Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways and Airfields – Loizos et al.

(Eds)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-29595-7

Application of pattern classification techniques for anisotropic

characterization of pavement foundations

R.S. Ashtiani & M. Asadi

The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA

ABSTRACT:  Several factors such as moisture state, particle geometry, gradation parameters, fines con-
tent, and the nature of stress paths contribute to the directional dependency of material properties in the
granular layers. The motivation for this study was to evaluate the applicability of pattern classification
techniques to provide class discriminatory information of the laboratory observations. For this purpose,
several experimental permutations were subjected to variable dynamic confining pressure stress path tests
to study the synergistic influence of different factors on the anisotropic behavior of aggregate systems.
The laboratory tests and the post processed data were in turn used to evaluate the relevance of pattern
classification techniques to unravel physically meaningful information of the multi-dimensional dataset.
The results of this effort will be instrumental for the practitioners to potentially reduce the number of
features needed to be determined in the laboratory for a refined and cost-effective testing protocol.

1  INTRODUCTION in granular materials theoretically using tensor

Unbound granular layers are integral component
of the highway pavements and airfield runways.
The main role of such layers is to distribute and
reduce the traffic induced stress to a tolerable
level for sub grade soils. Additionally they serve
as robust platform for the surface to maintain
adequate ride quality. Traditional pavement design
approaches characterize the Unbound Aggregate
Base (UAB) layers as an isotropic medium. How-
ever, it is acknowledged by many researchers that
isotropic modeling of UAB causes the mechanical
response of the pavement to be evaluated unreal-
istically (Karasahin et al. 1993; Masad et al. 2006;
Wang & Al-Qadi 2013). Accordingly, some efforts
have been made to develop predictive models as
well as testing protocols to properly capture the
anisotropic characteristics of the UAB (Adu-Osei
et al. 2001; Kim et al. 2005; Ashtiani & Little 2009).
The directional dependency of material prop-
erties of the aggregate base is twofold. It is firstly
due to the characteristics of the material such as
particle geometry and particle size distribution,
also known as inherent anisotropy; and secondly
due to the rotation of stress fields as a result of
moving traffic loads, which is often referred to as
stress-induced anisotropy in the literature. Early
attempts to investigate the impact of particle size
and geometry on the anisotropic response of gran-
ular materials were made by Parkin et al. (1968),
El-Sohby (1969) and Oda (1972). Later, a number
of contributors assessed the concept of anisotropy
analyses (Oda & Nakayama 1989). Adu-Osei et al.
(2001) studied the impact of aggregate characteris-
tics on the level of anisotropy and demonstrated its
dependency on particle size distribution, particle
shape, and moisture content at a certain level of
compaction.
Several predictive models have been proposed
in the literature to estimate the anisotropic behav-
ior of the UAB (e.g. Kim et al. 2005; Masad et al.
2006; Ashtiani et al. 2008). Ashtiani et al. (2008)
proposed a simple procedure to evaluate the level
of anisotropy of aggregate systems using some
easily determinable aggregate properties. Subse-
quently, they used the level of anisotropy as an
input to predict the performance of aggregate
bases. On the other hand, a number of research-
ers have investigated the effect of loading on
the anisotropic responses of granular material.
Tutumluer & Seyhan (1999) studied the influ-
ence of multiple stress path on the anisotropic
behavior of granular materials. They utilized the
University of Illinois Fast Cell (UI-FC) for simu-
lating the dynamic stresses on aggregate material
as a result of the moving traffic loads. Adu-Osei
et al. (2001) tested aggregate materials at different
stress states and dynamic stress paths using Rapid
Triaxial Testing (RaTT) cell, and calculated the
anisotropic parameters through system identifica-
tion method scheme. He investigated the material
under three different stress regimes to capture the
parameters required for characterization of trans-
versely isotropic media.

