Section 1: Basic Radiation Physics

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Principles of Radiation Protection Section 1 - Basic Radiation Physics
Section 1
BASIC RADIATION PHYSICS
UW Environmental Health and Safety

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Principles of Radiation Protection Section 1 – Basic Radiation Physics
The object of this section is to provide the fundamental concepts of physics that are
necessary to understand radioactive decay, radiation, and the interaction of radiation with
matter. These concepts will be brought together to allow an understanding of the physical
measurement of radioactivity, exposure, and absorbed dose. Some information is also
provided to describe the natural background radiation environment.
A. Atomic and Nuclear Structure

1. Basic Atom
The atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the chemical properties of an
element. Atoms consist of a nucleus and orbital electrons. The nucleus is a
heavy central mass with a positive charge. The nucleus accounts for most of the
mass of an atom, but is small in diameter compared to the overall size of the atom.
Particles within the nucleus are known as nucleons. Outside the nucleus is a
cloud of electrons - small, negatively charged particles that are attracted to the
atom by the opposing charge of the nucleus (coulomb forces).
2. Protons and Neutrons (Nucleons)
The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons. Protons have a positive (+ 1)

charge with a mass of about 1.007 atomic mass units (1.673 x 10-24 grams).
Neutrons are neutral, or uncharged. Neutrons have a mass slightly larger than
the proton, about 1.008 atomic mass units (1.675 x 10-24 grams). Although the
coulomb forces between protons in the nucleus tend to push the nucleus apart, the
nucleus is held together by the strong nuclear force that operates at extremely
short distances. The strong nuclear force is believed to result from attractions
between even smaller particles (quarks) that compose the neutrons and protons.
3. Electrons
The charge of the electron (- 1) is equal in magnitude to the charge of the proton
but is negative instead of positive. In an uncharged atom, the number of orbital
electrons equals the number of protons within the nucleus. When the number of
orbital electrons does not equal the number of protons in the nucleus, an overall
imbalance of charge exists for the atom. A charged atom is known as an ion. Ions
readily form chemical bonds with other ions of opposing charge.
Although electrons exist in a cloud around the nucleus, it is useful to describe this
arrangement as a series of energy levels, called shells. Within each shell are
subgroups of electrons, called orbits. An atom may have a number of possible
energy states, which correspond to different arrangements of electrons in the
shells. Electrons normally occupy the lowest energy levels in the atom, with
successive shells and orbits filled in a complex manner. If an atom absorbs
energy, an electron can move to a higher-energy shell. Electrons occupying higher

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Section 1 – Basic Radiation Physics Principles of Radiation Protection
energy levels can move back to vacancies in lower energy levels by releasing
energy. When the energy release is small (such as for transitions between outer
shells of an atom), the release occurs as visible or ultraviolet light. When the
difference in energy levels is large (such as when an electron moves to an inner
shell), an x-ray is emitted.
4. Atomic Number, and Atomic Mass Number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic

number, and is represented by the symbol Z. The number of protons in the
nucleus determines the arrangement of the electron shells for that atom, which
accounts for most chemical characteristics associated with the atom. Therefore,
atoms are grouped into elements according to their atomic number. Each
element is also represented by a chemical name.
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the
atomic mass number (or, mass number). The symbol A is used to denote the
atomic mass number. Since atoms do not have “fractions” of protons or neutrons,
the atomic mass number is an integer.
The atomic mass number should not be confused with the atomic mass. Atomic
mass describes the relative mass of the atom (including orbital electrons). The
scale for atomic mass is fixed so that it equals 12.000 amu for an atom having 6
protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons. This atom (Carbon-12) also has an atomic
mass number of 12. For all other atoms, the atomic mass and atomic mass
numbers differ slightly in magnitude.
The number of neutrons in an atom is called the neutron number and is

represented by the symbol N.
Table 1 illustrates the relation of A, Z and N for several atoms.
Table 1 – Examples of Z, N, and A
Atomic No. Neutron No. Mass No.

Z (Protons) N (Neutrons) A (Nucleons)
Hydrogen-1 1 0 1
Carbon-12 6 6 12
Iron-56 26 30 56
5. Nomenclature
Standard nomenclature is used to identify atoms of different types. The chemical

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symbol for the element is written with an upper left superscript before the symbol,
indicating the mass number (A). A lower left subscript before the symbol
indicates the atomic number (Z). This is illustrated by the examples from table 1:
Hydrogen-1 1
1 H
Carbon-12 12
6 C
Iron-56 56
26 Fe
Since both the atomic number and the chemical symbol uniquely identify the
element, it is acceptable to omit the atomic number. The designation of an atom is
often simply the chemical symbol followed by the atomic mass number, e.g. H-1,
C-12, Fe-56.
6. Nuclides, Isotopes, Isobars
It is convenient to classify atoms by similarities with other atoms. The term

nuclide is the most general term that describes an atom. Any atom can be
referred to as a nuclide, without making any implications about element
groupings or other properties of that atom.
As stated earlier, an element is a group of nuclides with the same number of

protons. However, there can be different numbers of neutrons present in the
nucleus for atoms of the same element. Atoms that have the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes of that element.
This is illustrated for the three isotopes of the element hydrogen:
Hydrogen-1 (1 proton, 0 neutrons, A=1) 1

1 H
Hydrogen-2 (1 proton, 1 neutron, A=2) 2

1 H
Hydrogen-3 (1 proton, 2 neutrons, A=3) 3

1 H
Isobars are defined as nuclides having the same mass number (A) but different
atomic numbers (Z). Example: I-131, Te-131 and Se-131 are isobars. This term is
rarely used.
7. Energy Units
The energies involved for individual reactions at the atomic level are small
compared to everyday electrical and mechanical processes requiring huge
numbers of atoms. The unit of energy used most frequently in atomic physics is
the electron volt, or eV. An electron volt is defined as the amount of energy
acquired by an electron when it falls through a difference in potential of 1 volt.

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The eV unit is often used with a multiplier, either keV or MeV; 1 keV is equal to
1,000 eV, (1 keV = 103 eV) and 1 MeV is equal to a million eV, (1 MeV = 106 eV).
If it were possible to instantly turn on a light bulb, 1 MeV of energy would operate
a 100 watt light bulb for a duration of only 1.6 x 10-15 seconds. Most nuclear
interactions involve tens of keV up to several MeV of energy.
B. Radioactive Decay
1. General
Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atom releases matter

and/or energy during a transition to a more stable form. It may do so by releasing
subatomic particles and energy, or by capturing an orbital electron into the
nucleus and releasing energy. Atoms that are unstable are also known as
radioactive atoms, or radionuclides. The original, radioactive atom is known as
the parent. The new nucleus (after decay) is known as the daughter.
Radioactive decay has applications in research, cancer therapy and medical

imaging because some of the stable atoms in drugs, reagents, or antibodies can be
replaced with radioactive atoms. The resulting “labeled” form has the same
chemical characteristics as the nonradioactive form. Depending upon the
application, the outcome of a chemical reaction can be traced, radiation can be
delivered to tumors, and structures in the body can be imaged through release of
radiation (in a medical setting).
2. Stability and Instability
The nucleus of an atom exists because the attractive force (strong nuclear force)
operating among protons and neutrons balances the coulomb force pushing the
nucleus apart. Some combinations of neutrons and protons are very successful in
holding the nucleus together. These nuclides remain intact indefinitely and are
said to be stable. For other atoms, the numbers of nucleons are less favorable
and the atom is unstable (radioactive).
To observe the pattern of stability among nuclides, the stable nuclides can be
plotted on a graph with the vertical axis indicating the N value (number of
neutrons) and the horizontal axis representing the Z value (number of protons).
This chart is shown in Appendix 1, Figure 1. These nuclides “cluster” in a small
area of the graph, indicating conditions that are favorable for stability.
The rules of stability are complex. Some of the factors influencing stability
include:
• The mass of the atom.

• The ratio of neutrons to protons.

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• Even versus odd numbers of nucleons.

• “Magic numbers” of nucleons (exceptionally stable combinations).
The optimum ratio of neutrons to protons varies from 1:1 for light nuclei to more
than 1.5:1 for heavy nuclei. Atoms lacking these ratios are not stable. If an atom
has an even number of protons and neutrons, it is more likely to be stable. Atoms
are particularly likely to be stable if the number of protons and/or neutrons
corresponds to one of the following integers: 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126. The region of
stability ends with Bi-209; all nuclides heavier than bismuth are radioactive.
Unstable atoms tend to decay in a manner that shifts the composition of the
daughter nucleus towards a more favorable combination of nucleons. The
direction of this shift determines the type of radioactive decay (this will be
discussed in subsequent sections). Some radionuclides can achieve stability
through a single decay (the daughter is stable). For other radionuclides, a series
of decays must occur before stability is reached.
3. Rate of Decay
a. Decay Constant
The process of decay is random for individual atoms. Although the exact
moment of an individual atomic decay cannot be predicted, the probability of
decay during a given time period can be measured (based on observations
from a large number of atoms). This quantity is known as the decay
constant (λ). The decay constant is expressed in units of probability per unit
time.
b. Half-Life (t½)
The rate of decay can also be described by the half-life of the atom. The half-
life (t½) is the amount of time required for 50% of the parent atoms to
undergo radioactive decay. The half-life and decay constant are related
through the simple expressions:
ln 2 0.693
t1 = =
2 λ λ
ln 2 0.693
λ = =
t1 t1
2 2
Consider the case of a radionuclide with a very short half-life, sodium-25.

This radionuclide has a half-life of 60 seconds. The decay constant equals
(0.693)/60s, or 0.012s-1. An example of a longer-lived radionuclide is tritium

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(H-3). Tritium has a half-life of 12.3 years. The corresponding decay

constant is (0.693)/12.3y, or 0.056 y-1. If converted to seconds, the decay
constant for tritium is 1.79 x 10-9 s-1.
c. Activity
It is easy to see that a radionuclide with a short half-life will undergo

radioactive decay at a very rapid rate, while a radionuclide with a long half-
life will have a much smaller rate of decay. If you have a sample of one
billion (109) sodium-25 atoms, you would expect about 11 million of these to
decay during the next second. On the other hand, if you have sample of one
billion tritium atoms, you would expect only 1 or 2 of these atoms to decay
during the next second.
For convenience, radioactivity is measured in units of activity, or the

number of decays taking place each second. The traditional unit of activity is
the curie, named after Marie and Pierre Curie (the discoverers of radium).
One curie, abbreviated Ci, is equal to 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per
second (dps). Since this is an extremely large number of decays per second,
the activity is usually expressed in smaller multiples:
1 x 10-6 Ci = 1 microcurie, or
1 x 10-3 Ci = 1 millicurie.
The International System of Units (Système International, or SI) utilizes a

different unit of activity, the becquerel. One becquerel, or Bq, is equal to
one dps. Since this amount of activity is inconveniently low, the SI units are
normally expressed in large multiples of Bq (megabecquerel or
gigabecquerel). The SI and traditional units are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2 – Units of Activity
Number of
Type of Disintegrations
Unit Abbreviation Multiple Unit per Second (dps)
curie Ci 1 Ci Traditional 37,000,000,000
millicurie mCi 10-3 Ci Traditional 37,000,000
microcurie :Ci 10-6 Ci Traditional 37,000
nanocurie nCi 10-9 Ci Traditional 37
becquerel Bq 1 Bq SI 1
kilobecquerel kBq 103 Bq SI 1000
megabecquerel mBq 106 Bq SI 1,000,000
gigabecquerel gBq 109 Bq SI 1,000,000,000

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Mathematically, the activity (A) is equal to the number of radioactive atoms

(N) times the probability of decay (8):
A = N ⋅λ
d. Exponential Decay
If the activity of a particular radionuclide is measured as a function of time, it

can be seen that radioactive decay is exponential:
Stated as an equation:
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 0.693 ⋅ t ⎟
−⎜ ⎟
⎜ t1 ⎟
A(t ) = Ao ⋅ e −λ ⋅t = Ao ⋅ e ⎝ 2 ⎠
A(t) is the activity at time t, and A0 is the initial activity. Since the activity is
proportional to the number of radioactive atoms, the equation can also be
written:
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 0.693 ⋅ t ⎟
−⎜ ⎟
⎜ t1 ⎟
N (t ) = N o ⋅ e −λ ⋅t = No ⋅ e ⎝ 2 ⎠
N(t) is the number of radioactive atoms at time t, and N0 is the initial number
of radioactive atoms.

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As an example, consider the decay of iodine-131. This radionuclide has a

half-life of 8.05 days. If a sample contained 10 mCi on a particular date (as
indicated by the supplier), what would the activity be one month later?
Initial Activity: A0 = 10 mCi
Elapsed time: t = 1 month
Since the half-life is listed in days,

convert elapsed time to days: t = 30 days
Calculated decayed activity:
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 0.693 ⋅ t ⎟
−⎜ ⎟ ⎛ 0.693 ⋅ 30 days ⎞
⎜ t1 ⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
A(t ) = Ao ⋅ e ⎝ 2 ⎠
= (10 mCi ) ⋅ e ⎝ 8.05 days ⎠
= 0.76 mCi
The simple decay equation applies only when there is one radionuclide
present. If there is a mixture of radionuclides present (as for a parent mixed
with radioactive daughters), then a sum of exponential functions would apply.
4. Types of Radiation
a. Subatomic Particles
Some forms of ionizing radiation consist of subatomic particles ejected from

the nucleus during radioactive decay. Examples of these subatomic particles
are shown below in Table 3. It is useful to describe particulate radiation by
the Greek letter symbols (alpha, beta) instead of by the particle name (helium
nucleus, electron). This distinguishes the particles emitted during
radioactive decay (which travel at high velocities) from subatomic particles
which are bound within atomic or molecular structures.
Table 3 – Examples of Particulate Radiation
Type of Greek
Radiation Symbol Description Charge Mass at Rest
Alpha α Combination of 2 +2 4.001 amu
protons and 2 neutrons (6.64 x 10-24 g)
Beta (-) β− Electron -1 0.000549 amu

(9.11 x 10-28 g)
Positron, or β+ Positron (antimatter +1 0.000549 amu

Beta (+) electron) (9.11 x 10-28 g)

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b. X-rays and Gamma Rays
Other types of radiation are electromagnetic. Electromagnetic radiation

consists of packets of energy called photons (sometimes symbolized as hν ).
X-rays and gamma rays are photons having enough energy to produce
ionization. The use of two different names (x-rays and gamma rays) allows
for a clearer distinction of where the photon was emitted. X-rays come from
events occurring outside the nucleus of the atom. Gamma rays are emitted
by the nuclei of unstable atoms after radioactive decay.
Several kinds of interactions may create x-rays. They are related to the
energy balance (conservation of energy) that exists at the atomic level. For
example, when an orbital electron moves from an outer (higher energy) shell
to an inner (lower energy) shell, an x-ray must be emitted with an energy
equal to the difference between energy levels. When an unbound electron
traveling outside the atom suddenly slows down and changes direction (due
to the presence of an adjacent atom), an x-ray is emitted with an energy equal
to the decrease in electron energy.
5. Types of Radioactive Decay
a. Alpha (α ) Decay
Alpha decay tends to occur in heavy radionuclides (massive nuclei). The

parent nucleus emits an alpha particle consisting of two protons and two
neutrons (Z = 2, A = 4). This is identical to a He-4 nucleus. The identity of
the daughter nucleus can be determined by subtracting 2 from the atomic
number (Z) of the parent and 4 from the mass number (A) of the parent:
Z daughter = Z parent − 2
Adaughter = A parent − 4
If the kinetic energy of the alpha particle is less than the energy released by
the decay process, the daughter nucleus is left with excess energy. The extra
energy is released in the form of one or more gamma rays. This occurs almost
simultaneously with the alpha decay.
An example of alpha decay is Ra-226:
226
88 Ra → 222
86Rn + 4
2α ++
+ 5 .59 MeV
(parent) (daughter) (alpha particle) (energy released by decay process)
For Ra-226, the 5.59 MeV decay energy is released entirely to the alpha
particle in 94.6% of all instances. In 5.4% of the decays, the decay energy is
divided between a 5.40 MeV alpha particle and 0.19 MeV gamma ray.

