Recipes with Chicoreus ramosus

Ramesh and Ayyakannu 1992 Nutritive value of Chicoreus ramosus

Raghunathan et al 1994 Studies on food consumption and growth rate

oi Babylonia spirata

Raja Kumar 1995 Studies on Rapana rapiformis

Arularasan 2002 Studies on rocky shore molluscs of

Tranquebar.

Jonas Gunasekaran 2003 Studies on biochemical components of

Meretrix casta.

Paul Ravindran 2003 Studies on biochemical components of

Rapana rapiformis

24
 ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY

Active
Author Year Marine Molluscs Activity
Fraction

Fange 1960 Neptunae antiqua Tetramine Stimulates

(European whelk) parasympathetic
system in mammals

Li 1960 Haliotis rufescens Paolin - 1 and II Antimicrobial

(Abalone)

Whittaker 1960 Buccinum undatum Acrylcholine Hypotension

(Gastropod)

Limasset 1961 Mytilus edulis Crude Antiviral

(Mussel)

Tapes decussates Crude Antiviral

(Clam)

Tapes aureus Crude Antiviral

(Clam)

Crassostrea angulata Crude Antiviral

(Oyster)

Winkler 1961 Aplysia californica Acetone extract of Toxic

(Sea hare) digestive gland

Li et al 1962 Haliotis rufescens Paolin-II Antiviral

(Abalone)

Szent - 1963 Mercenaria mercenaria Retine Cell growth

Gyrogyi et al (Common clam) inhibitor

Prescott et al 1964 Loligopealii (Squid) Acetic acid extract Antiviral

25
Schmeer 1964 Mercenaria mercenaria Fractions Antitumor
(Common clam)

Jaques 1965 Spisula solidissima Mactin - A Anticoagulant

(Surf clam)

Li et al 1965 Mercenaria mercenaria Crude Antiviral

(Common clam)

Schmeer and 1965 Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenene Antitumor

Huala (Common clam)

Loligo sp. (Squid) Aqueous extract Antitumor

Ostrea virginica (Whelk) Aqueous extract Antitumor

Szent - 1965 Mercenaria mercenaria Retine Cell growth inhibitor

Gyrogyi (Common clam)

Prescott and 1966 Strombus gigas Crude Antiviral

Li (Queen conch)

Ostrea virginica Crude Antiviral

(Oyster)

Tegula gallina Crude Antiviral

(Sea hare)

Loligo pealii (Squid) Crude Antiviral

Li et al 1968 Mercenaria mercenaria Liver extract Antineoplastic

(Common clam)

26
Liu et al 1968 Halwtis rufescens Aqueous extract Antileukemic
(Abalone)

Tapes phillipinarum Aqueous extract Antileukemic

(Manila clam)

Crassostrea gigas Aqueous extract Antileukemic

(Pacific oyster)

Spisula soUdissima Aqueous extract Antileukemic

(Surf clam)

Pettit et al 1970 Cristaria plicata spatiosa Crude Antineoplastic

(Gastropod)

Haliotis ovina (Abalone) Crude Antineoplastic

Macrocallista nimbosa Crude Antineoplastic

(Mollusc)

Faulkner and 1973 Aplysia califomica Aqueous extract Toxin

Stallard (Sea hare)

Pettit et al 1973 Macrocallista nimbosa Taurine Anticancer

and Turbo stenogyrus
(Gastropod)

Kato and 1974 Stylocheilus longicauda Aplysiatoxin and Toxin

Schener (Sea hare) debromoaplysiatoxin

Li et al 1974 Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenene Antiviral

(Common clam)

Blankenship 1975 Aplysia califomica Murexine Toxic

etal (Sea hare)

27
Frange and 1976 Cassidaria echinophora Sulfuric acid Antifeedant
Lidman (Gastropod)

Okutani 1976 Internal shell of squid Crude Antitumor

Rogers 1977 Aeolidia papaillosa Crude Weak hemagglutinin

(Nudibranch eggs)

Yamamura 1977 Aplysia kurodai Crude Toxin

and Teraday

Anon 1978 Sea hare Dactylene Treating nervous disorder

Okutani and 1978 Internal shell of squid Polysaccharides A Antitumor

Morikawa and B

Sheumack 1978 Hapalochlaena maculosa Maculotoxin Neurotoxin

etal (Octopus)