39
 In the area of pavement engineering, pattern
classification techniques have been used mostly for
automatic detection and classification of surface
distresses in place of the human labor (e.g. Saar &
Talvik 2010; Wu et al. 2014). In current research,
these approaches were employed to study cross
anisotropic behavior of UAB. For this purpose,
initially a comprehensive experiment design was
developed to establish a multi-dimensional aggre-
gate feature database. The database consists of fea-
tures of aggregates mixes with different lithologies
and gradations which are tested at different satura-
tion levels. Nonlinear and cross-anisotropic mate-
rial parameters were determined using Variable
Dynamic Confining Pressure (VDCP) stress paths.
Aggregate Imaging System (AIMS) was employed
to characterize the particle geometry parameters.
Subsequently, Hierarchical Clustering Analysis
(HCA) techniques based on different measures
of distance were employed to investigate the simi-
larities between the distributions of the param-
eters. Furthermore, Fisher’s Linear Discriminant
Analysis (LDA) and K Nearest Neighbor (KNN)
algorithm were used to classify the data based on
predefined criteria. The results of this study iden-
tify the aggregate features with similar patterns
and thus provide a deeper understanding of the
underlying relations and interactions between the
features of aggregate database.
2  ANISOTROPIC CHARACTERIZATION
OF UAB
The resilient modulus (MR) of UAB is nonlin-
ear, stress-dependent and anisotropic. The new
Mechanistic Empirical Design Guide (MEPDG)
considers the following equation to capture the
nonlinearity as well as hardening-softening behav-
ior (Uzan 1999):
k2
 I  τ 
k3
M R = k1Pa    oct + 1 (1)
 a  a
P P  matically illustrates the stresses felt by the mate-
where I  =  first stress invariant; τoct is octahedral
shear stress; Pa = atmospheric pressure; and k1, k2,
k3 are fitting parameters. In this equation, the term
(I/Pa)k2 is known as the hardening component,
which captures the stiffening effect of aggregate
matrix when subjected to repeated loading. On the
other hand, (τoct/Pa)k3 is referred to as the soften-
ing component, which characterizes the reduction
of stiffness after exceeding the threshold load as
a result of the cumulative damage induced to the
matrix.
In order to fully characterize the UAB as an
anisotropic medium, the vertical resilient modulus
40
(Ey) can be represented by Equation 1. Also, the
horizontal resilient modulus (Ex) and the shear
modulus (Gxy) can be determined by equations 2
and 3, respectively.
k5 k6
 I  τ 
E x = k4 Pa    oct + 1 (2)
 Pa   Pa 
k8
 I  τ 
k9
G xy = k7 Pa    oct + 1 (3)
 Pa   Pa 
Several researchers have investigated the fac-
tors influencing the resilient behavior of aggregate
systems subjected to moving traffic loads. Among
these factors, moisture state, dry density, aggregate
geometry and stress path have been identified as
the factors that have the most considerable impact
on the orthogonal load distribution capacity of
unbound aggregate systems. It is widely accepted
that the resilient modulus significantly deteriorates
as the saturation level increases (Dawson et al.
1996). Dry density (or degree of compaction) of
aggregate materials is another factor which plays
a crucial role in the resilient behavior. Generally,
the aggregate matrix becomes stronger and stiffer
as the dry density increases. It is worth mention-
ing that the influence of dry density variations on
the resilient modulus is not the same for systems
with different lithologies, fine contents, and stress
states (Hicks 1970). Aggregate shape is considered
as another factor which significantly affects the
resilient behavior of granular materials. Roughly-
textured and angular aggregates form a stiffer
mass through development of strong interlock-
ing forces. Previous studies have confirmed that
crushed aggregate material with high angularity
and rough texture shows higher resilient modulus
compared with the rounded and smooth counter-
part (Ashtiani et al. 2008).
The moving nature of traffic loads adds another
component to the stiffness anisotropy of aggregate
layer in the pavement structure. Figure  1 sche-
rial below the surface due to moving wheel load
over the pavement. As is shown in this figure,
the vertical stress (σy) reaches its maximum right
beneath the wheel load and reduces nonlinearly
as the wheel moves away from the reference point.
Similar manner is followed by the horizontal stress
(σx) but with a lower magnitude. Furthermore, the
slope of the stress plot in the case of vertical stress
is much higher than the horizontal stress. Conse-
quently, at any given point an extension-compres-
sion-extension stress regimen is experienced as
the wheel load passes over the pavement section.
Although the magnitude of the tensile stresses may
be very small, the rotation of the principal stress