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b. ( )
Beta β − Decay
Beta decay tends to occur when a nucleus has too many neutrons to achieve
stability. During beta decay, a neutron within the parent nucleus is
converted to a proton, an electron (e-) and a neutrino:
1
0 n → 1
1p + e− + ν
(neutron) (proton) (electron) (neutrino)
The proton remains in the daughter nucleus. The electron leaves the atom at
a high velocity (as a beta particle). Because it is charged, a beta particle can
interact and deposit energy in surrounding materials. The neutrino,
however, is chargeless and nearly massless. For all practical purposes, the
neutrino flies off into space without depositing energy or interacting with
other atoms.
The conversion of a neutron to a proton within the nucleus has the effect of
increasing the atomic number (Z) by one while keeping the same atomic mass
number (A). The loss of a slight amount of atomic mass does not change the
value of A, since the daughter has the same number of nucleons as the
parent.
Z daughter = Z parent + 1
Adaughter = Aparent
For any individual decay process, the beta energy may range from zero to the
maximum beta decay energy (Emax). This happens because the beta particle
randomly shares energy with the neutrino. When a sample contains many
atoms of a beta emitting radionuclide, the result is a beta spectrum with a
broad energy distribution between zero and Emax (a diagram of a
representative beta spectrum is shown below). The average beta energy is
about 1/3 of the maximum energy.

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For most beta emitters, the decay energy is also shared by one or more
gamma rays. However, there are a few instances where no gammas are
emitted. These radionuclides are called pure beta emitters. Examples
include H-3 (tritium), C-14, P-32, P-33, and S-35. Pure beta emitters are
convenient for research applications where highly penetrating radiation is
not required, since the external hazard is greatly reduced. Coincidentally,
these elements are also components of important organic compounds. This
has led to use of these radionuclides in a wide variety of labeling procedures.
An example of beta decay is H-3:
3
1 H → 3
2 He + β− + ν + 0 .0186 MeV
(beta) (neutrino) (kinetic energy of beta)
Average and maximum beta energies for selected nuclides are listed in Appendix 1,
Figure 2.
c. Electron Capture (EC)
When an atom contains too many protons in the nucleus for stability, one of
these protons can combine with an inner-shell electron in the process of
electron capture. The result of this reaction is the conversion of a proton
and electron into a neutron.
1
1 p + e− → 1
0n + ν
(proton) (electron) (neutron) (neutrino)
Electron capture, therefore, has the effect of reducing the atomic number of
the parent by 1, with the parent and daughter having the same atomic mass
number.
The vacancy left by electron capture must be filled. An electron from a

higher-energy shell “falls down” into the inner-shell, and a x-ray is emitted.
This leaves another vacancy, which is filled by an electron from an outer
shell. The process is repeated until all lower-energy shells are filled. A
cascade of characteristic x-rays accompanies these transitions. Gamma rays
may also be emitted by the daughter nucleus if the decay energy is not
imparted totally to the neutrino.
An example of electron capture decay is Cr-51:
51
24 Cr → 51
23 V + ν + 0.752 MeV
(parent) (daughter) (neutrino) (sum of decay energies)

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A 0.32 MeV gamma is emitted in 9% of the Cr-51 decay processes. Weaker x-

rays (up to 0.1 MeV in energy) are also emitted as electrons move to replace
inner shell vacancies.
d. ( )
Positron β + Emission
When the available decay energy is large and an atom has too many protons
in the nucleus, it may decay through positron emission instead of electron
capture. Positron emission is sometimes called beta (+) decay.
The process is similar to beta (-) decay, except that the type of radiation
emitted is an antimatter electron (positron). During positron emission, one of
the protons in the nucleus is converted to a neutron, a positron, and a
neutrino:
1
1 p → 1
0 n + e+ + ν
(proton) (neutron) (positron) (neutrino)
The neutron remains inside the daughter nucleus. The positron and neutrino
escape. This yields a daughter nucleus with one proton less than the parent
but with the same atomic mass number as the parent.
A positron has the same mass as an electron but is opposite in charge. As it

travels, it slows down through interactions with other atoms in the vicinity.
After is has slowed down, it combines with any nearby electron in an
annihilation (matter-antimatter) reaction. In this annihilation reaction, the
destruction of the electron and positron creates two gamma rays, or photons.
The photons each have energies of 0.511 MeV and are emitted in opposing
directions.
Positron emitters are rarely used because they are inconvenient to produce.
Most positron emitters decay after only a brief storage time (short half-life).
They are ordinarily produced using a particle accelerator (cyclotron). The
most common use of positron emitters is for positron emission tomography.
This technique takes advantage of the opposing directions of the two
annihilation gammas. Positron emission tomography is used to diagnose
some types of brain tumors and other brain disorders.
An example of positron emission is Na-22:
22
11 Na → 22
10 Ne + 00β + + ν + 1.02 MeV + 1.82 MeV
(parent) (daughter) (positron) (neutrino) (annihilation gammas) (remainder of decay energy)
The shape of the positron energy spectrum is similar to the beta spectrum.

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e. Internal Conversion
In some instances, the decay energy normally released as a gamma ray is

imparted to an inner-shell electron. The electron leaves the atom with a
kinetic energy that is equal to the original gamma energy minus the binding
energy of the electron. This is called internal conversion. Internal
conversion competes with gamma emission. It is a significant effect for a few
gamma-emitting radionuclides such as Cs-137 and In-113. Internal
conversion electrons are monoenergetic, meaning that they are emitted with
discrete energies instead of a broad spectrum of energies.
Since a vacancy exists in an inner electron shell after internal conversion, x-

rays are emitted as electrons move successively from outer shells to fill the
lower-shell vacancies. This creates a series of characteristic x-rays.
Occasionally, another form of internal conversion may result when energy

normally released as a characteristic x-ray is imparted to an orbital electron.
The electrons emitted in this process are called Auger electrons and tend to
have very low energies. This makes them difficult to detect.
f. Internal Transition
When a parent nuclide decays and the decay particles do not carry away all of
the energy, the daughter nucleus is left in an excited state (an excess of
energy). Normally, the energy is released immediately as a gamma ray or
internal conversion electron. However, for some daughter nuclides, the
excited state persists for minutes or hours. This is called internal
transition. The daughter nuclide is designated with the symbol “m” after
the atomic mass number to indicate a meta-stable state. Eventually, the
daughter nuclide releases the excitation energy through gamma emission.
The daughter nuclide can be chemically separated from the parent. By itself,
the daughter nuclide behaves like a pure gamma emitter. This can be useful
for some forms of medical imaging where highly penetrating radiation is
needed. When a radionuclide is injected for a nuclear medicine study (such
as a bone scan), any short-range alpha or beta radiation present in the decay
would be absorbed within the patient. This would cause unnecessary dose to
the patient and would not help the imaging process. If a pure gamma emitter
is available, the image quality is increased and the patient dose is decreased.
This can be achieved through use of an electron capture radionuclide or
internal transition radionuclide.
One radionuclide frequently used in imaging studies is technicium-99m, the

internal transition daughter product of molybdenum-99:
99
Mo → 99 m
Tc + β −
+ 1 .37 MeV

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The decay of molybdenum-99 releases a beta particle (maximum energy

1.23 MeV), leaving an excess of 0.14 MeV in the excited state of the
technicium-99m daughter. Technicium-99m can be chemically separated
from the molybdenum parent for use in Nuclear Medicine procedures.
Technicium-99m later releases the energy as a gamma ray (the half-life
of Tc-99m is 6 hours).
99 m
Tc → 99
Tc + γ ( 0 .14 MeV )
6. Decay Schemes and Energy Levels
Many radionuclides decay through several possible combinations of particle and

gamma ray energies, corresponding to different energy levels of the daughter
nucleus. It is convenient to depict these energy levels as decay schemes. Decay
schemes for selected nuclides are included in Appendix 1, Figure 3. To help with
the interpretation of these diagrams, some examples and explanations are
included in the next few sections.
a. I-131 Decay Diagram (Beta Decay Example)
Iodine-131 is typical of a complex beta decay scheme. There are five different
nuclear energy levels that correspond to different values of Emax (maximum
beta energy). Each beta (-) emission for I-131 has one or more corresponding
gamma emissions.
Table 4 – Energy Levels for I-131 Beta (-) Decay, (Q = 0.97 MeV)
Beta Energy Percentage of Associated Gamma

(Emax) Decay Events Ray Energies (MeV)
0.25 MeV 1.6% 0.72
0.33 MeV 6.9% 0.64
0.47 MeV 0.5% 0.50 or (0.33 and 0.17)
0.61 MeV 90.4% 0.36 or (0.28 and 0.08)
0.81 MeV 0.6% 0.16 (from Xe-131m)
The first two columns in Table 4 show the beta endpoint (maximum energy)
and the percentage of events in which this decay occurs. The third column
shows the possible gamma emission(s) associated with each beta decay.
Gamma rays are emitted either as a single photon, or as several photons
(shown in parenthesis). By adding the first and third columns, it is easy to
demonstrate that the total beta and gamma energies are always equal to the
Q value (total decay energy for I-131).

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The corresponding decay scheme for I-131 is shown below:
131
53
I (8.05d)
β − 1 1.6% 0.7229
β − 2 6.9%
0.6370
β − 3 0.5%
γ9 0.5030
Q β − = 0.970 MeV γ8
β − 4 90.4% γ7 0.3645
γ6 γ5
β − 5 0.6% γ4 0.1772
0.1639 131m
γ3 54 Xe (11.8 d)
γ2 0.0801
γ1 0.0
131
Stable 54
Xe
The parent nucleus, I-131, is shown at the top left corner. The half-life of
I-131 is equal to 8.05 days, as shown in parenthesis. The energy levels of the
Xe-131 daughter are shown as a series of horizontal lines. The daughter
nucleus is located to the right of the parent nucleus because it has a higher
atomic number (Z). Each line corresponding to the daughter nucleus is
shown with the energy level, in MeV, at the right side of the diagram. The
“ground state” (lowest energy state) of the daughter nucleus is indicated by
an energy of 0.0 MeV (bottom line of diagram). Since the Xe-131 nucleus does
not undergo radioactive decay, no half-life is shown.
Beta emissions are indicated by arrows drawn from the parent nucleus (top
left corner) to the different energy levels of the daughter. The beta energy,
Emax, is obtained by subtracting the nuclear energy level from the decay
energy, Q. For example, the energy of the first beta (β-1) is 0.970 – 0.7229, or
0.247 MeV.
Gamma rays are depicted as vertical lines traveling from higher energy levels
to lower energy levels. They correspond to transitions where the daughter
nucleus looses some or all of the remaining decay energy. During the first
beta (β-1) decay the I-131 nucleus emits a 0.247 MeV beta to the 0.7229 MeV
energy level of Xe-131. All of the remaining 0.7229 MeV is emitted as a
single gamma ray. An example of multiple gamma emissions following beta
decay is found in the (β-4) decay to the 0.3645 MeV energy level. Here, the
remaining energy may be emitted as a single gamma ray of 0.3645 MeV, or as
two gamma rays (0.2845 MeV and 0.0801 MeV). The gamma ray energies are
equal to the difference in the nuclear energy levels.
The numbering of the beta particles and gamma rays is usually arbitrary;
this is done primarily so that additional notes can be included about relative
abundance and the probability of internal conversion. The diagrams show

Page Phy-18
January 2006
only nuclear energy levels and do not include characteristic x-rays emitted
during transitions by electrons outside of the nucleus.
b. Zn-65 Decay Diagram (Electron Capture and Positron Emission)
Nuclides that decay through electron capture may also decay through
positron emission if the Q value (available decay energy) is greater than
1.022 MeV. This amount of energy is necessary for the creation of two, 0.511
annihilation gammas. The decay scheme for Zn-65 is shown as an example of
this type of decay. The half-life of Zn-65 is 245 days (as shown in
parenthesis).
65
30
Zn (245 d)
1.115
EC1 49%
EC2 49% QEC = 1.35 MeV*

γ1
β +1 1.7%
0.0
65
Stable 29
Cu
* Maximum β + Energy = Q EC - 1.022 MeV
The daughter, stable Cu-65, is shown below and to the left of the parent.
This convention is followed because the atomic number (Z) of the daughter is
less than the Z of the parent for electron capture. The energy levels of the
Cu-65 daughter nucleus are much simpler than in the preceding example for
I-131 decay. There is only one level above ground state.
Electron capture transitions are shown as straight arrows from the parent to
the daughter. Two electron capture transitions are possible. In the first,
occurring 49% of the time, the daughter nucleus is left with an excitation
energy of 1.115 MeV. This is released as a 1.115 MeV gamma ray. In the
second electron capture transition (also occurring about 49% of the time), the
decay proceeds directly to the ground state of Cu-65. No gamma ray is
emitted. In both of these transitions, characteristic x-rays are emitted as
electrons fall into vacancies in electron shells. This occurs outside the
nucleus and is not depicted in the decay diagram.
During 1.7% of the decay events, the decay proceeds through positron
emission instead of electron capture. Positron emission is depicted by a
vertical line connected to a diagonal arrow. The vertical line symbolizes the

Page Phy-19
January 2006
energy released as two annihilation gammas when the positron combines

with an electron outside the atom. The diagonal arrow represents the
positron. The energy of the positron is obtained by subtracting the daughter
energy level from the Q value (decay energy), then subtracting the two 0.511
MeV gamma energies.
E positron = Q − (energy level of daughter nucleus) − 2 × ( 0.511 MeV )
In this case, the energy level of the daughter is 0.0 (ground state), and the
maximum energy of the positron is equal to (1.35 – 1.022) MeV, or 0.33 MeV.
c. Ra-226 Decay Diagram (Alpha Decay Example)
Alpha decay is symbolized by double lines within the decay scheme. The
decay energy, Q, tends to be very large. The daughter product is depicted to
the left of the parent because the Z of the daughter is less than the Z of the
parent. Radium-226 provides a straightforward example of alpha decay:
226
88 Ra (1602 y)
Q α = 4.894 MeV
α 1 5.4%
0.1857 α 2 94.6%
γ 0.0
222
86 Rn (3.82 d)
In 94.6% of all Ra-226 decays, an alpha particle with energy 4.894 MeV is
emitted. Since this corresponds to the ground state of Rn-222, no
corresponding gamma ray is released. In 5.4% of all decays, an alpha particle
with an energy equal to (4.894 – 0.1857) or 4.708 MeV is emitted. The
remaining 0.1857 MeV is emitted as a single gamma ray.

Page Phy-20
January 2006
C. Interaction of Radiation with Matter

1. Ionizing and Nonionizing Radiations
The types of radiation described in the preceding sections are ionizing radiation.
Ionizing radiation is distinguished from other types of energy by its ability to
produce ionization in materials. Ionization is the removal of orbital electrons
from an atom. Radiations that cannot produce ionization are known as
nonionizing radiation. Some familiar examples of nonionizing radiation
include ultraviolet and visible light, infrared light, radio waves, microwaves, and
electromagnetic fields from household wiring. Except where otherwise noted, this
discussion will apply only to ionizing radiation.
2. Consequences of Interactions (Ionization and Excitation)
Ionizing radiation may interact through a variety of processes, depending upon

the type and energy of the radiation and material being traversed. Regardless of
the mechanism of interaction, the consequences are ionization and excitation of
atoms in the material.
a. Ionization
Ionization is the process of removing one or more orbital electrons from an

atom. This produces ion pairs: one or more free electrons along with a
positively charged atom (ion). Both the charged atom and the free electrons
can react with other atoms in their vicinity to produce chemical changes in
the material. During interactions of ionizing radiation with matter, a large
amount of kinetic energy can be imparted to the free electrons. This energy is
sometimes large enough so that the free electrons behave like beta particles
to produce ionization. When the free electrons are capable of producing
ionizations, they are called delta rays.
These secondary electrons produce a track of damage along the path of the
radiation. In a biological system, this damage takes the form of broken
molecular bonds and free radicals (atoms that readily form chemical bonds).
b. Excitation
Excitation occurs when radiation deposits energy, but the energy is not
sufficient to produce ion pairs. Small amounts of kinetic energy are
transferred to atoms in the material. This increases the energy level of the
atom or molecule without actually breaking chemical bonds. The increase in
energy takes the form of molecular vibration or rotation. When this happens,
the result is a (small) rise in temperature triggered by the excitation process.