Dieter et al 1979 Aplysia brasiliana Brasudol, Isobrasudol Antifeedant

(Sea hare)

Fuhrman etal 1979 Anistodoris nobilis Doridtoxin Toxin to mice

(Nudibranch)

Archidoris odhneri Doridtoxin Toxin to mice

(Nudibranch)

Doriopsilla albopunctata Doridtoxin Toxin to mice

(Nudibranch)

Mochizuki 1979 Seploteuthis lessoniana Crude Antiseptic

(Squid)

Andersen and 1980 Archidoris odhneri Propylfamesate Antibacterial

Sum (Nudibranch)

Mori et al 1980 Pecten maximus (Scallop) Glycoprotein Bactericidal and

agglutinin

28
Pettit et al 1980 Dolabella auricularia Loliolide Cytotoxic
(Sea hare)

Dolabella ecaudata Loliolide Anticancer

(Sea hare)

Kamiya and 1981 Aplysia kurodai, D-galacturonic acid Agglutinin

Shimlzu A. Juliana and
A. dactylomela
(Sea hares)

Petiit et al 1981 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin 3 Antineoplastic

(Sea hare)

Yasumoto 1981 Babiloniajaponica Tetrodotoxin Toxin

etal (Ivory shell)

Fox • 1982 Dolabella auricularia Bryostatin, Dolastatin Anticancer

(Sea hare)

Hocholowski 1982 Hypselodoris agassizi Agassizin Defensive secretion

etal (Nudibranch)
H. ghiselini Ghiselinin butenolide Defensive secretion

H. porterae Euryfuran Defensive secretion

(Nudibranch)

Kobayashi 1982 Conus eburnens Ebumetoxin Toxin

etal (Gastropod)

Kobayashi 1982 Conus stratus Striatoxic Ichthyotoxin

etal (Gastropod)

Kosuge et al 1982 Babylonia japonica Surugatoxins Antinicotinic

(Gastropod)

Mcintosh et al 1982 Conus magus (Gastropod) Conotoxin Toxin

Mimura et al 1982 Ommastrephes bartrami Crude Anti - ulcerogenic
(Squid)

29
Thompson 1982 Aplysia brasiliana Brasilenyne Antifeedant
etal (Sea hare)

Tridachiella diomedea T. Crude Antifeedant and Toxin

crispate and
placobranchus ocellatus
(Saccoglossans) Cadlina
lueomarginata
(Nudibranch)

Kobayashi 1983 Conus tessulatus Tessulatoxin Toxin

etal (Gastropods)

Tymiak and 1983 Kelletia kelletii (Mollusc) Kelletinin-I-II Antibacterial

Rinehart

Yamazaki 1983 Aplysia kurodai Lectin Agglutinin and cytolysis

etal (Sea hare)

Dain 1984 Clam stomach Glycosidases To treat the inability of

digestion

Kamiya et al 1984 Aplysia kurodai Crude Antibacterial

(Sea hare-egg masses)

Moore et al 1984 Stylocheilus longicauda Aplysiatoxin Toxin

(Sea hare)

Schmitz et al 1984 Aplysia dactylomela Parguerols Cytotoxic

(Sea hare)

Yamazaki 1984 Aplysia kurodai Aplysianin - E Cytolytic and

etal (Sea hare) Antineoplastic

Andersen et al 1985 Nerita albicella Fulvoplumierin Antibacterial

(Gastropod)

30
Biskupiak and 1985 Peronia peronii Peroniatriols I and II Cytotoxin
Ireland (Shelless mollusc)

Gustafson and 1985 Aldisia sanguinea Hexadecylglycerol Antibacterial

Andersen (Nudibranch)

Archidoris montereyensis Hexadecylglycerol Antibacterial

(Nudibranch)

Mimura et al 1985 Ommastrephes bartrami Melanoprotein Anti-ulcertogenic

(Squid)

Sanduja et al 1985 Nerita albicilla Fulvoplumierin Antibacterial

(Gastropod)

Yamazaki 1985 Aplysia kurodai Aplysianin - E Antineoplastic

etal (Sea hare)

Yoshino and 1985 Corbicula fluminea Lipase Cytolytic

Tuan (Clam)

Kamiya et al 1986 Aplysia kurodai Aplysianin - A Antibacterial and

(Sea hare) antineoplastic

Matsunaga 1986 Hexabranchus Kabiramide - C Antifungal

etal sanguineus (Nudibranch
- egg masses)