Figure 1.  Distribution of normal and shear stresses at a
given point under a moving wheel load.
plane will result in additional level of anisotropy
induced on aggregate structure. Hornych et al.
(2000) pointed out that the aforementioned stress
regimen can increase the rate of plastic strains up
to three times greater than those measured from
repeated plate load tests.
Due to the role of stress states in directional
dependency of material properties, anisotropic
characterization of granular materials using con-
ventional tests such as plate load test or tradi-
tional triaxial setup is irrelevant. Therefore, some
researchers have proposed new testing protocols
to simulate the rotation of principal stresses in the
laboratory.
Adu-Osei et al. (2001) developed a laboratory
testing protocol for anisotropic characterization of
unbound granular material. He applied ten static
stress states followed by small dynamic excursions
in the stresses to obtain three stress regimes namely
triaxial compression, triaxial shear, and triaxial
extension. Consequently, he determined the cross-
anisotropic parameters of aggregate material via a
back-calculation scheme called System Identifica-
tion (SID) method. A similar testing protocol is
adopted in current study for anisotropic charac-
terization of the UAB.
3  EXPERIMENT DESIGN
Various aggregate systems with distinct lithologies
were evaluated to study the factors that influence
the cross anisotropic behavior of unbound aggre-
gate systems. Three gradation variants (i.e. coarse,
well and fine gradations) of different granite, lime-
stone and gravel aggregates obtained from ten
sources in Texas, Oklahoma and Minnesota, were
incorporated into the experiment design. In order
to investigate the effect of moisture state on the
mechanical response of the aggregates, the materials
41
were tested in three moisture conditions: Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC), dry of optimum mois-
ture content (-2% of OMC), and wet of optimum
moisture content (+2% of OMC). Specimens were
fabricated following (ASTM D1557) to determine
the optimum water content and maximum dry
density of each gradation variant. Table 1 provides
the labels selected to identify materials and features
of the aggregate database.
Traditional triaxial test protocols are com-
monly suitable for simulating the state of the
stresses under stationary loads. On the other hand,
dynamic stress path tests can be used to simulate
the stress states developed in aggregate layers by
the traffic loads. Such a proper test protocol is able
to capture the extension-compression-extension
stress regimens induced by moving wheel loads.
Particularly, VDCP type stress path tests take
advantage of applying dynamic vertical pressure as
well as dynamic confinement on the specimen for
a more realistic simulation of field conditions. In
this study, a customized triaxial setup called RaTT
(Rapid Triaxial Test) cell was used to perform
VDCP stress path tests in accordance with the
stress path protocol outlined in ICAR/508 report.
(Ashtiani & Little 2009)
RaTT cell device is controlled by a multi channel
data acquisition system which is capable of apply-
ing both vertical and dynamic confining pressures.
The general setup for the stress path test using this
apparatus is consisted of RaTT cell mounted in the
Universal Testing Machine (UTM), data acquisi-
tion system, and a computer for control and stor-
age of the data. This customized setup supports
automated cell movement and multiple displace-
ment measurement with Linear Variable Differen-
tial Transducers (LVDT) in both directions.
The testing protocol provides a means to deter-
mine cross anisotropic material properties including
elastic modulus in the horizontal and vertical direc-
tions (Ex and Ey), Poisson’s ratio in the horizontal
direction due to vertical loading (vxy), Poisson’s ratio
in the horizontal direction due to horizontal load-
ing (vxx) and shear modulus (Gxy). For this purpose,
applied stresses and measured strains are used as
input parameters to an iterative error minimization
Table  1.  Classification criteria and class labels of the
aggregate database.
Classification Class
Criterion Labels
Lithology Limestone Granite Gravel
(L) (N) (G)
Gradation Coarse (1) Well (2) Fine (3)
Moisture Dry (D) Optimum Wet (W)
state (O)
technique (i.e. the SID) to simultaneously solve
four of the five anisotropic material properties (Ex,
Ey, vxx, and vxy). The fifth material property (Gxy)
is determined using elastic work potential rela-
tionships derived specifically for the shear stress
regimen. Subsequently, the five cross anisotropic
material properties as well as prescribed stresses in
the lab can be fitted to the material models, Equa-
tions 1 through 3, to determine the nine k param-
eters for each aggregate system. The calculated k
values will be used as input to characterize nonlin-
earity, stress dependency, and anisotropic behavior
of unbound aggregate systems in the lab.
It is intuitively relevant that aggregate geom-
etry characterized by its shape, angularity, and
texture greatly influence the level of anisotropy
unbound aggregate systems. This is mainly due
to the contribution of the geometry to the inter-
locking mechanism in particulate systems. In this
study, aggregate geometry was characterized in
terms of particle form, angularity, and texture
using the AIMS. Aggregate form refers to flat
or elongated shape of the particles; angularity
defines the degree of roundness or sharpness
of aggregate corners; and texture is related to
small asperities at the surface of particles from
which the surface roughness originates (Kim et
al. 2005). Fifty-six aggregate particles from three
aggregate sizes of each source were evaluated
using the AIMS device. Several two parameter
and three parameter distribution functions were
fitted to the aggregate geometry data. Based
on the best fit analysis of the database, it was
observed that the two-parameter Weibull distri-
bution provides a reasonable fit for both parti-
cle size distributions and geometrical properties
of the aggregates data at a 95% confidence level.
The cumulative Weibull distribution function is
of the following form:
  d 
β
Q(d ) = 1 −  −    (4)
 α 
where, d  =  the aggregate size; α  =  scale param-
eter; and β = shape parameter. These distribution
parameters, which can be determined through fit-
ting the particle size distribution and aggregate
shape properties data to the Weibull distribution
function, were later imported to the aggregate fea-
ture database.
4  PATTERN CLASSIFICATION
Anisotropic behavior of unbound aggregate sys-
tems is influenced by several aggregate features.
Hence, any comprehensive experimental study will
42
lead to a high dimensional aggregate database. In
principle, the more information we gather about a
phenomenon, the more accurate insight into that
phenomenon we can achieve. However, analysis
of a database containing large number of data
deems necessary to employ dimensionality reduc-
tion techniques to eliminate correlated features. In
other words, the dimensionality reduction is syn-