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January 2006
Some of the energy deposited by ionizing radiation is lost through excitation

processes and an accompanying increase in temperature. However, the
increase in temperature is insignificant compared to the damage produced by
ionizations. A cell exposed to very large doses of ionizing radiation will die
from ionization-produced damage long before a detectable rise in temperature
is produced.
Nonionizing radiation can only deposit energy through excitation reactions.

For most forms of nonionizing radiation (such as radio waves and infrared
light), the effect is limited to heat. Ultraviolet light can produce biological
damage through photochemical reactions as well as heating.
3. Charged Particle Interactions
Charged particles deposit energy primarily through collisions with orbital

electrons. The collisions occur when the electric field of the particle interacts with
the electric field surrounding the orbital electron. If the particle has a negative
charge, it “pushes” the electron out of its orbit. If the particle is positively
charged, it exerts a pull on the electron that removes it from the original orbit.
Collisions may impart enough energy to allow ionizations to occur from the newly-
released secondary electrons. Some of the energy may also be released as x-rays
(bremsstrahlung). The type and probability of these interactions is related to the
charge and velocity of the incident particle.
a. Beta Particles
Beta particles (electrons and positrons) travel at very high velocities,

comparable to the speed of light. Several examples are provided in Table 5.
Table 5 – Beta Particle Velocities
Particle Maximum Particle Velocity Corresponding

Nuclide Type Energy (Emax) To Emax (% of speed of light)
H-3 β- 0.0186 26%
C-14 β- 0.156 64%
P-32 β- 1.710 97%
O-15 β+ 1.738 97%
Since the particle velocity is initially high, it has little chance to interact with
an orbital electron unless it passes very close to that electron. Interactions
are widely spaced (in terms of atomic dimensions) because the probability of
interaction is so low. However, when the particle does interact with an

Page Phy-22
January 2006
orbital electron, a significant fraction of the particle’s kinetic energy can be

transferred to the electron during the collision. As the particle slows, it
becomes more likely to interact with other orbital electrons. The net effect is
for beta particles to lose their energy in a diffuse manner (compared to
alphas) and follow paths that can be marked by sharp changes in direction. A
representation of a low-energy beta particle track is shown below:
As shown in the diagram, the net distance traveled by the beta particle is
shorter than the path length. This average depth represents the maximum
distance of travel in the material and is called the particle range. The range
differs according to the energy and charge of the particle. For electrons, the
range is approximated by the following equation:
⎛ 0.412 ⎞ { 1.265 − 0.0954 ⋅ ln E }

Range (cm ) ≈ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ E ( for E < 2.5 MeV )
⎝ ρ ⎠
where ∆ is the specific gravity of the material and E is the beta particle or
electron energy in MeV. Please note that the expression E{1.265-0.0954lnE} is the
beta energy (in MeV) raised to the power indicated in the brackets. It is not
the exponential function. For tissue and water, ∆ = 1.0. A further discussion
of beta particle range is provided in section D.3.
b. Bremsstrahlung
When a beta particle interacts with the electric field of the nucleus (instead of
the field surrounding an orbital electron), it looses energy by changing
directions and releasing an x-ray. The energy of the x-ray is equal to the
energy lost by the beta particle. These x-rays are called bremsstrahlung, or
braking radiation.

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January 2006
The probability of bremsstrahlung production is small for low-Z materials

such as tissue or plastic. However, the amount of energy released as
bremsstrahlung is proportional to the atomic number of the absorber. This
principle is the basis for x-ray production. In an x-ray tube, a beam of high
energy electrons is directed against a metal target (typically tungsten). The
high Z of the metal target increases the yield of x-rays.
For the same reason, it is usually desirable to shield high-energy beta

emitters with plastic or other low-Z materials. This minimizes unwanted
production of bremsstrahlung x-rays. If lead or some other high-Z shielding
material is used, it is sometimes necessary to increase the thickness and
weight of the shield to account for this x-ray production.
c. Annihilation
When a positron (β+) reaches the end of its range, it combines with a nearby
orbital electron in an annihilation reaction (as described previously). The
electron (matter) and positron (antimatter) disappear, and two 0.511 MeV
gamma rays are released. The annihilation gammas are emitted in opposite
directions from each other.
d. Alpha Particles
Alpha particles are approximately 7300 times more massive than beta
particles. Heavy charged particles such as alpha particles travel at velocities
much slower than the speed of light and have a high probability for
interactions with orbital electrons. They leave a dense path of ion pairs and
expend their energy in a short range. In addition to the slow speed, heavy
particles are barely deflected by each interaction; therefore their path is short
and straight.
The range of a 5 MeV alpha particle is approximately 3.5 cm in air, or 0.004

cm in tissue. Alpha particles are not considered to be an external hazard
because of their inability to penetrate the outer layer of skin.

Page Phy-24
January 2006
4. Electromagnetic Radiation Interactions
a. Gamma and X-rays, General
Gamma and x-rays are photons, or packets of electromagnetic energy.

Because of their mechanism of production, x-rays tend to be lower in energy
than gamma rays. Other than that, there is no difference in the way x-rays
and gamma rays interact with matter.
Photons travel at the speed of light and have no charge. They cannot create
ion pairs by interacting directly with the electric fields of an orbital electron
or nucleus. Instead, photons produce ionization indirectly through reactions
that release energetic, charged particles (usually electrons). The reactions
that are most prominent for radiation protection issues are the photoelectric
effect, Compton scattering, and pair production. The probability of each
process varies with the photon energy and Z of the material.
b. Photoelectric Effect
In the photoelectric effect, the incident photon energy is transferred

completely to an inner-shell (orbital) electron. The photon disappears, and a
photoelectron is released. The energy of the photoelectron is equal to the
incident photon energy minus the binding energy of the electron.
Photoelectrons are released from x- and gamma ray interactions with enough
energy to produce ionization in the surrounding material.
The probability of a photoelectric interaction is proportional to Z4 and

inversely proportional to E3. This means that the photoelectric effect is only
prevalent for low energy photons and high-Z absorbers. For this reason, lead
is an excellent shielding material for most x-ray energies.
Photoelectric absorption can occur for very low energy photons as well.
However, the resulting photoelectrons are not ionizing. This effect is the
basis for many electronic devices that detect light.

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January 2006
c. Compton Scattering
Compton scattering occurs when a photon interacts with an outer-shell

(orbital) electron that has a binding energy much lower than the photon
energy. Only part of the photon energy is transferred to the orbital electron.
The overall result is that the photon changes direction and loses energy. The
orbital electron is released from the atom in the process. If the interaction
imparts enough energy to the secondary electron, it can produce ionizations
in the material.
The photon may be scattered in any direction between 0 and 180 degrees.
The energy loss of the photon is related to the scattering angle. For high
energy photons, the scattering angle is usually low and little energy is
imparted in any one Compton event. For low energy photons, the scattering
angle can be much larger, and nearly all of the photon energy can be
transferred to the electron in a single scattering event.
Compton interactions are the most probable type of interaction for x-rays and
gamma rays in tissue. The probability of a Compton interaction decreases
slightly with increasing Z of the material.
d. Pair Production
When a photon has energy in excess of 1.022 MeV, it can interact with the
strong forces near the nucleus of an atom in a pair production reaction.
The photon disappears and is replaced by one electron and one positron,
emitted in opposite directions.
The value of 1.022 MeV is the energy equivalent (E = mc2) of the mass of an
electron plus a positron. Any remaining kinetic energy (above 1.02 MeV) is
shared equally by the electron and positron, minus a very small amount of
energy shared with the atomic nucleus.
The electron and positron deposit energy as they travel through the
surrounding medium, creating ionization and excitation. However when the

Page Phy-26
January 2006
(antimatter) positron slows down, it combines with an electron in an

annihilation reaction. The mass is converted back to two photons, each
having energies of 0.511 MeV.
The overall effect of pair production is the conversion of the incident photon
into two, 0.511 MeV annihilation photons emitted in opposite directions. The
only energy loss from the pair production interaction is the “left over” energy
(above 1.022 MeV) which is imparted to the secondary electron and positron.
The two, 0.511 MeV photons may subsequently deposit energy in the material
through Compton interactions.
Pair production is more prevalent for high Z materials than for low Z
materials. For lead, it becomes a significant interaction at photon energies
above 2 MeV, and the dominant interaction for photon energies above 10
MeV. For low Z materials such as tissue, it is rarely significant (unless
photon energies of tens of MeV are present).
D. Time, Distance and Shielding

The physical principles described in the preceding sections can be put to use in a
radiation protection setting. These are expressed as the basic mechanisms of time,
distance, and shielding.
1. Time
This principle is fairly simple. If you enter a radiation area, the amount of
occupational exposure will be proportional to the time spent in the area. Although
this sounds trivial, it is easily forgotten in the work environment. It is important
to work efficiently, without wasting time or making mistakes (which could
increase your radiation exposure).
Another facet of the “time” principle is exponential decay (section B.3). If you
have a source that is no longer needed, it can be allowed to decay in a well-
shielded area prior to disposal. This reduces the amount of radioactive material
disposed of as waste, and reduces any radiation exposure involved in the handling
of the material.
2. Distance (Inverse Square Law)
For any point source of radiant energy (including ionizing radiation), the intensity
of the radiation increases as you approach the source and decreases as you move
away from the source. The difference in intensity can be dramatic. Increasing the
distance from the source is an efficient method of reducing occupational dose.
Conversely, if you work unnecessarily close to a source of penetrating radiation, it
can lead to a great deal of unnecessary exposure.

Page Phy-27
January 2006
The Inverse Square Law for a point source of radiation states that the dose rate
is inversely proportional to the distance from the source:
2
⎛d ⎞
I2 = I1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ d2 ⎠
Here, I is the radiation intensity and d is the distance from the source. As an
example, suppose that you measure a thousand counts per minute (cpm) on your
radiation detector placed one foot from a radiation source. If you moved back to a
distance of two feet, the count rate would be:
2 2
⎛d ⎞ ⎛ 1 foot ⎞
I2 = I1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = (1000 cpm) ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 250 cpm
⎝ d2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 feet ⎠
Each time the distance from the source is doubled, the intensity is reduced by a
factor of four.
Note that the Inverse Square Law works to increase radiation exposure when the
distance is decreased. It can also be called the Inverse-r2 Effect. The r2
represents radius squared, which is the same as distance squared, in the
equations above. The following is an approximation of the increase in radiation
dose as you approach a small-diameter source.
Theoretically, the dose rate increases to infinity as the distance decreases to zero.
In reality, this does not happen. At very small distances, the point source
approximation no longer applies and the dose remains finite. However, the dose
rates can become extremely large at the point of contact with a radiation source.

Page Phy-28
January 2006
For this reason, you should be extremely cautious about handling sources of
penetrating radiation. Normally, tongs or forceps must be used to provide some
distance between you and the source. If the radiation is easily attenuated
(particularly if it is a pure low-energy beta emitter), there may be enough
shielding around the material to permit holding the container in a gloved hand.
Otherwise, the source must not be handled directly.
3. Shielding
If work must be performed in the vicinity of an intense radiation source, it is often

possible to construct a shield. This blocks most of the radiation, allowing the
worker to reduce his or her occupational dose. If a facility is placed next to an
area where non-radiation workers are present, shielding is used to ensure that the
adjacent areas are exposed to less than the dose limits for members of the public.
The most common use of shielding is in medical x-ray facilities, nuclear medicine
facilities, radiation therapy facilities, and particle accelerators.
Shielding takes advantage of the process of attenuation. Attenuation is the

reduction in intensity when a beam of radiation passes through a material. The
amount of attenuation is a function of the composition of the material, as well as
the type and energy of the radiation.
a. Charged Particle Attenuation
Charged particles are easily shielded because of their limited range in

materials (as discussed in section C.3.). Often, the thickness of the outer
protective layer of skin is sufficient to stop the radiation. This is the case for
alpha particles and low energy betas from tritium. For more penetrating beta
energies, the skin still provides some protection. However, the degree of
protection varies with the maximum beta energy and the thickness of the
outer layer of skin.

Page Phy-29
January 2006
For radiation protection purposes, the thickness of the outer, “dead layer”
(stratum corneum) of skin is considered to be 0.007 cm. This value
underestimates the protection of the outer layer of skin for the hands.
Keep in mind that the shielding of the source container is not included in the
above diagram. Almost any added thickness from any container is sufficient
to stop beta particles from carbon-14 and sulfur-35 from reaching any
proliferating cells within the skin. For this reason, carbon-14 and sulfur-35
are not ordinarily considered to be external hazards.
For beta energies greater than 0.2 MeV, the incident betas can produce a dose
to the skin. Additional shielding is often beneficial (see section E.9.b. on Beta
Dose Rates). Although the standard approach is to provide shielding at least
as thick as the range of the maximum beta energy, this is not necessary
unless the dose rates near the source are high. Since most of the beta
particles have energies that are 1/3 of the maximum beta energy, even a
lesser amount of shielding can produce a noticeable benefit.
Two physical processes that decrease the effectiveness of beta shielding are
scattering and bremsstrahlung. These processes are more significant for
high-energy betas than for low-energy betas. In scattering, some of the beta
particles change direction and can be reflected back from the shield or to the
side of the shield. In extreme cases, multiple scattering can allow some of the
beta particles to bypass the shield, as shown in the diagram. Bremsstrahlung

is the production of x-rays in materials by electrons or beta particles (as
described in section C.3.). Although it is usually not a safety problem,
bremsstrahlung can produce a measurable count rate around high-energy
beta sources. When a high-Z material such as lead is used to shield an
intense, high-energy beta source, additional lead should be added to reduce
the intensity of the bremsstrahlung x-rays.
The amount of scattered radiation may not be of concern from a safety

standpoint. After all, the purpose of the shield is to reduce the dose rate from
the source (not to eliminate it altogether). However, if shielding is required

Page Phy-30
January 2006
to maintain doses within occupational limits, then it is always necessary to

evaluate the shield’s effectiveness prior to actual use.
b. X-ray and Gamma Ray Attenuation
Unlike charged particles, x-rays and gamma rays do not have a fixed range.
X-rays and gamma rays interact with materials through photoelectric
absorption, Compton scattering, or pair-production (depending upon the
photon energy and Z of the material). When a single photon passes through a
thickness of material it has a certain probability of interaction. The
probability of interaction per unit thickness of material is called the linear
attenuation coefficient, :.
The attenuation equation for x-rays and gamma rays is similar to the
exponential equation for radioactive decay.
I = I0 ⋅ e −µ x
In this equation, I0 is the intensity without the shield, I is the intensity with
the shield in place, and x is the thickness of the shield. The attenuation
equation is an approximation, since x-rays and gamma rays scatter easily.
The contribution of scattered radiation depends upon the size and
arrangement of the shield, and is not included in this calculation.
As an example, estimate the reduction in intensity for 50 keV x-rays if a lead

shield 1.0 mm in thickness is installed. Compare that value to the reduction
for 1 MeV gamma rays shielded by the same thickness of lead ( : = 88.7 cm-1
for 50 keV x-rays; : = 0.796 cm-1 for 1 MeV gammas). The reduction in
intensity can be calculated from the ratio I/I0.
For 50 keV x-rays (1 mm lead),
I −1
= e −µ x = e −(88.7 cm )⋅ ( 0.1cm )
= 0.00014
I0
The intensity after shielding is only 0.01% of the original intensity (an almost
complete reduction).
For 1 MeV gamma rays (1 mm lead),
I −1
= e −µ x = e −( 0.796 cm )⋅ ( 0.1 cm )
= 0.92
I0

Page Phy-31
January 2006
Here, the intensity after shielding is 92% of the original intensity (only an 8%
reduction).
Note that the thickness, 1.0 mm, was converted to 0.1 cm to keep the same
units for : and x. This example illustrates the dramatic difference in
shielding effectiveness for different energies in high Z materials. It also
illustrates why lead shielding is more cost effective for x-rays than for high
energy emitters.
The attenuation coefficient is often related to a more convenient parameter,

the half-value layer (HVL). The half-value layer is the approximate
thickness of material required to reduce the radiation intensity by 50%
(I/I0 = 0.5).
0.693 0.693
HVL = and µ=
µ HVL
Occasionally, tabulations will be provided for tenth-value layer (TVL). The

tenth-value layer is the approximate thickness of material required to reduce
the radiation intensity to 10% of the original value (I/I0 = 0.1).
2.30 2.30
TVL = and µ=
µ TVL
By taking advantage of these definitions, an alternative form of the

attenuation equation becomes:
N HVL NTVL
I ⎛1⎞ I ⎛1⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ or = ⎜ ⎟
I0 ⎝2⎠ I0 ⎝ 10 ⎠
where NHVL is the number of half-value layers, and NTVL is the number of
tenth value layers. This can be a quick and easy approach to shielding
calculations. A graph of HVL vs. energy is shown in Appendix 1, Figure 5.
As a final shielding example, suppose you need to place a very intense Cs-137
source (0.67 MeV gamma rays) next to an existing office. It is necessary to
reduce the exposure rate so that the administrative personnel in the next
office receive less that 100 mrem in a year (based on a 40-hour week). If the
measured dose rate on the other side of the wall is 5.0 mrem/hour, what
thickness of concrete must be added? For this example, use a half-value layer
of 2.5 inches for Cs-137 gammas in concrete.