Merker and 1986 Aplysia californica Protein Cytolysis and Hemolysis

Levine (Sea hare)

Roesener and 1986 Hexabranchus Ulapualide A and B Antitumor

Scheuer sanguineus (Nudibranch
- egg masses)

Snader and 1986 Aplysia dactylomela Chamigrene Antiviral

Higa (Sea hare) derivatives
Gunthorpe 1987 Chromodoris kuiteri Crude Antifungal and toxic
and Cameron (Nudibranch)

C. elizabethina Crude Antimicrobial and toxic

(Nudibranch)

C. inornate (Nudibranch) Crude Antibacterial, toxic and

antifungal

C. imperialsis Crude Antibacterial and mildly

(Nudibranch) toxic

Ceratosoma coringerium Crude Antifungal

(Nudibranch)

Hypselodoris obscura Crude Antifungal and toxic

(Nudibranch)

H. bennetti (Nudibranch) Crude Antibacterial

Notodoris minor Crude Antibacterial, antifungal

(Nudibranch) and toxic

N. gradeneri Crude Antibacterial, antifungal

(Nudibranch) and toxic

Phyllidia elegans Crude Antifungal and mildly

(Nudibranch) toxic

Halgerda sp. Crude Antifungal and toxic

(Nudibranch)

H. aurantomaculata Crude Antifungal and toxic

(Nudibranch)

Aphelodoris varia Crude Antifungal and toxic

(Nudibranch)

32
 Doriopsilla minniata Crude Antimircrobial
(Nudibranch)

Dendrodoris albobrunea Crude Antibacterial and toxic

(Nudibranch)

Kisugi et al 1987 Aplysia kurodai Aplysianin - E Antitumor

(Sea hare)

Kusumi et al 1987 Aplysia kurodai Aplysiapyranoids Cytotoxic

(Sea hare) A,B,C and D

Petthetal 1987 Dolabella auricularia Dalastatin-lOand 14 Antineoplastic

(Sea hare)

Snader and 1987 Aplysia dactylomela Chamigrene Antitumor

Higa (Sea hare) derivative

Corley et al 1988 Chromodoris lochi Laulimalide Cytotoxic

(Nudibranch)

Kamiya et al 1988 Aplysia Juliana (Sea hare) Aplysianin Antibacterial and

antineoplastic

Miyamoto 1988 Aplysia kurodai Aplysiaterpenoid A-D Antitumor

etal (Sea hare)

Kamiya et al 1989 Aplysia Juliana Julianin - S Antibacterial and

(Sea hare) antineoplastic

Kisugi et al 1989 Dolabella auricularia Dolabellanin - C Antineoplastic

(Sea hare)

Kisugi et al 1989 Aplysia kurodai Aplysianin - E Antibacterial

(Sea hare)

Kisugi et al 1989 Dolabella auricularia Protein Cytotoxic

(Sea hare)

33
Manker 1989 Siphonaria maura Maurapyrones A - D Antimicrobial
(Marine pulmonate) and Maurenone

Puerto vallarta Vallartanones A Antifeedant

(Marine pulmonate) andB

William 1989 Diaulula sandiegensis Diaulusterols A and B Antibacterial, antifungal

(British Columbia and antifeedant
nudibranch)

Yamazaki 1989 Dolabella auricularia Dolabellanin - A Antineoplastic

etal (Sea hare)

Yamazaki 1989 Aplysia kurodai Aplysianin - P Cytolytic

etal (Sea hare)

Naik et al 1990 Merita sp. (Gastropod) Alcoholic extract CNS stimulant

Octopus vulgaris Alcoholic extract Spasmolytic

(Cephalopod)

Onchidium vernaculatum Alcoholic extract Hypoglycemic

(Nudibranch)

Nottage and 1990 Mytilus edulis (Mussel) Hemocytes fractions Antibacterial

Brikbeck

Yamazaki 1990 Aplysia kurodai Aplysianin - P Bacteriostatic and

etal (Sea hare) cytolytic

Hemy et al 1991 Pinna nobilis (Bivalve) Hemocyte Antibacterial

Kamiya 1991 Aplysia kurodai Aplysianin - E Atibacterial and

(Sea hare) antineoplastic

34
Parulekar and 1991 Onchidium verraculatum Fractions Antifeedant
Shirvoiker (Nudibranch)

Ischnochiton comptus Crude Toxic and hypoglycemic

(Amphineuton)