onymous to the selection of the features with high-
est significance. This is more pronounced when the
development of prediction models becomes the
objective of the research.
Dimensionality reduction is essentially a process
of feature selection and thus can be regarded as a
clustering problem. Clustering algorithms are cat-
egorized into two general types namely supervised
and unsupervised approaches. The term supervised
implies that the clustering is performed based on
predefined training patterns. On the other hand,
unsupervised algorithms cluster the data only
according to the inherent scatter of the data. The
classification techniques employed in current
research include: Hierarchical Clustering Analysis
(HCA), K Nearest Neighbor (KNN), K-means
clustering and Fisher’s Linear Discriminant Anal-
ysis (LDA). These techniques have been success-
fully applied in several engineering practice such
as: geotechnical site characterization (Hegazy &
Mayne 2002), detection of crack in pavements (Wu
et al. 2014), prediction of landslides due to rain-
falls (de Souza & Ebecken 2012) and travel time
prediction on high-ways (Tak et al. 2014), to name
a few.
K-means is a clustering technique aiming to
generate exactly K different groups of data with
greatest possible distinction (Duda et al. 2000).
K-means algorithms require the number of clusters
(K), an initial assignment of data to clusters and
the distance measure between data points. On the
other hand, HCA is another clustering approach
which only relies on a measure of similarity (or dis-
tance) between the data points. The Euclidian dis-
tance (also known as average distance) between all
pairs of objects in two clusters (r and s) is defined
in Equation 5 as:
nr ns
1
d ( r, s ) =
nr .ns
∑ ∑ dist(x ri , xsj ) (5)
i =1 j =1
where, nr and ns are the number of samples in the
clusters r and s, respectively. On the other hand,
the Mahalanobis distance is defined as:
dist( xri , xsj ) = ( xri − xsj )D −1 ( xri − xsj )T (6)
In this equation, the distance between data
points is normalized by the covariance matrix D.
Consequently, this measure is less sensitive to the
outliers of the system, and typically results in bet-
ter classification rates.
The objective of LDA is, in essence, to project
the data onto the direction which gives the best
classification scheme. This can be achieved if
within class scatter (SW) is minimized and, simul-
taneously, between class scatter (SB) is maximized.
Mathematically, the best direction vector (w) can
be obtained by maximizing the following objective
function (Duda et al. 2000):
wT SB w
J (w) = (7)
wT SW w
KNN is another widely-used classification
method that determines the class label for unla-
beled data points based on their similarity. In this
method, the class of the data is labeled based on
the majority vote of its neighbors. Hence, in binary
classification problems the K would be chosen as
an odd number to avoid tied votes. For most prac-
tical purposes, K is assumed as a positive integer
typically smaller than 10.
In current study, discriminatory information
among the features of the aggregate database was
investigated through two approaches. In the first
approach, the classification was performed by
means of HCA based on two different distance
measures of the data, namely Euclidean distance
and Mahalanobis distance. After choosing the
proximity measure, K-means algorithm was used
to find the matching samples in each cluster. The
significance of this analysis is that it identifies
aggregate features with similar patterns subjected
to stimuli such as stress path tests. This analysis can
potentially unravel the underlying relations and the
interaction between the features of the aggregate
system. In the second approach, the laboratory
measurements and post processed aggregate data
were classified using Fisher’s LDA. In addition,
KNN algorithm was also applied to improve the
performance of the classifier based on pre-defined
class labels. This approach helps to analyze the sep-
arability of the features in order to develop effec-
tive testing protocols and/or regression analyses.
5  RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1  Supervised clustering analysis
Supervised clustering analysis was performed
on the aggregate data based on three classifica-
tion criteria namely lithology, gradation, and
moisture state. Additionally, Sequential Forward
Selection (SFS) algorithm was applied to select
the features that minimize the mean square error
43
function applied to the multi-dimensional aggre-
gate database.
Classification based on the aggregates’ lithol-
ogy resulted in 73% classification rate. Based on
the statistical classification analysis of the data,
angularity parameter, dry density, and k6 param-
eter, i.e. exponent of the hardening term for hori-
zontal modulus model, were found to be the most
influential features of the database. Classification
based on gradation resulted in 62% classification
rate. SFS algorithm selected angularity param-
eter, k3 and k9, i.e. exponents of softening terms
for vertical and shear modulus, respectively, as the
features that best explain the system’s behavior.
Finally, classification based on the moisture state
resulted in 52% classification rate and the features
selected by SFS were k3, i.e. softening exponent of
the vertical modulus, and k7, i.e. multiplier in the
shear modulus.
The best classification rate of 73% was observed
when classification was performed according to
the lithology of the aggregates in the experiment
matrix. The aggregates elected in the experiment
design had significantly different angularity char-
acteristics. This was confirmed by unenforced
selection of this feature in the clustering analy-
sis. Natural selection of the angularity feature by
mathematical algorithm is in conformity with the
intuitive sense of the role of particle geometry
on the anisotropic behavior of aggregate systems.
Since load transfer in particulate media is carried
out through particle interactions and interlock-
ing effect between solid grains, aggregate systems
with more angular particles are expected to be
less prone to develop plastic deformations when
subjected to external loads. To further investigate
the role of the aggregate angularity, the shape and
scale parameters of the aggregate angularity were
removed from the database and the classification
algorithm was executed without these parameters.
The removal of the angularity features resulted
in significant drop in the classification rates from
73% to 46%.
5.2  Hierarchical clustering analysis
In order to find physically meaningful patterns
among the features of the aggregates, hierarchical
unsupervised clustering analyses were also per-
formed on the database. The results of hierarchi-
cal clustering of the features based on average and
Mahalanobis proximity measures are illustrated in
Figures 2, 3, respectively.
The general findings from these two dendograms
are very similar to each other. As demonstrated in
Figure 2, k1 and k4, which are the multipliers of the
elastic modulus in vertical and horizontal direc-
tions, respectively, have the closest patterns in the