Page Phy-32
January 2006
1) Find the ratio of I/I0:
I0 = 5.0 mrem/hr
I = 100 mrem/yr x (1 year/52 weeks) x (1 week/40 hours)

= 0.048 mrem/hr
I/I0 = (0.048 mrem/hr)/(5.0 mrem/hr) = 0.0096
2) Rewrite the equation to solve for the number of half-value layers

required for I/I0 = 0.0096.
ln(I I 0 )
N HVL
I ⎛1⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ N HVL =
I0 ⎝2⎠ ln( 12 )
ln(I I 0 ) ln(0.0096 )
N HVL = = = 6.7 half value layers
ln( 12 ) ln(0.5)
3) Determine the concrete thickness that corresponds to this number of

half-value layers.
x (thickness) = 6.7 half-value layers x 2.5 inches per HVL

= 17 inches of concrete
In this example, an additional 17 inches of concrete would be required to

provide the necessary shielding. If this shielding calculation were done for a
real workplace, it would be necessary to adjust the calculation for the effects
of scattered radiation. It would also be prudent to include an extra “margin
of safety” in the shield thickness to anticipate voids (hollow areas) inside the
concrete. The consideration of these details would eliminate the need for
installing additional shielding after remodeling was completed (an expensive
task). If a strong source of penetrating radiation is involved, shielding may
also be required for adjacent floors and exterior (as well as interior) walls. Of
course, any design change of this magnitude would require approval from the
Radiation Safety Office (and several other agencies) prior to the building
modifications.
For most uses of radiation at the University of Washington, a precise

shielding calculation is not required. When the shield is small and
architectural factors are not a concern, the shielding can be deliberately
overestimated. Often, it is sufficient to put up a sturdy wall of lead bricks

Page Phy-33
January 2006
several times the required thickness. If a detailed shielding calculation is

required, personnel from the Radiation Safety Office can provide assistance.
In any shield design (highly precise or otherwise), the user must always
measure the shield’s effectiveness under worst-case working conditions.
Never assume that the shielding is correct unless it is tested.
E. Basic Dose Quantities and Units

1. Historical Overview
During the first few years after the discovery of x-rays, radiologists and scientists
struggled with a lack of available means for quantifying the amount of radiation
present. Since the hazards associated with high doses of radiation were not
recognized prior to the 1920’s, the first unit of dose was biological – the skin
erythema dose. This was the amount of radiation required to turn a person’s skin
red. Unfortunately, this required the assistance of individuals who received
considerably more radiation than modern occupational laws would allow. This
tragic method of detection was discontinued when the long-term hazards of such
exposures were recognized and other standard techniques for radiation detection
became available.
Quantities were later developed to describe ionization in air (exposure). The

concept was expanded to include energy deposition in any material (dose) and
ultimately, the risk of harm to an individual (dose equivalent).
2. International System (SI) Versus Traditional Units
Radiation quantities were traditionally expressed in units such as the roentgen,

rad and rem. In 1960, the International System of Units (abbreviated as SI, for
Système International) was adopted as the scientific basis of units. Just as the
traditional unit of length (the foot), now has a SI counterpart (the meter), all of
the traditional radiation quantities now have SI units. This can lead to confusion.
For clarity, both sets of units are presented here.
3. Exposure
Exposure is the traditional quantity for radiation measurement. Exposure is the

charge (either positive or negative) produced per unit mass of air by x-rays or
gamma rays as they traverse a collecting volume. The unit of exposure has
historically been the roentgen, R, named after the discoverer of x-rays. For
convenience, exposure is sometimes expressed in units of milliroentgen, mR
(1/1000th of 1 R).
1 R = 1000 mR

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January 2006
The original definition of the roentgen was the amount of x-ray or low energy
gamma radiation producing an ionization of one electrostatic unit (esu) of charge
in one cubic centimeter of dry air at standard temperature and pressure.
The SI unit for exposure is coulombs of charge per kilogram of air and the
conversion between the international system and the traditional system is:
1 R = 2.58 x 10 − 4 C / kg
Exposure units are defined only for x-rays and low energy gamma rays when
measured in air. Exposure should not be used when describing radiation dose in
materials other than air, and it should not be used for beta or alpha radiation (or
other charged particles).
4. Absorbed Dose
A more realistic assessment of the potential for radiation damage is provided by

the absorbed dose, or energy absorbed per unit mass of material. This is harder
to measure than exposure, but is a more meaningful quantity. Absorbed dose is
usually measured indirectly, either through measurements of exposure in air or
by calibrating the output of a chemical or electronic detector to a known quantity
of radiation.
The traditional unit of absorbed dose was originally called the radiation absorbed
dose. Now the unit is known entirely by the acronym: rad. The rad is defined as
an energy deposition of 100 ergs per gram of absorbing material.
1 rad = 100 erg / g
Smaller amounts of radiation are expressed in millirad (mrad), or 1/1000th of a

rad. One rad equals 1000 mrad.
The rad has been replaced in the SI system by the gray, Gy, which is defined as
one joule of energy departed per kilogram of absorbing material.
1 Gy = 1 J / kg and 1 Gy = 100 rad
In many low-Z materials, the absorbed dose is fairly close to the measured
exposure in air. An amount of radiation producing an exposure of one R in air will
produce an absorbed dose of 0.87 rad in air or approximately 0.92 rad in a small
volume of tissue.

Page Phy-35
January 2006
The absorbed dose in a material varies with the energy and type of radiation as
well as the depth of penetration in the material. For this reason, it is necessary to
define a set of standard measurement depths. For radiation protection purposes,
standard reference depths are 0.007 cm for skin, 0.3 cm for lens of the eye and
1 cm for “total body” or deep dose. A measurement device, such as an “optically
stimulated luminescent” (OSL) dosimeter or “thermoluminescent dosimeter”
(TLD), can be used to detect the dose at these reference depths.
5. Quality Factor (Q)
Some types of radiation (heavy particles, alphas and neutrons) have a heightened
ability to produce biological damage. These particles tend to leave dense trails of
ionization rather than diffuse ionization. The concept of quality factor was
developed to account for the differing degrees of hazard for various radiations.
The quality factor, Q, is defined as the relative effectiveness for producing
biological damage from a particular type of radiation.
Alphas and heavy particles are approximately 20 times more efficient (per unit
dose) in producing biological damage than betas or gammas. So, alphas and heavy
particles are assigned a quality factor of 20. Neutrons are approximately 10 times
more efficient than betas or gammas in producing biological damage (although
this varies with energy). Neutrons are assigned a quality factor of 10 (unless
specific corrections are made for energy). Betas and gammas are assigned a
quality factor of 1.
It must be emphasized that the potential for biological damage varies with both
the quality factor and the absorbed dose. For example, alpha particles outside the
body have a quality factor of 20 but produce zero dose in tissue (because they
cannot penetrate the outer, protective layer of the skin). On the other hand, if an
alpha emitter is taken internally, it comes in close contact with various tissues in
the body. Then, the high quality factor for alpha emitters is important. For this
reason, greater care is taken in handling alpha emitters to prevent ingestion or
inhalation of these materials.
6. Dose Equivalent
The dose equivalent includes both the energy absorbed from a specific type of
radiation (i.e., the dose in rad or Gy) and the ability of that radiation to produce
biological damage (the quality factor, Q). The relationship between dose
equivalent and absorbed dose is as follows:
Dose Equivalent = Absorbed Dose x Quality factor (Q )

The traditional unit of dose equivalent is the rem, originally called “roentgen
equivalent man.” Small dose equivalents are expressed in mrem (1 rem equals
1000 mrem).

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January 2006
Dose Equivalent ( rem) = Absorbed Dose ( rad ) x Q
Dose Equivalent ( mrem) = Absorbed Dose ( mrad ) x Q
The SI unit for dose equivalent is the Sievert, Sv.
Dose Equivalent ( Sv) = Absorbed Dose (Gy ) x Q
Since 100 rad = 1 Gy, it is also true that 100 rem = 1 Sv.
As a sample calculation, compare the dose equivalent from a 0.1 rad dose of alpha,
beta and gamma radiations:
Table 6 – Sample Dose Equivalent Calculations
Dose Quality Factor Dose Equivalent

100 mrad of Alpha Qalpha of 20 2000 mrem (2 rem).
(0.1 rads)
100 mrad of Beta Qbeta of 1 100 mrem (0.1 rem)
(0.1 rad)
100 mrad of Gamma Qgamma of 1 100 mrem (0.1 rem)
(0.1 rad).
7. Rate Units
It is often useful to know the rate at which the exposure to radiation is occurring.
Most measurement instruments are calibrated in terms of dose rate, exposure
rate or count rate. The most common radiation units of rate are:
mR/hr = exposure per unit time

mrad/hr = dose per unit time
mrem/hr = dose equivalent per unit time
cpm (counts per minute) = counts per unit time
The accrued dose (mrad), for example, would be the dose rate (mrad/hr) times the
total duration of the exposure. Keep in mind that the shorter the exposure time,
the lower the total dose:

Page Phy-37
January 2006
Table 7 – Radiation Rate Examples
Rate Time Spent in Area Total Amount Received
100 mR/hr 6 minutes (0.1 hr) 10 mR

2 mrad/hr 2 working days (8 hr/day) 32 mrad
2 mrad/hr Continual occupancy (40 4160 mrad
hrs/week and 52 weeks/yr)
Also keep in mind that a person often moves around in the workplace. The
average amount of radiation received may be much lower than what you expect
based on measurements close to the source. For example, suppose that you have
a source that produces an exposure rate of 30 mR/hr at a distance 3 inches from
the source and a rate of 0.2 mR/hr at a distance of 3 feet from the source. If you
spend 6 minutes holding the source (using forceps) and 1 hour standing 3 feet
from the source, your total exposure would be (30 mR/hr x 0.1 hr) + (0.2 mR/hr
x 1 hour), or 3.2 mR.
The units of counts per minute, cpm, can be related to the amount of radioactive
material present. This usage is appropriate for searching out trace amounts of
contamination in a lab or facility. Most detectors that are calibrated in counts per
minute are extremely sensitive to radiation. Users of these survey instruments
are sometimes deceived into believing that a high dose rate is present because
they have a measurable count rate. This is usually not true. If it is necessary to
determine an external dose rate, it better to use an ionization chamber
(measuring absorbed dose in air) than to try to convert from counts per minute to
dose. If you require information about dose rates and do not have an instrument
designed for dose measurements, you may contact the Radiation Safety Office to
arrange for this type of radiation measurement.
8. Predicting Radiation Levels
It can be extremely useful to anticipate radiation levels around a source before the
source is purchased or used. This can be the basis for evaluating shielding
requirements and the need for personnel monitors (radiation badges), as well as
for planning other safety precautions.
a. Estimation of Gamma Exposure: Specific Gamma Ray Constant (Γ)
The external radiation exposure rate (R/hr) from a gamma emitter can be
predicted from the specific gamma ray constant, Γ, for that radionuclide.
The specific gamma ray constant is defined as the exposure rate per curie of
activity at a fixed distance. The units may include distance-squared instead
of distance. At first glance, this may appear to be a misprint but it is actually

Page Phy-38
January 2006
a more precise way of specifying the conversion factor. The equation for
exposure rate is:
Γ⋅ A
X =
d2
Here, X is the exposure rate, Γ is the specific gamma ray constant, A is the
source activity, and d is the distance from the source. Note that the distance
term is squared in the denominator. This reflects inverse-r2, the decrease in
intensity with the square of the distance from the source.
The specific gamma ray factor, Γ, has been calculated for most commonly
used radionuclides. Many of these are provided in Appendix 1, Figure 7. For
radionuclides not shown in Figure 7, the specific gamma ray constant can be
determined based on the energy and the number of gammas emitted per
disintegration. A graph of specific gamma ray constant versus energy is
provided in Appendix 1, Figures 8 and 9.
As example, suppose that a desk is to be placed 6 feet from a 10 microcurie

source of iodine-131. Assume that the source container has enough material
to absorb most of the beta particles (only gamma rays are emitted). Predict
the exposure rate at the desk.
From Appendix 1, Figure 7, Γ = 2.2 R cm2 per hr per mCi. To apply this
factor, convert the source activity and distance into the same units used for
the specific gamma ray constant.
1 mCi
A (mCi ) = A( µCi ) ⋅
1000 µCi
10 µCi
here, A (mCi ) = or 0.010 mCi
1000 µCi / mCi
1 cm
D (cm) = D ( ft ) ⋅
0.0328 ft
6 ft
here, D (cm) = = 183 cm
0.0328 ft / cm

Page Phy-39
January 2006
Using consistent units:
Γ⋅ A 2.2 ( R ⋅ cm 2 / hr / mCi ) ⋅ 0.010 mCi

X = = = 6.6 x 10 − 7 R / hr
d2 (183 cm) 2
Note that the source strength would decrease with time as radioactive decay
occurs; I-131 has a half-life of 8 days. Even if new source material were
added frequently to replace the material “lost” to radioactive decay, the
worker at the desk would only receive 0.011 R in a year. Since the limit for a
radiation worker is 5 rem per year to the “whole body” (roughly the same as
5 R), this would be only 0.2% of the annual limit for radiation exposure.
Additional shielding is clearly unnecessary for this purpose.
Now, suppose that the worker is handling the 10 µCi I-131 source, which is
contained in a thick vial of plastic, 3 mm (0.3 cm) in thickness. This amount
of plastic would absorb the incident beta particles but would not stop the
gamma emissions. At contact with the vial, what would be the maximum
exposure rate to the person’s hand (assuming no beta dose)?
Γ⋅ A 2.2 ( R ⋅ cm 2 / hr / mCi ) ⋅ 0.010 mCi

X = = = 0.24 R / hr
d2 (0.3 cm) 2
The limit for occupational exposure to the extremities and skin is 50 rem per
year (about the same as 50 R per year). In this instance, it is unlikely that
the worker would receive a significant fraction of this limit unless the source
was a much higher activity or the shielding was thin enough to allow beta
particles to reach the hand. However, it is far preferable to use forceps or
tongs when holding a source (unless that radiation cannot penetrate the
source container).
Note that this example would not apply if the source material were spilled
directly on bare skin, or if the container were very thin (minimal reduction in
beta particle intensity). Calculations of skin dose from beta particles are
included in the next section.
b. Estimating Beta Dose Rates
Beta particles deposit all of their energy in a short distance (compared to

gamma rays and x-rays). This has several ramifications. First, beta particles
are relatively easy to shield. For very low energy betas (tritium), the
particles deposit all of their energy in the outer, “dead” layer of skin. None of
these low energy betas reach layers of living cells and there is no shallow dose
(dose at 0.007 cm). For nuclides with maximum beta energies of 0.15 to
0.2 MeV (C-14 and S-35), some of the higher energy betas in the source
spectrum can produce a skin dose. However, these betas are attenuated
substantially by ordinary laboratory gloves (and completely blocked by many

Page Phy-40
January 2006
standard laboratory containers). At energies greater than 0.2 MeV there is a

dose to the skin but no potential for a significant deep dose (since beta
energies less than 2 MeV are completely attenuated by less than 1 cm of
tissue).
Unfortunately, those beta particles that are capable of reaching the 0.007 cm
depth in skin are very efficient in depositing their energy (thus, producing a
dose). This is because the beta energy is deposited over a few millimeters
depth of tissue. Compare this situation to x-rays and gamma rays, which
deposit their energy in a much more diffuse manner (over many centimeters
of tissue depth). Since dose is energy deposited per unit mass of material, it
is easy to see that the less concentrated energy deposition produces a lower
dose. For unshielded beta-gamma emitters, the skin dose from the gamma
component is less than a few percent of the skin dose from the beta
component.
To illustrate the relative contribution of beta and gamma emissions, some

doses are shown below for selected beta and gamma emitters. The skin dose
was calculated for a 1 mCi point source at a distance of 10 cm from the source
(minimal shielding). The beta dose rates include shielding from air, the outer
layer of the skin, and a glove and/or thin plastic test tube. In an actual
source, the beta particles are shielded significantly within the liquid carrier
or solid matrix holding the radioactive atoms. Therefore, actual dose rates
are often much lower than the ones shown in the Table 8.
Table 8 – Calculated Dose Rates

(mrad/hr) at a 10 cm Distance from 1 mCi Sources
Beta Dose (with Various Shielding)

Max. Beta Standard Glove, Plus Gamma Skin Dose
Energy Unshielded Glove 1 mm Plastic (Shielded by Up to a
Source (MeV) Source * (5 mil)* Container* Few mm Plastic)
I-125 None None None None 7
H-3 0.0186 0 0 0 None

C-14 0.156 200 3 0 None
S-35 0.167 360 9 0 None
P-33 0.248 2300 500 0 None
I-131 0.606 5300 3900 190 22
P-32 1.71 3300 3300 2800 None

Y-90 2.27 2600 2600 2600 None
* This overestimates the dose rates because shielding within the source container and
source matrix is ignored.