Cellona radiata (Bivalve) Crude Antifertility

Aplysia benedicti Crude Hypoglycemic

(Sea hare)

Melbe rangi Crude CNS stimulant

(Nudibranch)

Asteropecten indica Crude Toxic

(Bivalve)

?ettit etal 1991 Dolabella auricularia Dalastatin- 15 Antineoplastic

(Sea hare)

Fujiwara et al 1992 Crassostrea gigas Crasostreaxan thin A

•

(Pacific oyster) andB

Gavagnin et al 1992 Chromodoris luteorosea Diterpenoids Ichthyotoxic

(Nudibranch)

Kagoo and 1992 Chicoreus ramosus Crude Antibacterial

Ayyakkannu (Gastropod)

Kisugi et al 1992 Dolabella auricularia Dolabellanin - A Antibacterial

(Sea hare)

Miyamoto 1992 Chomodoris inornata Inorolides - A - C Anticancer

etal (Nudibranch)

Obara et al 1992 Achatina fulica (Giant High molecular Antibacterial

African snail) protein

35
Pawlik 1992 Hezabranchus sanguineusMacrolides Antimicrobial
(Nudibranch - egg)

Quentmeirer 1992 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin-lOandlS Antileukemic

etal (Sea hare)

Spinella et al 1992 Aplysiafasciata Aplykurodinones and Ichthyotoxic

(Sea hare) Aplykurodines

Theogersen 1992 Octopus vulgaris a-Macroglobulin Proteinase inhibitor

(Cephalopod)

Beckwith et al 1993 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin -1 0 and Antiproliferative of cells

(Sea hare) 15

Narender 1993 Cuttlefish shell powder Crude Cure for human epilepsy,
Reddy et al anticonvulsant and
hypoglycemic

Otsuka et al 1993 Achatina fulica Achacin Antibacterial

(Giant African snail)

VtMiiietal 1993 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin-10-15 Antineoplastic

(Sea hare)

Sone et al 1993 Dolabella auricularia Doliculide Cytotoxic

(Sea hare)

Yamazaki 1993 Aplysia kurodai, Aplysia Aplysianins, Julianins Antitumor and

Juliana and Dolabella and Dolabellanins antimicrobial
auricularia (Sea hares)

Bichurina 1994 Mytilus edulis Crude Antiviral

etal (Blue mussel)

Ishiwata et al 1994 Dolabella auricularia DolabelidesC-D Cytotoxic

(Sea hare)

Kagoo and 1994 Chicoreus ramosus Crude Antifouling

Ayyakkannu (Gastropod)

36
Kimura et al 1994 Illex argentinm (Squid) Mucin Protective property for
eggs

Kigoshi et al 1994 Aplysia kurodai Aplyronine - A Antitumor

(Sea hare)

Ojika et al 1994 Aplysia kurodai Aplyronine - A Antitumor

(Sea hare)

Pettit et al 1994 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin-21 Anticancer

(Sea hare)

Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin-15 Anticancer

(Sea hare)
1
Takaya et al 1994 Illex argentinm (Squid) Peptidoglycan fraction Antitumor

Takaya et al 1994 Illex argentinus (Squid) Illexin - A, Illexin - Antitumor

B and Illexin - C

Wester a/ 1994 Nucella lapillus Serotonin Toxic

(Marine snail)

Dyrynda et al 1995 Opisthobranch eggs Crude Antimicrobial and

cytotoxic

Goswami et al 1995 Telescopium telescopium Antibody raised from Loss of pregnancy

(Gastropod) the spermatheca gland
protein

lijima et al 1995 Aplysia kurodai Aplysianin - E Antifungal

(Sea hare)

Pettit era/ 1995 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin-10 Antineoplastic

(Sea hare)

Silvestri et al 1995 Buccinulum corneiim Kelletinin - A Antimitotic and antiviral

(Gastropod)

37
Sugiura and 1995 Illex argentinus (Squid) Mucin complex Protection of egg mass
Kimura

Takamatsu 1995 Aplysia kurodai Aplysianin - A Antibacterial

etal (Sea hare)

Charlet et al 1996 Mytilus edulis (Mussels) Cysteine - rich Antimicrobial

peptides

Hamann et al 1996 Elysia rufescens Kahalalides - A Anti-HSV

(Sacoglossa)