Figure 2.  Hierarchical clustering of aggregates’ features
using Euclidean distance as the proximity measure.
Figure 3.  Hierarchical clustering of aggregates’ features
using Mahalanobis distance as the proximity measure.
dataset. This is in line with our prior knowledge
of the behavior of aggregate systems. On the other
hand, Figures 2, 3 show similar patterns for soften-
ing parameters (k3 and k9) and the water content
(w). It is well established in the literature that ingress
of moisture in unbound aggregate systems results in
44
drop of orthogonal stiffness and hence accelerates
the rutting potential in granular layers. This reduc-
tion of stiffness properties in unbound systems is
synonymous with increase of the softening param-
eter in Equation 1. Therefore, the patterns of the
softening parameter and water content obtained in
this study are in agreement with the expected behav-
ior of unbound aggregates.
5.3  Discriminant analysis
Fisher’s LDA was used in order to provide class
discriminatory information among the features
of the aggregate database. Initially, the eigenval-
ues and eigenvectors of Fisher’s criterion (SW−1SB)
were determined, and then the data were projected
onto the principal components with the highest
eigenvalues. The knee in the resulted plot (Fig. 4)
suggests that the first two principal components
of Fisher’s criterion can reasonably explain the
dynamic nature of the system. In addition, KNN
classifier with different values of K (number of
neighbors) was applied to the projected data to
evaluate the classifier’s performance.
The classification rates for both raw and pro-
jected data after applying KNN classifier are
shown in Figure  5. According to this figure,
Fisher’s discriminant criterion accompanied by
KNN algorithm is well capable of providing class
discriminatory information when the class labels
are considered based on lithology. Furthermore,
Figure  5 suggests that this technique is not able
to provide class discriminatory information when
particle size distributions and moisture state are
regarded as true class labels.
Figure 4.  Eigenvalues of Fishers’ criterion (SW−1SB).
 Figure  6 illustrates a good classification of
aggregate data through LDA accompanied by
KNN classifier. Although gravel aggregates are
fully separated using LDA+KNN classifier, some
misclassifications is evident in limestone and
granite materials. Moreover, limestone and gravel
aggregates have more condensed projections com-
pared to granite aggregates. This could be due
to the method of identifying aggregate types for
construction purposes where limestone and gravel
have more distinct definitions compared to granite.
Distribution of the observations before applica-
tion of LDA projection and KNN is shown in Fig-
ure 7. This plot when compared to Figure 6, clearly
demonstrates the significance of LDA+KNN
method in providing appropriate class discrimina-
tory information between the aggregate features. Figure 7.  Classification using LDA projection based on
The results of classification analyses with regard to lithology (L: Limestone, N: Granite and G: Gravel).
other criteria and the corresponding distributions
are presented in Figures 8–11.