Page Phy-41
January 2006
It should be emphasized that these calculations assume a 1 mCi source,

which is a fairly large activity. Most experimenters use much lower
quantities of radioactive materials. Since the dose rate is proportional to the
source activity, divide these values by 1000 to obtain the dose per microcurie
at 10 cm from the source. You can adjust the results for inverse-r2 to
estimate the dose at other distances. However, the use of inverse-r2 will
overestimate the beta dose rate at distances greater than 10 cm (since air
attenuation can provide a significant reduction in beta dose rate).
As an example, determine the worst-case skin dose to a person holding a

10 microcurie (0.010 mCi) P-32 source in a test tube. Assume that the test
tube diameter is 1 cm (radius of 0.5 cm), and ignore attenuation in the liquid:
2
⎛ 10 cm ⎞
Dose rate (mrad / hr ) ≈ (0.010 mCi) ⋅ (2800 mrad / hr per mCi at 10 cm) ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 0.5 cm ⎠
≈ 11,200 mrad / hr
As stated earlier, this is a great overestimate, since it neglects a large

amount of shielding provided by the liquid in the test tube. The inverse-R
squared calculation will also tend to overestimate the dose near a source.
However, this calculation underscores the advantage in using forceps or tongs
to hold radioactive materials (where practical) if a high-energy beta emitter is
in use. An equally effective approach might be to use some kind of plastic
“grip pad” or holder to shield the fingers from direct contact with the
container.
If beta emitters are allowed to come in contact with bare skin (from
contamination of laboratory surfaces or equipment), high skin doses may be
produced. For this reason, the primary means of protection in most
laboratory environments is the use of gloves, lab coats, and good
contamination control measures (surveys and cleanliness). Appendix 1,
Figure 10 shows the skin doses produced by an even distribution of
1 microcurie per cm2 over the surface of the skin. The protection provided by
ordinary laboratory gloves is also illustrated in the graph. Additional
information concerning contamination on skin and clothing is provided in
Appendix 1, Figure 11. Maximum beta particle ranges in selected materials
are shown in Appendix 1, Figure 12.
A lab coat and gloves are required when working with radioactive materials
(along with any additional precautions mandated by the chemical or physical
hazards present in the environment). Although it is rare, direct skin
contamination can occur through tearing of a glove or transfer of material
from a contaminated surface. If a microcurie quantity of a beta (or beta
gamma) emitter comes in contact with skin, it should be washed off as soon

Page Phy-42
January 2006
as possible. The skin dose will not exceed the allowable limits unless the
material is allowed to remain for several hours. Please contact Radiation
Safety if you have any questions about potential skin doses.
Fortunately, very few laboratories work with large quantities of radioactive

materials. While working with millicurie quantities in unsealed form, you
should always wear eyewear and two layers of gloves in addition to the
precautions outlined in the preceding paragraph. You should also be sure to
tape the wrist portion of the inner glove over the sleeve of the lab coat. This
will prevent splashes to the skin of the wrist area. Monitor for contamination
frequently, and change the outer glove if source material is splashed on the
glove. If accidental skin exposure occurs while working with millicurie
quantities of material, call Radiation Safety after washing the area and
removing contaminated protective clothing. A dose evaluation can be
performed to estimate the skin dose from the surface contamination.
In summary, beta emitters are much more easily shielded than gamma
emitters. Beta particles are not capable of penetrating tissue to reach any
internal organs (other than the skin). This makes them safer to work with
than gamma emitters in many respects. However, beta emitters greater than
0.2 MeV in energy are very efficient in producing a superficial dose to the
skin. Particular care should be taken to avoid contamination of bare skin,
since this greatly increases the dose rate.
The results of many years of personnel monitoring (ring badge) have

demonstrated that an individual is extremely unlikely to receive any
measurable skin dose unless they work with activities totaling more than
10mCi per week (of beta emitters greater than 0.2 MeV in energy). However,
the examples in this section have shown that caution is necessary when
working with radioactive materials. If you have questions about dose rates in
your lab, the best approach is to call Radiation Safety for an on-site
measurement.
F. Internal Radiation Dose

The radiation dose from radionuclides deposited internally due to inhalation, ingestion,
absorption through the skin, or from tissue puncture is often quite difficult to
determine. Since internal dosimetry involves both the physical factors of radiation
dosimetry and physiological parameters, many uncertainties enter the calculation
process. For this presentation, only a general overview of internal dosimetry will be
given.
1. Uptake
Radioactive material is taken into a person through inhalation, ingestion,

absorption, or injection. The efficiencies of uptake are dependent on the physical
and chemical forms of the material and the physiology of the individual. Uptake

Page Phy-43
January 2006
or transfer coefficients are estimated from animal studies and some human data.
These coefficients have been determined for the hypothetical "standard man," but
it must be recognized that in the real situation this will vary from individual to
individual. Variation in breathing rates, for example, are very dependent on a
person's physical condition and activity level. Eating habits may also provide
competing elements for uptake.
2. Interorgan Transfer
Materials that are taken into the body will move from one organ to another with
generally predictable transfer coefficients. This may be as simple as the transfer
of insoluble material through the G.I. tract or as complicated as the deposition of
radium or calcium in bones. An important interorgan transfer is the
concentration of radioiodine in the thyroid. As noted above, parameters for the
standard person are available, but actual individual variations may be
substantial.
3. Residence Time
The time that a radioactive material is in the body is dependent on both the
physical decay constant of the radionuclide and the biological removal mechanism
related to the chemical and physical forms. The combination of biological
elimination and physical decay is referred to as the effective decay constant and
can be easily converted to an "effective" half-life.
4. Energy Deposition
The amount of energy deposited in an organ is related to the parameters

mentioned above, but includes other factors, as well. One factor of importance is
the concentration of material in the organ. Others are the type and energy of the
radionuclide decay mode. For particulate radiation (alpha and beta), the
radiations created from decay within an organ will be absorbed close to the site of
emission. Therefore, essentially all of the particulate radiation energy created in
an organ will be absorbed in that organ.
However, for most organs and for most radionuclides, not all of the
electromagnetic radiation energy (x- and gamma rays) will be absorbed in the
organ. The absorbed fraction is related to the size of the organ and the energy of
the radiation. The absorbed fractions have been calculated for standard size
organs. Fractions are also calculated for energy absorbed in nearby organs.
Geometric computer models provide these parameters.
G. Annual Limits on Intake (ALI)

The several parameters discussed above are combined to calculate the annual limits on
intake that will result in the allowable annual dose for critical organs. These limits

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January 2006
are expressed in units of Bq or µCi. A list of ALIs is given in Appendix 1, Figure 13 for
many radionuclides in common use.
H. Annual Dose Limits

Regulatory agencies have set allowable annual dose limits for individuals receiving
radiation from manmade sources which are of no direct benefit to the individual. Due
to recent changes in the regulations, these dose limits include both internal and
external radiation doses. A discussion of the mechanism for combining internal and
external doses is beyond the scope of this presentation, but the combined dosimetry is
called total effective dose equivalent.
1. Occupational Dose Limits for Adult Workers
a. Total Effective Dose Equivalent (“Whole Body”):
The annual limit for “whole body” dose is 0.05 Sv (5 rem) based on the sum of
the external deep dose at 1 centimeter depth plus the effective dose
equivalent from any internally deposited radionuclide. For most workers,
there is no significant ingestion or inhalation of radionuclides. In these cases,
the total effective dose equivalent is equal to the deep dose recorded by the
dosimeter.
b. Lens of the Eye
The annual limit to the lens of the eye is 0.15 Sv (15 rem).
c. Skin and Extremity Dose
The annual external dose limit at 0.007 cm depth is 0.5 Sv (50 rem) to the
skin or to any extremity.
d. Other Organs
The annual limit for all other organs is 0.5 Sv (50 rem) based on the sum of
the external dose at one centimeter depth and the dose to that organ from
internally deposited radionuclides (as determined by a bioassay).
2. Occupational Dose Limits for Minors
The occupational dose limit for minors is 10% of the above limits.
3. Dose to an Embryo/Fetus of an Occupationally Exposed Person
The dose to an embryo/fetus during the entire pregnancy, due to occupational

exposure of a pregnant female that has declared her pregnancy to her employer,
must not exceed 5 mSv (0.5 rem).

Page Phy-45
January 2006
4. Dose Limits for Individual Members of the Public
The total effective dose equivalent to individual members of the public must not
exceed 1 mSv (0.1 rem) in a year. The dose to any unrestricted area from external
sources of radiation must not exceed 0.02 mSv (0.002 rem) in any one hour.
I. Natural Background and Average Population Doses

The dose we all receive continuously from natural background, occasionally from
medical practices, and from some common commercial devices are part of our total
radiation exposure. Although there are no regulations which require control of these
doses, it is important to know about them to allow a proper perspective of what we can
and should control.
1. Cosmic Radiation
Cosmic radiation comes from deep space and from the sun. Before entering our
atmosphere it consists mainly of high energy protons and heavier particles. These
particles interact in the upper atmosphere and cause "spallation" showers of
lighter particles and protons which reach the earth.
Cosmic radiation varies with the earth's latitude because of the effect of the
earth's magnetic field. Doses are lowest at the equator and increase toward the
poles. The atmosphere is a very effective shield, so cosmic doses increase with
increasing altitude. Persons who live in the mountains or fly in airplanes receive
a significant increase in cosmic radiation. Cosmic radiation increases following
solar flare activity.
The sea level whole body dose equivalent is about 30 millirem per year and
increases to about 40 mrem/yr at 1 kilometer. A jet flight across the country at
12 km altitude will result in a dose equivalent of 2.5 mrem. A polar route flight to
Europe would result in nearly 10 mrem.
Cosmic radiation also produces radioactivity which becomes part of our food and
air. Tritium, carbon-14, beryllium-7, and sodium-22 are the principle cosmogenic
radionuclides, but more than twenty others have been identified. The dose
equivalent from C-14 is about 1 mrem/year, with the others being rather
insignificant.
2. Terrestrial Radiation
There are many primordial radionuclides in the earth's crust. The most well
known are uranium and thorium. These are actually part of a whole family of
radionuclides, where one decays to the next. A total of 39 different radionuclides
are included in these families.

Page Phy-46
January 2006
Uranium and thorium and their daughter products are found in nearly all
materials, although in different concentrations. One of the most important
daughters is radon, an inert gas which is released to the atmosphere. Radon in
soils tends to be drawn into the structures of most buildings. This radon can
subsequently pose an exposure problem in the building. Humans receive a
natural radiation dose from two processes: a) the external radiation emitted from
decay outside of the body, and b) the internal dose from inhalation and ingestion.
Because of this, natural background radiation is higher when living in certain
structures that are conducive to buildup of radon gas, and in certain areas of the
country that have porous soil or high concentrations of primordial radionuclides in
the surrounding materials.
Terrestrial activity contributes an external whole body dose equivalent of around

30 millirem per year in coastal cities but is as high as 140 mrem/year in some
Colorado locations. The additional dose equivalent to the epithelial cells of the
lungs resulting from radon daughter inhalation is around 2400 millirem per year.
3. Internally Deposited Radionuclides
Another important primordial radionuclide is potassium-40. All potassium

contains about 0.012% K-40. Because it is so widely spread and is incorporated
into the muscle mass, K-40 contributes a major part of man's natural background
radiation, about 40 millirem per year.
4. Natural Background Radiation Dose Equivalent
The average annual natural background radiation exposure in the United States
is about 300 millirem per year. This includes cosmic radiation, terrestrial
radiation, and naturally occurring radionuclides. The actual effective dose
equivalent varies widely from location to location, primarily from fluctuations in
radon concentration and building materials. Elevated natural background
radiation levels are present in areas where there are naturally high uranium
concentrations in the soil (e.g., some areas of Colorado and eastern Washington
State).
5. Medical Radiations
A major component of man's radiation dose comes from medical applications.

Medical applications such as x-ray or nuclear medicine procedures are restricted
to a certain segment of the population which varies from year to year. Also, the
exposure involves only portions of the body, and an x-ray beam is attenuated as it
passes through the body. Current medical practice also involves the use of
radiation in very high doses to destroy cancer cells. However, this occurs to only a
small population and the tissues exposed usually represent a small portion of the
body. For these reasons, it is difficult to assign an average effective dose
equivalent to the population from medical procedures, but a generally accepted
number is 50 millirem per year.

Page Phy-47
January 2006
6. Miscellaneous Dose
Many common materials and equipment emit radiation. These include smoke
detectors, luminescent watch dials, mantles for gas lanterns, aircraft exit signs,
some tableware, and anti-static devices. This generally accounts for an average
population effective dose equivalent of about 10 millirem per year. Appendix 1,
Figure 14 lists the radioactivity in many of these devices.
Other activities such as the occupational use of radiation, the nuclear fuel cycle,
and radioactive fallout account for 1 to 2 millirem per year to the average
population.
7. Total Average Population Doses
The total average effective dose equivalent to the U.S. population resulting for
both manmade exposures and natural background radiation is about 360 millirem
per year.