Elysia rufescens Kahalalides - F Anti-HSV

(Sacoglossa)

Elysia rufescens Kahalalides - E Antimalarial

(Sacoglossa)

Hubert et al 1996 Ostrea edulis Peptides Antibacterial

(European oyster)

Crassostrea gigas Peptides Antibacterial

(Pacific oyster)

Hubert et al 1996 Mytilus galloprovincialis MGD -1 Polymeric Antibacterial Cytotoxic

(Mussel) Mytilus protein and antibacterial
galloprovincialis
(Mussel)

Kigoshi et al 1996 Aplysia kurodai Aplyronine - A,B and Antitumor

(Sea hare) D

Maki et al 1996 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin-10 Antineoplastic

(Sea hare)

Miyamtoto 1996 Chromodoris obsolete Dorisenones - A- D Anticancer

etal (Nudibranch)

Orlando et al 1996 Buccinulum corneum Kelletinin - A Anti-HIV,anti-MMLV

(Gastropod) and anti-AMV

38
Pettit et al 1996 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin-24 Antineoplastic
(Sea hare)

Rana 1996 Aplysia Sp. (Sea hare) Crude Antiviral

Roch et al 1996 Crassostrea gigas and Polypeptides Antibacterial

Ostrea edulis (Oysters)

Roseghini 1996 Neogastropod molluscs Cysteine - rich Bioactive

etal hypobranchial gland peptides

San - Martin 1996 Trimusculus perurianus Labdane diterpene Antibacterial

etal (Gastropod)

Sone et al 1996 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin - H and Cytotoxic

(Sea hare) Isodolastatin - H

Takaya et al 1996 Illex argentinus (Squid) PA - trisaccharide Antitumor

Bates et al 1997 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin - 26 Antineoplastic

(Sea hare)

Kobayashi 1997 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin-10- Antitumor

etal (Sea hare) derivative

Kohn 1997 Conus Sp. (Gastropod) Conotoxins Diagnosis of specific

lung cancers and to treat
Alzhimer's disease.

Matsue et al 1997 Illex argentinus (Squid) Pyridylaminated (PA) Antitumor

oligosaccharides

Ortega et al 1997 Aplysia fasciata (Sea 3-Epi Cytotoxic

hare) aplykurodinone - B

Ortega et al 1997 Aplysia punctata Polyhalogenated Cytotoxic

(Sea hare) monoterpenes

39
?eititetal 1997 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin- 16 Anticancer
(Sea hare)

Pouliquen 1997 Mytilus edulis Oxolinic acid and Antibacterial

etal (Shell of blue mussel) oxytetracycline

Sasaki et al 1997 Illex argentinus (Squid) Peptidoglycan Antitumor

Suenaga et al 1997 Dolabella auricularia DolabelidesC-D Cytotoxic

(Sea hare)

Yamazaki 1997 Aplysia kurodai (Sea Aplysianin Antineoplastic

etal hare)

Dolabella auricularia Dolabellanin - A, C Antineoplastic and

(Sea hare) and P antimicrobial

Indap and 1998 Sepia aculeate (Sepia) Organic extract Cytotoxic

Pathare
Loligo duvaucelii (Squid) Organic extract Cytotoxic

Melo et al 1998 Aplysia dactylomela (Sea Fetuin Bacteriostatic,

hare) Hemaggultination and
toxin

Stewart et al 1998 Mytilus edulis Domoic acid Neurotoxin

(Blue mussel)

Mya arenaria Domoic acid Neurotoxin

(Soft shell clam)

Tunkijjanukij 1998 Modiolus modiolus Lectin Antibacterial

and Olafszen (Horse mussel)

Turner et al 1998 Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin-10 Anticancer

(Sea hare)

40
Chatterji et al 1999 Perna viridis Hydrolyzate Antiviral
(Green mussel)

Perna viridis Hydrolyzate Antiviral

(Brown mussel)

Ito et al 1999 Marine conch and a Destabilase Medicinal protein

bivalve

Ogawa et al 1999 Achatinafulica Achacin Antimicrobial

(Giant African snail)

Takama et al 1999 Scallop shell Calcined powder Bacteriostatic

Melo et al 2000 Aplysia dactylomela Dactylomenin - P Antibacterial and

(Sea hare) haemagglution

41
 SANGU PARPAM AND SPECTRAL ANALYSIS

Author(s) Year Title / Remarks

Ghosh et al 1979 Pharmacological investigation on Linga

chendooram

Senthilkumar and 1999 Spectroscopic study on the heavy metal

Narayanaswamy pollution of sugar mill effluent.