Figure 5.  Performance of the classifier based on differ-

ent criteria.
Figure  8.  Classification using LDA+KNN projection
based on gradation (1: Coarse, 2: Well and 3: Fine).

Figure  6.  Classification using LDA+KNN projection

based on lithology (L: Limestone, N: Granite and G: Figure 9.  Classification using LDA projection based on
Gravel). gradation (1: Coarse, 2: Well and 3: Fine).

45

Figure 10.  Classification using LDA+KNN projection
based on moisture state (D: Dry, O: Optimum and W:
Wet).
Figure  11.  Classification using LDA projection based
on moisture state (D: Dry, O: Optimum and W: Wet).
6  CONCLUSIONS
The main objective of this study was to assess the
applicability of pattern classification techniques,
such as KNN method and Fisher’s discriminant
analysis, to explain the underlying behavior of ani-
sotropic granular materials. The aforementioned
methods were also utilized to identify the most
significant features of the aggregate database, such
as aggregate geometry, moisture state, and etc.,
for dimensionality reduction of the system. Addi-
tionally, such pattern recognition techniques were
employed to extract any physically meaningful
relationship between the features of the aggregate
database. The findings of this research can be use-
ful as a means to eliminate the number of features
needed to be determined by laboratory tests for a
more cost-effective testing protocol. Furthermore,
46
this information can be used to develop more pre-
cise data-driven models such as regression models
and artificial neural networks.
The comprehensive experiment design consisted
of three aggregate types from ten different sources
with three distinct gradations molded at three dif-
ferent moisture states were incorporated in this
research effort. Subsequently, the aggregate sys-
tems were subjected to multiple variable dynamic
confining pressure stress path tests to determine
parameters associated with anisotropic material
properties. Aggregate geometry was character-
ized in terms of particle form, angularity, and tex-
ture using the AIMS. The distributions of these
parameters were, in turn, quantified through the
cumulative Weibull distribution function, and
the parameters of the models were imported to the
aggregate feature database for post processing.
Unsupervised clustering techniques were per-
formed on the features of the aggregate system to
identify natural groupings present in the aggregate
database. Dimensionality reduction techniques
were also employed to find class discriminatory
information between the observations. The best
classification rate was achieved when classifica-
tion was performed based on aggregates lithology.
It was also confirmed that the angularity plays a
crucial role in the anisotropic behavior of aggre-
gate systems.
Additionally, Fisher’s LDA accompanied by
KNN algorithm was used to find class discrimi-
natory information based on pre-selected features
of the aggregate database. To accomplish this, the
Eigenvectors of Fisher’s LDA were calculated, and
the data was projected onto the two principal com-
ponents with highest Eigenvalues. The KNN algo-
rithm was used to calculate class rates according to
the true class labels. The highest rate was obtained
when the classification was carried out based on
lithology using Fisher’s LDA in combination with
the KNN algorithm.
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