Page Phy-49
January 2006
Abbreviations and Symbols
A activity of a group of atoms
A mass number (nucleons)
ALI annual limits on intake
amu atomic mass unit
Bq becquerel = 2.7 x 10-11 Ci or 1 disintegration per second
c velocity of light
Ci curie
E energy
EC electron capture
esu electrostatic unit
eV electron volt
GBq Gigabecquerel
GeLi germanium lithium crystal
Gy gray = 100 rad (rad – unit of radiation absorbed dose)
h Planck’s constant
HVL half-value layer
I.C. internal conversion
keV kiloelectron volt
kCi kilocurie
LET linear energy transfer = keV per micron
MBq Megabecquerel
MeV million electron volt
µCi microcurie (10-6 curie)
mCi millicurie (10-3 curie)

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January 2006
nCi nanocurie (10-9 curie)
pCi picocurie (10-12 curie)
P.E. photoelectric effect
N neutron number (number of neutrons)
Q quality factor
Q value total decay energy
R roentgen
rad radiation absorbed dose
rem traditional unit of dose equivalent = absorbed dose (rad) times a quality factor (Q)
SI international system of units
Sv sievert = 100 rem (rem - unit of dose equivalent)
t½ half-life
TLD thermoluminescent dosimeter
TVL tenth-value layer
v velocity
Z atomic number (number of protons)
Γ specific gamma ray constant
λ wavelength

Page Phy-51
January 2006
Glossary
absorbed dose: The amount of energy absorbed per unit mass of material at the place of
interest. The unit of absorbed dose is the rad. One rad equals 100 ergs per gram.
activity: The rate of decay; the number of atoms that decay per unit of time.
alpha particle: A charged particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons (same as a
helium nucleus).
annihilation radiation: Radiation produced when a particle unites with its antimatter
equivalent, such as an electron and a positron. The particles disappear and two
gamma rays are emitted (in opposing directions).
atom: The smallest subdivision of matter which retains the chemical properties of an
element.
atomic mass: The mass of an uncharged atom of a nuclide, usually expressed in terms of
“atomic mass units.” The “atomic mass unit” is one-twelfth the mass of one neutral
atom of carbon-12; equivalent to 1.66 x 10-24 gram.
atomic mass number (A): The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.
atomic number: The number of protons in an atom. Represented by the symbol Z.
attenuation: The reduction in intensity when a beam of radiation passes through a

material.
becquerel: The international system of unit for activity, equal to one disintegration per
second.
beta particle: An energetic electron which has been emitted from the nucleus of an atom,
during radioactive decay.
bremsstrahlung: Secondary photon radiation produced in the form of x-rays by

deceleration of charged particles passing through matter.
Compton scattering: Scattering of a photon by a loosely bound electron. Part (or all) of
the energy and momentum of the incident photon is transferred to the electron and the
remaining part is carried away by the scattered photon.
contamination (radioactive): Deposition of radioactive material in any place where it is

not desired.

Page Phy-52
January 2006
coulomb: A quantity of charge equaling one ampere per second. One coulomb is
equivalent to the charge of 1.60 x 1019 electrons.
cosmic rays: High-energy particulate and electromagnetic radiations which originate

outside the earth’s atmosphere.
counter - Geiger-Mueller: Highly sensitive, gas-filled radiation-measuring device.

Operating at voltages sufficient to produce avalanche ionizations. Each count
corresponds to one particle interacting in the detector.
counter - proportional: Gas-filled radiation detection device. The pulse produced is

proportional to the number of ions formed in the gas by the primary ionizing particle.
counter - scintillation: An extremely sensitive measuring device which operates

through the detection of light emissions produced in phosphors.
curie (Ci): The traditional unit of activity. One curie equals 3.700 x 1010 disintegrations
per second. Several fractions of the curie are in common usage.
millicurie – mCi = 3.7 x 107 disintegrations per second

microcurie -µCi = 3.7 x 104 disintegrations per second
picocurie – pCi (or micro micro curie - µµCi) = 3.7 x 10-2 disintegrations per second
= 2.22 disintegrations per minute.
decay (radioactive): Disintegration of the nucleus of an unstable nuclide by spontaneous
emission of charged particles and/or photons.
decay constant: The probability of decay per unit time for a given radionuclide.
dose equivalent: Includes both the energy absorbed from a specific type of radiation and
the general effectiveness of that radiation to cause biological damage.
dose rate: Absorbed dose delivered per unit time.
dosimeter: A small device used to detect and measure accumulated radiation exposure.
electron: A negatively charged particle with a mass of 9.1 x 10-28 grams.
electron capture (EC): A mode of radioactive decay involving the capture of an orbital
electron by the nucleus followed by the emission of characteristic x-rays.
electron volt (eV): A unit of energy equivalent to the energy gained by an electron in
passing through a potential difference of one volt. Larger multiple units of the electron
volt are frequently used: keV for thousand or kilo electron volts; MeV for million or
mega electron volts. One electron volt equals 1.6 x 10-12 erg.
erg: Unit of energy equal to 10-7 joules or 2.4 x 10-8 thermal calories.
excitation: The addition of energy to a system, resulting in an increase in the atomic or

molecular energy level (without the removal of orbital electron).

Page Phy-53
January 2006
gamma ray: Short wavelength electromagnetic emitted from the nucleus during
radioactive decay; a photon.
gray: The international system of units for absorbed dose defined as one joule of energy
absorbed per kilogram of material.
half-life (biological): The time required for the body to eliminate one-half of an
administered dosage of any substance by regular processes of excretion. It is
approximately the same for both stable and radioactive isotopes of a particular
element.
half-life (effective): Time required for a radioactive element in an animal body to be

diminished 50 percent as a result of the combined action of radioactive decay and
biological elimination.
half-life (radioactive): Time required for 50% of the atoms to undergo radioactive decay
within a sample of a given radionuclide.
half-value layer (HVL): The thickness of a specified substance which, when introduced
into the path of a given beam of radiation, reduces the gamma ray intensity by 50%.
internal conversion: A form of radioactive decay where the decay energy normally seen
as a gamma ray is imparted directly to an orbital electron. The electron is emitted
with a discreet kinetic energy equal to the decay energy minus the binding energy of
the electron.
inverse square law: For a point source of radiation, the dose rate is inversely
proportional to square of the distance from the source.
ion chamber: Gas-filled radiation detection device with a relatively low voltage, which
can be calibrated to measure dose or dose rate directly.
ion pair: An electron and positively charged ion created by the interaction of ionizing
radiation with the atom.
ionization: The formation of one or more ions by the addition of electrons to or the
removal of electrons from electrically neutral atoms. Ionization may be produced by
radiation or through other physical and chemical interactions.
ionizing radiation: Electromagnetic or particulate radiation with sufficient energy to

create ionization (produce ion pairs) in a material.
isobar: Nuclides having the same mass number but different atomic numbers, such as
I-131 and Xe-131.
isometric transition: Radionuclide decay to a daughter which remains in an excited

state for some time, perhaps minutes to hours. The excitation energy is later released
as a gamma ray.

Page Phy-54
January 2006
isotopes: Atoms having the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Isotopes always share the same element name and atomic number.
linear absorption coefficient (µ): A factor expressing the fraction of a beam of x or

gamma radiation absorbed in unit thickness of material.
mass absorption coefficient (µ/ρ): The linear absorption coefficient divided by the
density of the material. It is frequently expressed in cm2 per gram.
monitoring: Periodic or continuous determination of the amount of ionizing radiation or

radioactive contamination present in an occupied region.
neutrino: An electrically neutral particle of very small (probably zero) mass emitted
during beta decay.
neutron: An electrically neutral or uncharged particle of matter in the nucleus with a

mass of 1.67 x 10-24 grams (1.009 amu).
neutron number: The number of neutrons in an atom. Represented by the symbol N.
nucleon: Major categories of particles (protons and neutrons) within the nucleus of an
atom.
nucleus: The dense, positively charged core of an atom, which accounts for most of the
mass in an atom.
nuclide: A term used to denote any species of atom without reference to a particular
element or grouping.
photoelectron: An electron ejected from an atom when all the energy of a photon is
deposited in an inner shell electron.
photon: The basic packet of electromagnetic energy, generally regarded as having the
properties of a wave as well as a particle. It has a discrete frequency but no charge or
rest mass.
positron: A particle of the same mass (Me) as an electron, but has a positive (+1) charge.
It is an antimatter electron.
proton: Elementary nuclear particle with a positive electric charge equal numerically to
the charge of the electron and a mass of 1.67 x 10-24 grams (1.007 amu).
quality factor (Q): A factor expressing the relative effectiveness of a particular kind of
radiation in producing biological damage.
rad: An energy deposition of 100 ergs per gram (or 0.01 joule per kilogram) of absorbing
material
radionuclide: An atom having a combination of neutrons and protons which cause the
nucleus to be unstable.
rem: Unit of dose equivalent equal to the number of rads (absorbed dose) times the quality
factor (Q).

Page Phy-55
January 2006
roentgen (R): A radiation unit, expressing ionization in air by x-rays or gamma rays. It is
equal to the charge per unit mass produced in air. One roentgen equals 2.58 x 154
coulombs per kilogram of dry air.
shield: Material used to reduce the intensity from a source of radiation.
sievert (Sv): Unit of dose equivalent equal to the number of gray (absorbed dose) times
the quality factor (Q). One sievert is equal to 100 rem.
specific gamma ray constant (Γ): The external radiation exposure rate per unit of
activity at a fixed distance. It is often expressed in R/hr per mCi at one centimeter or
in R/hr per Ci at one meter.
wavelength (λ): Distance between any two similar points of two consecutive waves. For
electromagnetic radiation, the wavelength is equal to the velocity of light (c) divided by
the frequency of the wave (λ), λ= c/v.
work function (W): The average energy required to produce an ion pair in a material.
For air, it is about 33.7 eV.
x-rays: Photons similar to gamma rays which are produced by interactions outside the
nucleis of atoms. These may be produced by transitions between orbital electron shells
or by angular deceleration of electrons in a material.

Page Phy-56
January 2006
Energy Units
Multiply # of by to obtain # of
To obtain # of by divide # of
eV 1.6021 x 10-12 ergs

eV 1.6021 x 10-19 joules (abs)
eV 10-3 keV
eV 10-6 MeV
ergs 10-7 joules (abs)
ergs 6.2419 x 105 MeV
ergs 6.2419 x 1011 eV
ergs 1.0 dyne-cm
ergs 9.480 x 10-11 Btu
ergs 7.376 x 10-8 ft-lb
ergs 2.390 x 10-8 g-cal
ergs 1.020 x 10-3 g-cm
gm-calories 3.968 x 10-3 Btu
gm-calories 4.184 x 107 ergs
joules (abs) 107 ergs
joules (abs) 0.7376 ft-lb
joules (abs) 9.480 x 10-4 Btu
g-cal/g 1.8 Btu/lb
kg-cal 3.968 Btu
kg-cal 3.086 x 103 ft-lb
ft-lb 1.356 joules (abs)
ft-lb 3.240 x 10-4 kg-cal
kw-hr 2.247 x 1019 MeV
kw-hr 3.60 x 1013 ergs
MeV 1.6021 x 10-6 ergs
eV 1.78253 x 10-33 grams of matter (equivalent)
eV 1.07356 x 10-9 amu (equivalent)
erg 1.11265 x 10-21 grams of matter (equivalent)
proton masses 938.256 MeV of energy (equivalent)
neutron masses 939.550 MeV of energy (equivalent)
electron masses 511.006 keV of energy (equivalent)
amu (on 12C scale) 931.478 MeV of energy (equivalent)

Page Phy-57
January 2006
Radiological Units
Multiply # of by to obtain # of
To obtain # of by divide # of
curies 3.700 x 1010 disintegrations per second (Bq)

curies 2.220 x 1012 disintegrations per minute
curies 103 millicuries
curies 106 microcuries
curies 109 nanocuries
curies 1012 picocuries
curies 10-3 kilocuries
disintegrations per minute 4.505 x 10-10 millicuries
disintegrations per minute 4.505 x 10-7 microcuries
disintegrations per second (Bq) 2.703 x 10-8 millicuries
disintegrations per second (Bq) 2.703 x 10-5 microcuries
kilocuries 103 curies
microcuries 3.700 x 104 disintegrations per second (Bq)
microcuries 2.220 x 106 disintegrations per minute
millicuries 3.700 x 107 disintegrations per second (Bq)
millicuries 2.220 x 109 disintegrations per minute
R 2.58 x 10-4 C/kg of air
R 1.0 esu/cm3 of air (s.t.p.)
R 2.082 x 109 ion pairs per cm3 of air (s.t.p.)
R 1.610 x 1012 ion pairs per gram of air
R (33.7 eV per ion pair) 7.02 x 104 MeV per cm3 of air (s.t.p.)
R (33.7 eV per ion pair) 5.43 x 107 MeV per gram of air
R (33.7 eV per ion pair) 86.9 ergs per gram of air
R (33.7 eV per ion pair) 2.08 x 10-6 g-cal per gram of air
R (33.7 eV per ion pair) ≈ 98 ergs per gram of soft tissue
rads 0.01 Joule per kilogram
rads 100 ergs per gram
rads 8.071 x 104 MeV per cm3 of air (s.t.p.)
rads 6.242 d 107 MeV per gram
rads 10-5 watt-second per gram
rad (33.7 eV per ion pair) 2.39 x 109 ion pairs per cm3 of air (s.t.p.)
µCi per cm3 (µCi per ml) 2.22 x 1012 dpm per m3
µCi per cm3 2.22 x 109 dpm per liter

Page Phy-58
January 2006
Hazard Information for Common Radionuclides
Hydrogen-3 (Tritium):
External Concerns
Half-life 12.3 years
Emission Beta (-)
Maximum beta energy 0.019 MeV
Average beta energy 0.006 MeV
Beta range in tissue 0.0006 cm
Fraction transmitted through dead

layer of skin (0.007 cm) 0%
Dose rate to basal cells of epidermis

from 1 µCi/cm2 in contact with skin 0.0 mrad/hr
Method of detection Liquid scintillation counter
Note: Not an external hazard.
Internal Concerns
Physical half-life 12.3 years
Biological half-life 10 days
Effective half-life 9.98 days
Critical organ Body water (all organs)
ALI 80 mCi
Increased clearance Increased water intake
Note: Many tritium compounds are volatile or can penetrate the skin. Tritiated
DNA precursors are considered more toxic than tritiated water, however,
they are less volatile.

Page Phy-59
January 2006
Carbon-14:
External Concerns
Half-life 5730 years
Emission Beta (-)
Fraction transmitted through dead 11%

layer of skin (0.007 cm)
Dose rate to basal cells of epidermis 1.4 rad/hr

from 1 µCi/cm2 in contact with skin
Method of detection Liquid scintillation counter

(GM has poor efficiency)
Note: Millicurie quantities of C-14 should not present a significant external

exposure if gloves are worn, since the low-energy betas barely penetrate
the combined thickness of the glove and the outer layer of skin.
Internal Concerns
Physical half-life 5730 years
Biological half-life few minutes to 35 days
Effective half-life 10 days used as a conservative value
Critical organ bone or fat
ALI 2 mCi
Note: Many C-14 compounds are rapidly metabolized and exhaled as CO2.
Some compounds are eliminated via the urine.

Page Phy-60
January 2006
Sulfur-35:
External Concerns
Half-life 88 days
Emission Beta (-)
Fraction transmitted through 12%

dead layer of skin (0.007)

from 1 µCi/cm in contact with skin
Method of Detection Liquid scintillation counter

(GM has poor efficiency)
Note: Millicurie quantities of S-35 should not present a significant external

exposure hazard if gloves are worn, since the low-energy betas barely
penetrate the combined thickness of the glove and the outer layer of skin.
Internal Concerns
Physical half-life 88 days
Biological and effective half-lives Depends on chemical form. Some

excreted rapidly; some remains for
more than 2000 days.
Critical organ Soft tissues
ALI 10 mCi

Page Phy-61
January 2006
Phosphorus-32:
External Concerns
Half-life 14.3 days
Emission Beta (-)

dead layer of skin (0.007 cm)

Method of detection GM counter or liquid scintillation

counter
Note: High energy betas can produce a substantial skin dose. Large quantities
of P-32 can present a significant bremsstrahlung hazard.
Internal Concerns
Physical half-life 14.3 days
Biological and effective half-lives Complex. Some excreted rapidly; some

retained permanently in bone.
Critical organs Bones for soluble P-32, and lungs or

intestines for inhaled or ingested
non-soluble compounds.
ALI 0.6 mCi

Page Phy-62
January 2006
Phosphorus-33:
External Concerns
Half-life 25.4 days
Emission Beta (-)

dead layer of skin (0.007 cm)
Dose rate to basal cells of epidermis 4 rad/hr

Method of detection GM counter or liquid scintillation

counter
Note: Betas penetration can be significant. Moderate external hazard.
Internal Concerns
Biological and effective half-lives Complex. Some excreted rapidly; some

retained permanently in bone.
Critical organs Bones for soluble P-33, and lungs or

intestines for inhaled or ingested
non-soluble compounds.
ALI 6 mCi (ingestion)

Page Phy-63
January 2006
Iodine-125:
External Concerns
Half-life 60 days
Emission Electrons, gammas, x-rays
Average electron energy 0.020 MeV
Gamma 0.035 MeV (6.5%)
X-rays 0.027 MeV (112%); 0.031 MeV (25.4%)
R/hr per mCi at 1 cm (gamma) ~ 0.7
Half-value layer (lead) < 0.04 mm
Method of detection Thin NaI (TI) crystal detector or liquid

scintillation counter. GM counter
has poor efficiency.
Internal Concerns
Physical half-life 60 days
Biological half-life 120 days in thyroid; 12 days other body

tissues
Effective half-life 40 days in thyroid
Critical organ Thyroid
ALI 0.04 mCi
Note: Elemental iodine and some iodine compounds are volatile. 25% to 30% of
ingested or inhaled iodine is taken up by thyroid.