Gunasekaran and 2000 Spectral investigation of pharmaceutical

Kemasari active compound.

Gunasekaran et al 2000 Spectral measurements and analysis of

some selected antiseptic drugs.

Gunasekaran et al 2000 Spectral analysis and blood bound

interaction of barbiturates, pentobarbitone
sodium, thiopentone sodium.

Narayanaswamy et al 2000 Spectrochemical analysis of cane sugar the

mill effluent and its effect on germination.

Pandit et al 2000 Antiulcer effect of shankabhasma on rats.

Ramamurthy, et al 2000 FTIR studies on Ayachendhuram - a Siddha

medicine from iron scrap.

42
Leela Abraham 2002 Spectroscopic analysis of some selected
pharmaceutical drugs.

Prema 2002 Clinical study on infertility using Siddha

drugs.

Tamizhmani et al 2002 Standardization of medicinal Plant Vitex

negunda (Linn).

Absar Ahamed et al 2003 Synthesis of gold nanoparticles and FTIR

analysis

Joseph Vedhagiri 2005 Spectroscopic analysis of Pavazha parpam

Joseph Vedhagiri 2005 FTIR and XRD analysis of Tortoise shell

and preparation of Siddha medicine

43
1.4. THESIS PLAN

The present study on Thais bufo is discussed in five chapters.

Chapter I contains a preface followed by literature review and the

description of the study area.

Chapter 11 describes various methods employed for ecological and other

studies of T. bufo in this investigation.

Chapter III outlines the observations made in the present work and the
results obtained during the course of investigation.

Chapter IV presents a discussion in the light of results obtained

presently in comparison with previous studies.

Chapter V provides a summary of the study on T. bufo, followed by a

Bibliography.

44
1.5. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

The present study was carried out from the Southeast coast of India in
Tranquebar (Long. 79°8'E, Lat. 11°0'N) which is a seashore village of
Nagapattinam District, Tamil Nadu, situated about 300 km south of Chennai.
(Fig.1.1).

The coast line along Tranquebar is a gently steeping sandy beach

without crops of weed covered slippery rocks between stretches of firm sand
and masses of bricks and boulders from the ruins of an old 17"^ century Fort.
The seaward face of which is now damaged and submerged due to
encroachment by the sea (Figs. 1.2, 1.3). Besides these, the ruins of a temple
also produced many boulders and rocky portions which lie buried in the
intertidal sands about 30-50 meters from the submerged Fort walls. The wave
beaten cliffs along the beach coyer a distance of 20-30 meters and extend into
the sea for about 5-10 meters below the low tide mark. On several occasions,
sand has filled in the gaps between these boulders thus constituting extensive
platforms with raised edges that are highest on the most exposed sites. The
boulders and brick blocks located at the mid littoral zone are subjected to
considerable wave action and water movements during ebb and flow. T.bufo
inhabits the boulders especially on the sides sheltered against large waves. It is
found mainly binding in crevices during high tide (Figs 1.4 - 1.6).

Four seasons could be recognized in the study area based on rainfall

viz. Monsoon (October - December), Post monsoon (January - March),
Summer (April - June) and Pre monsoon (July - September). Generally,
January is the coolest month and May is the warmest month in the study area.
The total rainfall from 1995-2006 in the study area is graphically represented in
fig 1.7'. The Northeast monsoon dtiring October - November normally brings
in heavy rainfall, contributing more than 60% of the annual rainfall to the study
area and is the deciding factor of the nature and extent of various seasons.

45
Fig. 1.1. Satellite Map of Study Area - Tranquebar
 th
Fig.1.2, Ruined walls of 17 Century Danish Fort

»>=^^3^—*
.M ffft

Fig.1.3. Ruined walls of Masilanathar Temple

 Fig. 1.4. Study Animal T.bufo on rocks

?% €

Fig. 1.5. Study Animal T.bufo

Fig.1,6. Study Animal T.bufo under crevices

Fig. 1.7. Total Rainfall (mm) for the years 1995 to 2006