Page Phy-64
January 2006
Iodine-131:
External Concerns
Half-life 8.05 days
Emission Beta (-), gamma
Maximum beta energy 0.606 MeV (89%)
Gammas 0.364 MeV (81%); others: 0.03 to 0.72

MeV (22%)
R/hr per mCi at 1 cm 2.2

Half-value layer (lead) 3 mm
Method of detection GM, NaI (TI) detectors or liquid

scintillation counter.
Internal Concerns
Biological half-life 120 days in thyroid; 12 days other body

tissues
Effective half-life 7.5 days in thyroid
Critical organ Thyroid
ALI 0.03 mCi
Note: Elemental iodine and some iodine compounds are volatile. 25% to 30% of
ingested or inhaled iodine is taken up by the thyroid.

Page Phy-65
January 2006
Appendix 1

Page Phy-67
January 2006
Figure 1

Page Phy-68
January 2006
Figure 2
Average and Maximum Beta Energy by Radionuclide
Nuclide Energy in MeV Nuclide Energy in MeV Nuclide Energy in MeV

Average Maximum Average Maximum Average Maximum
N -1 0.301 --- C1-39 0.847 3.450 Ni-63 0.017 0.066

H -3 0.005 0.018 Ar-39 0.219 0.565 Cu-64 0.188 0.573
He-6 1.571 3.515 K -40 0.541 1.322 Ni-65 0.667 2.100
Be-10 0.229 0.555 Ar-41 0.479 2.515 Ni-66 0.064 0.224
C -14 0.049 0.158 K -42 1.446 3.559 Cu-66 1.062 2.630
C -15 2.871 9.775 K -43 0.301 1.838 Cu-67 0.146 0.577
O -19 1.708 4.601 Ca-45 0.076 0.254 Cu-68 1.284 3.000
O -20 1.242 2.850 Sc-46 0.112 1.465 Zn-69 0.324 0.913
F -20 2.486 5.403 Ca-47 0.341 2.000 Ga-70 0.644 1.650
F -21 2.624 5.683 Sc-47 0.160 0.601 Zn-71 0.921 2.240
Ne-23 1.903 4.372 Sc-48 0.220 0.643 Zn-71A 0.580 1.500
Ne-24 0.794 1.980 Ca-49 0.758 1.984 Zn-72 0.116 1.600
Na-24 0.553 4.170 Sc-49 0.826 2.011 Ga-72 0.429 3.166
Na-25 1.510 3.801 Sc-50 1.538 3.500 Ga-73 0.433 1.480
Na-26 3.124 6.700 Ti-51 0.870 2.142 Ga-74 1.021 4.300
Mg-27 0.689 1.763 V -52 1.069 2.532 As-74 0.405 1.355
Mg-28 0.155 0.457 V -53 1.068 2.530 Ga-75 1.425 3.300
A1-28 1.244 2.868 V -54 1.438 3.300 Ge-75 0.404 1.137
A1-29 1.034 2.500 Cr-55 1.220 2.850 Ga-76 2.741 6.000
A1-30 2.307 5.050 Cr-56 0.587 1.500 As-76 1.085 2.970
Si-31 0.588 1.476 Mn-56 0.860 2.850 Ge-77 0.637 2.270
Si-32 0.028 0.100 Mn-57 1.099 2.600 Ge-77A 1.198 2.880
P -32 0.694 1.709 Fe-59 0.116 1.560 As-77 0.221 0.684
P -33 0.076 0.248 Fe-60 0.069 0.240 Ge-78 0.317 0.900
P -34 2.075 5.100 Co-60 0.094 1.478 As-78 1.471 4.270
S -35 0.048 0.167 Co-60A 0.604 1.545 As-79 0.945 2.300
Cl-36 0.252 0.714 Fe-61 1.193 2.800 Se-79 0.058 0.158
S -37 0.795 4.750 Co-61 0.463 1.231 Br-80 0.748 2.000
S -38 0.463 3.000 Co-62 0.983 2.831 As-81 1.663 3.800
C1-38 1.515 4.924 Co-63 1.577 3.600 Se-81 0.531 1.400
A = First excited state

Page Phy-69
January 2006
Figure 2 continued

Br-82 0.137 0.444 Nb-94 0.156 0.500 Rh-107 0.425 1.201

Se-83A 1.379 3.400 Nb-94A 0.480 1.300 Pd-107 0.013 0.035
Br-83 0.335 0.960 Zr-95 0.115 1.130 Ru-108 0.466 1.320
Br-84 1.221 4.680 Nb-95 0.046 0.930 Rh-108 1.821 4.500
Br-84A 0.709 3.200 Y -96 1.507 3.500 Ag-108 0.624 1.650
Rb-84 0.582 1.648 Nb-96 0.244 0.707 Pd-109 0.359 1.025
Br-85 1.037 2.500 Zr-97 0.713 1.910 Ag-110 1.176 2.869
Kr-85 0.249 0.672 Nb-97 0.464 1.267 Ag-ll0A 0.070 0.530
Kr-85A 0.284 0.826 Tc-98 0.086 0.300 Pd-111 0.848 2.130
Rb-86 0.622 1.777 Nb-99 1.359 3.200 Ag-111 0.360 1.050
Br-87 1.872 8.000 Mo-99 0.398 1.215 Pd-112 0.078 0.277
Kr-87 1.334 3.800 Tc-YY 0.085 0.295 Ag-112 1.438 4.040
Rb-87 0.079 0.274 Nb-l00A 1.450 4.200 In-112 0.211 0.656
Kr-88 0.367 2.600 Mo-101 0.419 2.230 Pd-113 1.397 3.300
Rb-88 2.084 5.177 Tc-101 0.478 1.320 Ag-113A 0.787 2.000
Kr-89 1.395 3.920 Mo-102 0.436 1.200 Cd-113A 0.181 0.575
Rb-89 0.596 3.920 Tc-102 1.835 4.200 Pd-114 0.519 1.400
Sr-89 0.583 1.470 Tc-102A 0.792 2.000 Ag-114 2.018 4.600
Sr-90 0.200 0.544 Rh-102 0.144 0.470 In-114 0.776 1.984
Y -90 0.931 2.245 Tc-103 1.025 2.500 Ag-115 1.249 2.900
Kr-91 1.561 3.600 Ru-103 0.062 0.710 Cd-115 0.318 1.110
Rb-91 1.849 4.200 Tc-104 0.978 2.400 Cd-115A 0.605 1.631
Rb-91A 1.271 3.000 Rh-104 0.988 2.441 In-115 0.201 0.630
Sr-91 0.624 2.665 Rh-104A 0.451 1.240 In-115A 0.281 0.838
Y -91 0.615 1.548 Ru-105 0.415 1.870 Ag-116 2.211 5.000
Sr-92 0.213 1.500 Rh-105 0.167 0.563 In-116 1.387 3.290
Y -92 1.454 3.600 Ru-106 0.009 0.039 In-116A 0.294 1.000
Y -93 1.185 2.890 Rh-106 1.415 3.541 Cd-117A 0.348 1.000
Zr-93 0.015 0.063 Rh-106A 0.345 1.620 In-117 0.245 0.745
Y -94 2.368 5.320 Ru-107 1.637 4.008 In-117A 0.641 1.764

Page Phy-70
January 2006
Figure 2 continued

Cd-118 0.267 0.800 Sb-128A 0.346 1.000 Cs-139 1.600 4.000

In-118 1.754 4.250 I -128 0.791 2.120 Ba-139 0.910 2.340
In-118A 0.560 1.500 Sb-129 0.729 1.870 Ba-140 0.282 1.010
In-119 0.605 1.600 Te-129 0.498 1.590 La-140 0.490 2.200
In-119A 1.061 2.650 I -129 0.040 0.150 Ba-141 1.158 2.833
In-120 0.876 2.200 I -130 0.276 1.020 La-141 0.958 2.430
In-121 1.202 2.900 Cs-130 0.132 0.442 Ce-141 0.144 0.580
In-121A 1.582 3.700 Te-131 0.723 2.141 La-142 1.823 4.250
Sn-121 0.111 0.383 Te-131A 0.183 2.457 Pr-142 0.829 2.153
Sn-121A 0.150 0.420 I -131 0.180 0.810 La-143 1.374 3.300
Sb-122 0.527 1.971 Te-132 0.047 0.220 Ce-143 0.371 1.380
In-123 1.391 3.300 I -132 0.512 2.920 Pr-143 0.314 0.933
In-123A 2.013 4.600 Te-133 0.964 2.400 Ce-144 0.081 0.320
Sn-123 0.455 1.260 Te-133A 0.567 2.400 Pr-144 1.208 2.984
Sn-123A 0.540 1.420 I -133 0.418 1.540 Ce-145 0.773 2.000
Sb-124 0.385 2.313 Xe-133 0.099 0.343 Pr-145 0.682 1.799
Sb-124A 1.340 3.200 I -134 0.663 2.410 Ce-146 0.224 0.700

Sb-124B 1.012 2.500 Cs-134 0.152 1.453 Pr-146 1.292 3.780
Sn-125 0.914 2.330 Cs-134A 0.170 0.550 Pm-146 0.233 0.725
Sn-125A 0.788 2.040 I -135 0.319 1.433 Nd-147 0.227 0.810
Sb-125 0.084 0.612 Xe-135 0.307 0.919 Pm-147 0.062 0.225
Sb-126 0.737 1.900 Cs-135 0.057 0.210 Pm-148 0.682 2.450
St-126A 0.737 1.900 Cs-136 0.108 0.657 Pm-148A 0.150 0.680
I -126 0.298 1.250 Xe-137 1.522 3.600 Nd-149 0.428 1.500
Sb-127 0.375 1.500 Cs-137 0.195 1.167 Pm-149 0.364 1.071
Te-127 0.223 0.695 Xe-138 0.961 2.400 Pm-150 0.762 3.122
Te-127A 0.263 0.730 Cs-138 1.095 3.400 Eu-150 0.309 1.070
Sb-128 0.199 2.900 La-138 0.056 0.205 Nd-151 0.617 1.995

Page Phy-71
January 2006
Figure 2 continued

Average Maximum Average Maximum Averag Maximum
e
Pm-151 0.312 1.200 Er-169 0.096 0.340 W -188 0.256 0.800
Sm-151 0.019 0.077 Ho-170 1.257 3.100 Re-188 0.776 2.116
Pm-152 0.858 2.200 Tm-170 0.315 0.967 Re-189 0.237 0.750
Eu-152 0.288 1.840 Er-171 0.355 1.490 Re-190 0.556 1.700
Eu-152A 0.696 1.876 Tm-171 0.025 0.098 Re-191 0.661 1.800
Pm-153 0.614 1.650 Tm-172 0.511 1.830 Os-191 0.036 0.139
Sm-153 0.233 0.804 Tm-173 0.296 0.900 Ir-192 0.175 0.670
Pm-154 0.995 2.500 Tm-174 0.980 2.500 Ir-192A 0.431 1.500
Eu-154 0.228 1.850 Tm-175 0.757 2.000 Os-193 0.350 1.127
Sm-155 0.558 1.530 Yb-175 0.125 0.467 Ir-194 0.775 2.233
Eu-155 0.044 0.247 Tm-176 1.761 4.200 Os-195 0.746 2.000
Sm-156 0.175 0.730 Lu-176 0.104 0.362 Ir-195 0.297 1.000
Eu-156 0.425 2.447 Yb-177 0.465 1.380 Au-196 0.071 0.259
Tb-156A 0.037 0.140 Lu-177 0.140 0.497 Ir-197 0.642 2.000
Eu-157 0.366 1.270 Lu-178 0.886 2.300 Pt-197 0.303 0.670
Eu-158 0.060 2.650 Lu-178A 0.539 1.500 Ir-198 1.457 3.600
Tb-158 0.271 0.845 Lu-179 0.476 1.350 Au-198 0.315 1.371
Eu-159 0.855 2.200 Lu-180 1.339 3.300 Au-199 0.084 0.460
Gd-159 0.294 0.948 Ta-180A 0.201 0.705 Au-200 0.669 2.210
Eu-160 1.499 3.600 Hf-181 0.119 1.050 Au-201 0.519 1.500
Tb-160 0.189 1.700 Hf-182 0.149 0.500 Au-203 0.698 1.900
Gd-161 0.584 1.599 Ta-182 0.094 0.524 Hg-203 0.057 0.212
Tb-161 0.155 0.577 Hf-183 0.496 1.400 Tl-204 0.267 0.765
Ho-164 0.319 0.990 Ta-183 0.191 0.776 Hg-205 0.590 1.650
Dy-165 0.440 1.280 Ta-184 0.419 1.360 Tl-206 0.557 1.571
Dy-165A 0.275 0.840 Ta-185 0.624 1.718 Tl-207 0.503 1.441
Dy-166 0.060 0.400 W -185 0.124 0.427 Tl-208 0.562 2.380
Ho-166 0.610 1.852 Ta-186 0.838 2.200 Tl-209 0.733 1.990
Ho-166A 0.088 1.100 Re-186 0.941 1.066 Pb-209 0.195 0.637
Ho-168 0.716 1.900 W -187 0.236 1.307 Pb-210 0.005 0.161

Page Phy-72
January 2006
Figure 2 continued

Average Maximum Averag Maximum Average Maximum
e
Bi-210 0.390 1.161 Ac-231 0.765 2.100 Np-240A 0.662 2.156
Pb-211 0.443 1.390 Th-231 0.059 0.305 Np-241 0.458 1.360
Bi-211 0.181 0.600 Th-233 0.410 1.230 Pu-241 0.005 0.021
Pb-212 0.106 0.586 Pa-233 0.063 0.568 Am-242 0.188 0.630
Bi-212 0.783 2.255 Th-234 0.046 0.193 Am-244 0.510 1.500
Pb-214 0.214 0.980 Pa-234 0.146 0.500 Am-244A 0.107 0.380
Fr-223 0.382 1.150 Pa-234A 0.515 1.500 Am-245 0.287 0.910
Ra-225 0.089 0.320 Np-236 0.476 1.400 Pu-246 0.053 0.330
Ac-226 0.400 1.200 Np-236A 0.149 0.518 Bk-248 0.194 0.650
Ra-227 0.444 1.310 U -237 0.067 0.248 Cm-249 0.282 0.900
Ac-227 0.010 0.043 Np-238 0.206 1.240 Bk-249 0.026 0.102
Ra-228 0.014 0.055 U -239 0.401 1.210 Cf-253 0.073 0.270
Ra-230 0.401 1.200 Np-239 0.135 0.723 Es-254A 0.331 1.040
Ac-230 0.807 2.200 U -240 0.101 0.360
Pa-230 0.117 0.410 Np-240 0.280 0.890
Source: O.H. Hogan, P. E. Zigman, and J. L. Mackin, II. Spectra of Individual

Negatron Emitters (Beta Spectra, USNRDL-TR-802 [San Francisco: U.S. Naval
Radiological Defense Laboratory, Dec. 16, 1964]).

Page Phy-73
January 2006
Figure 3
Decay Schemes
Hydogen-3 3
1H (12.3 y)
Qβ− = 0.0186 MeV

0.0
β − 100%
3
Stable 2
He
Carbon-14 14
C (5730y)
6
Q β− = 0.1561 MeV
0.0
β − 100%
14
Stable 7
N
15
Oxygen-15 8O (124 s)
QEC = 2.76 MeV *
β + 100%
0.0
15
Stable 7
N
* Maximum β + Energy = QEC - 1.022 MeV

Page Phy-74
January 2006
Figure 3 continued
18
Fluorine-18 F (109.7 m)
9
QEC = 1.655 MeV *

EC 3%
β + 97%
0.0
18
Stable O
8
Sodium-24 24
(15.0 h)
11 Na
β - 99+% 4.122
γ2
Q β = 5.51 MeV
−
1.37
γ1
0.0
24
Stable 12 Mg

Page Phy-75
January 2006
Figure 3 continued
32
Phosphorus-32 P (14.3 d)
15
Q β− = 1.710 MeV
β − 100%
0.0
32
Stable 16
S
Phosphorus-33 33
15
P (25.4d)
Q β− = 0.248 MeV
β − 100% 0.0
33
Stable 16
S
Sulfur-35 35
S (88 d)
16
Q β− = 0.167 MeV
β− 100% 0.0
35
Stable 17
Cl

Page Phy-76
January 2006
Figure 3 continued
45
Calcium-45 Ca (165 d)
20
Qβ− = 0.252 MeV

β− 100% 0.0
45
Stable 21
Sc
Chromium-51 51
Cr (27.8 d)
24
0.3198 EC1 9%
QEC = 0.752 MeV
γ1
EC2 91%
0.0
51
Stable 23 V
Iron-55 55
26
Fe (2.6 y)
QEC = 0.232 MeV

0.0
EC 100%
55
Stable 25 Mn

Page Phy-77
January 2006
Figure 3 continued
Cobalt-60 60
Co (5.26y)
27
2.5057
β 1− 99+%
γ1
Q β− = 2.819 MeV
1.3325
β 2− 0.1%
γ2
0.0
60
Stable 28 Ni
Copper-64 64
29 Cu (12.8 h)
β - 38%
EC1 0.5%
Qβ = 0.573 MeV
−
1.34
64
Stable 30
Zn
EC2 43% QEC = 1.678 MeV *
γ1
β + 19%
0.0
64
Stable 28 Ni

Page Phy-78
January 2006
Figure 3 continued
Zinc-65 65
Zn (245 d)
30
1.115
EC1 49%
EC2 49% QEC = 1.35 MeV*

γ1
β +1 1.7%
0.0
65
Stable 29
Cu
Strontium-90 90
Sr (28.8 y)
38
Qβ− = 0.546 MeV

β − 100%
0.0
90
39 Y (64 h)
(subsequent decay from Y-90 to Zr-90)
Yttrium-90 90
39 Y (64 h)
Qβ− = 2.27 MeV
β1− 99+%
0.0
90
Stable 40 Zr

Page Phy-79
January 2006
Figure 3 continued
Molybdenum-99 and Technicium-99m
99
42 Mo (67h)
β −1 0.3% 1.11
γ11 0.922
β −2 17%
γ10
γ9
γ8 γ
Q β− = 1.37 MeV 7
0.513
β − 3 1.0%
IT
γ6 0.1811
β −4 82%
0.1427 99m
43
Tc (6.04h)
γ5 γ 0.1405
4 γ
3 γ2 γ1
0.0
99
43
Tc (2.12x105 y)
Indium-111 111
49
In (2.81 d)
EC 99+%
0.419 QEC = 1.1 MeV
γ1
0.247
γ2
0.0
111
Stable 48 Cd

Page Phy-80
January 2006
Figure 3 continued
Iodine-125 125
53 I (60 d)
0.0355
γ1 EC 100%
QEC = 0.149 MeV
0.0
125
Stable 52Te
Iodine-131
131
53
I (8.05d)
β −1 1.6% 0.7229
β −2 6.9%
0.6370
β −3 0.5%
γ9 0.5030
Q β− = 0.970 MeV γ8
β −4 90.4% γ7 0.3645
γ6 γ5
β −5 0.6% γ4 0.1772
0.1639 131m
γ3 54 Xe (11.8 d)
γ2 0.0801
γ1 0.0
131
Stable 54
Xe
Cesium-137 137
55 Cs (30.0y)
β −1 93.5%
0.6616 137m
Q β− = 1.176 MeV 56
Ba (2.55 m)
β −2 6.5% γ
0.0
137
Stable 56
Ba

Page Phy-81
January 2006
Figure 3 continued
Thallium-201 201
81 Tl (73 h)
EC1 34%
0.1674 QEC = 0.41 MeV
γ5 γ4 γ 0.0321 EC2 8.0%
3 γ2 γ 0.0016
1
0.0 EC3 58%
201
Stable 80 Hg
Radium-226 226
88 Ra (1602 y)
Q α = 4.894 MeV
α 1 5.4%
0.1857 α 2 94.6%
γ 0.0
222
86 Rn (3.82 d)

Page Phy-82
January 2006
Figure 4
Radioactive Decay, Semi-Log Plot

0 to 7 Half-Lives

Page Phy-83
January 2006
Figure 4 continued
Radioactive Decay, Semi-Log Plot

6 to 13 Half-Lives

Page Phy-84
January 2006
Figure 5

Page Phy-85
January 2006
Figure 5 continued

Page Phy-86
January 2006
Figure 6

Page Phy-87
January 2006
Figure 6 continued

Page Phy-88
January 2006
Figure 7
Gamma Radiation Levels for One Curie of Some Radionuclides*
Nuclide Γ† Nuclide Γ† Nuclide Γ†

Actinium-227 ~2.2 Gold-198 2.3 Potassium-43 5.6
Antimony-122 2.4 Gold-199 ~0.9 Radium-226 8.25
Antimony-124 9.8 Hafnium-175 ~2.1 Radium-228 ~5.1
Antimony-125 ~2.7 Hafnium-181 ~3.1 Rhenium-186 ~0.2
Arsenic-72 10.1 Indium-114m ~0.2 Rubidium-86 0.5
Arsenic-74 4.4 Iodine-124 7.2 Ruthenium-106 1.7
Arsenic-76 2.4 Iodine-125 ~0.7 Scandium-46 10.9
Barium-131 ~3.0 Iodine-126 2.5 Scandium-47 0.56
Barium-133 ~2.4 Iodine-130 12.2 Selenium-75 2.0
Barium-140 12.4 Iodine-131 2.2 Silver-110m 14.3
Beryllium-7 ~0.3 Iodine-132 11.8 Silver-111 ~0.2
Bromine-82 14.6 Iridium-192 4.8 Sodium-22 12.0
Cadmium-115m ~0.2 Iridium-194 1.5 Sodium-24 18.4
Calcium-47 5.7 Iron-59 6.4 Strontium-85 3.0
Carbon-11‡ 5.9 Krypton-85 ~0.04 Tantalum-182 6.8
Cerium-141 0.35 Lanthanum-140 11.3 Tellurium-121‡ 3.3
Cerium-144 ~0.4 Lutecium-177 0.09 Tellurium-132 2.2
Cesium-134 8.7 Magnesium-28 15.7 Thulium-170 0.025
Cesium-137 3.3 Manganese-52 18.6 Tin-113 ~1.7
Chlorine-38‡ 8.8 Manganese-54 4.7 Tungsten-185 ~0.5
Chromium-51 0.16 Manganese-56 8.3 Tungsten-187 3.0
Cobalt-56 17.6 Mercury-197 ~0.4 Uranium-234 ~0.1
Cobalt-57 0.9 Mercury-203 1.3 Vanadium-48 15.6
Cobalt-58 5.5 Molydenum-99 ~1.8 Xenon-133 0.1
Cobalt-60 13.2 Neodymium-147 0.8 Ytterbium-175 0.4
Copper-64 1.2 Nickel-65 ~3.1 Yttrium-88 14.1
Europium-152 5.8 Niobium-95 4.2 Yttrium-91 0.01
Europium-154 ~6.2 Osmium-191 ~0.6 Zinc-65 2.7
Europium-155 ~0.3 Palladium-109 0.03 Zirconium-95 4.1
Gallium-67 ~1.1 Platinum-197 ~0.5
Gallium-72 11.6 Potassium-42 1.4
* Jaeger, R. G., et al., Engineering Compendium on Radiation Shielding, Vol. 1, (New

York: Springer-Verlag, 1968), pp. 21-30.
† Γ = R-cm2/hr-mCi or Γ/10 = R/hr at 1 m/Ci
‡ A Manual of Radioactivity Procedures (National Bureau of Standards Handbook No. 80
[Washington, D.C.: Supt. Of Docs., U.S. Government Printing Office, Nov. 1961],
Appendix A, pp. 137-140.

Page Phy-89
January 2006
Figure 8
Specific Gamma Ray Constants for Monoenergetic Photons

Page Phy-90
January 2006
Figure 9

Page Phy-91
January 2006
Figure 10

Page Phy-92
January 2006
Figure 11
Beta Emitters
Column 2: The contamination level maintained on the skin for a 24 hour day
to deliver 0.5 rem/year to the basal layer. Multiply by 17.52 to get level which
gives 1 mrem/hour. For a single event during the year, the initial level required
to deliver 0.5 rem in the following year can be higher by a factor of 17 [1 +
(15/T1/2)] where T1/2 is the radioactive half-life of the radionuclide in days.
Column 3: The contamination distributed through a clothing thickness of 23

mg/cm2 to deliver an annual dose of 0.5 rems to the basal layer of the skin if
the clothing is worn continuously.
(2) (3) (2) (3)
Radio- Skin Clothing Radio- Skin Clothing
nuclide Dose Dose nuclide Dose Dose
nCi / cm2 nCi / cm2
Beta Emitters Rb-87 0.010 0.060
C-14 0.040 0.400 Sr-89 0.007 0.009
Na-22 0.007 0.010 Sr-90 0.008 0.020
P-32 0.007 0.007 Y-90 0.007 0.009
S-35 0.040 0.400 Y-91 0.007 0.009
Cl-36 0.007 0.010 Zr-95 0.009 0.020
Ca-45 0.020 0.070 Nb-95 0.030 0.200
Ca-47 0.007 0.010 Mo-99 0.007 0.009
Sc-46 0.009 0.020 Tc-99 0.010 0.050
Sc-47 0.008 0.010 Ru-103 0.020 0.100
Sc-48 0.007 0.010 Ru-106 0.007 0.010
V-48 0.010 0.020 Rh-105 0.008 0.020
Mn-52 0.020 0.020 Ag-110m 0.020 0.300
Fe-59 0.008 0.010 Ag-111 0.007 0.010
Co-58 0.040 0.080 Cd-115m 0.007 0.009
Co-60 0.010 0.030 Cd-115 0.007 0.010
Ni-65 0.007 0.008 In-114m 0.007 0.009
As-74 0.010 0.010 In-115 0.008 0.020
As-76 0.007 0.009 Sn-125 0.007 0.009
As-77 0.007 0.010 Sb-122 0.007 0.008
Br-82 0.008 0.020 Sb-124 0.006 0.008
Rb-86 0.007 0.009 Sb-125 0.007 0.010

Page Phy-93
January 2006
Figure 11 continued
(2) (3) (2) (3)

Radio- Skin Clothing Radio- Skin Clothing
nuclide Dose Dose nuclide Dose Dose
nCi / cm2 nCi / cm2
Beta Emitters continued Electron Capture and Internal
Transition Decay
Te-127m 0.007 0.010 Cr-51 1.000
Te-129m 0.007 0.010 Mn-54 0.200
Te-131m 0.008 0.008 Fe-55 1.000
Te-132 0.005 0.007 Co-57 0.600
I-126 0.010 0.020 Ni-59 0.400
I-129 0.020 0.100 Zn-65 0.200
I-131 0.007 0.010 Ge-71 0.900
Cs-134 0.008 0.020 As-73 0.900
Cs-135 0.020 0.100 Se-75 0.300
Cs-136 0.010 0.030 Sr-85 0.300
Cs-137 0.008 0.020 Tc-96 0.070
Ba-140 0.007 0.010 Tc-97 1.000
La-140 0.006 0.010 Ru-97 0.500
Ce-141 0.008 0.020 Pd-103 1.000
Ag-105 0.400
Cd-109 0.700
Sn-113 0.500
Cs-131 1.000
Ba-131 0.400
Gd-153 1.000
W-181 2.000

Page Phy-94
January 2006
Figure 12

Page Phy-95
January 2006
Figure 13
Annual Limits on Intake (ALI) for Occupational Exposures
Lung Clearance Class: D (days) W (weeks) Y (years)
Nuclide Inhalation Limit Lung Ingestion Limit

(Half-life) µCi (MBq) Form Class µCi (MBq) Form
3
H 80,000 (3000) Water vapor -- 80,000 (3000) All forms
[tritium]
(12.35 y)
14
C 2000 (90) Organic forms -- 2000 (90) Organic forms
(5730 y) 2 x 10 5
(60,000) Monoxides
2 x 106 (8,000) Dioxides
32
P 400 (10) Phosphates W 600 (20) All forms
(14.29 d) 900 (30) All others D
33
P 3000 (100) Phosphates W 6000 (200) All forms
(25.4 d) 8000 (300) All others D
35
S 20,000 (600) Sulfates & Sulfides D 10,000 (400) Inorganic forms
(87.44 d) 2000 (80) Elemental W 6000 (200) Elemental
10,000 (500) Vapor (gases) --
45
Ca 800 (30) All forms W 2000 (60) All forms
(163 d)
51
Cr 20,000 (700) Oxide & hydroxide Y 40,000 (1000) Trivalent state
(27.7 d) 20,000 (900) Halides & nitrates W 40,000 (1000) Hexavalent state
50,000 (2000) All others D
59
Fe 500 (20) Oxide, hydroxide & W 800 (30) All forms
(44.53 d) 300 (10) halides
All others D
64
Cu 20,000 (800) Oxide & hydroxide Y 10,000 (400) All forms
(12.7 h) 20,000 (900) Sufites, halides W
&nitrates
30,000 (1000) All others D
65
Zn 300 (10) All forms Y 400 (10) All forms
(243.9 d)
67
Ga 10,000 (400) Oxide, hydroxide, W 7000 (300) All forms
(78.26 h) carbides, halides,
nitrates
10,000 (500) All others D
85
Sr 2000 (60) SrTiO3 Y 3000 (90) Soluble salts
(64.84 d) 3000 (100) All others D 4000 (100) SrTiO3

Page Phy-96
January 2006
Figure 13 continued
Nuclide Inhalation Limit Lung Ingestion Limit

(Half-life) µCi (MBq) Form Class µCi (MBq) Form
99m
Tc 2 x 105 (9000) Oxide, hydroxide, W 80,000 (3000) All forms
(6.02 h) halides & nitrates
5
2 x 10 (6000) All others D
99
Mo 1000 (50) Oxide, hydroxide & Y 1000 (40) MoS2
(66 h) MoS2
3000 (100) All others D 2000 (60) All others
109
Cd 100 (4) Oxide & hydroxide Y 300 (10) All inorganic forms
(464 d) 100 (4) Sulfates, halides & W
nitrates
40 (1) All others D
111
In 6000 (200) Oxide, hydroxide, W 4000 (200) All forms
(2.83 d) halides & nitrates
6000 (200) All others D
115m
Cd 100 (5) Oxide & hydroxide Y 300 (10) All inorganic forms
(44.6 d) 100 (5) Sulfates, halides & W
nitrates
50 (2) All others D
123
I 6000 (200) All forms D 3000 (100) All forms
(13.2 h)
125
(60.14 d)
131
(8.04 d)
192
Ir 200 (8) Oxide & hydroxide Y 900 (40) All forms
(74.02 d) 400 (10) Halides, nitrates & W
metallic form
300 (10) All others D

Principles of Radiation Protection
Radiation Exposure from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources
Average Average
No. of Annual Dose Annual
People Equivalent to Population
Exposed in the Exposed Dose
Source the United Population Remarks Equivalent Remarks
States
Unwanted Byproduct X Rays
Television Receivers 100,000,000 0.7-1.5 mrem 0.5 mrem Gonadal dose equivalent
(male)
0.2-0.4 mrem
(female)
Cold Cathode Gas Discharge < 500,000 < 1 mrem Primarily high school students < 2.5 urem Gonadal dose equivalent
Tubes
Electron Microscopes 4,400 50 mrem Ranges from 50-200 mrem/y 2-10 urem Whole-body dose
Whole-body dose equivalent equivalent
Figure 14
Intentional X Rays
Airport Inspection Systems 10,000,000 22 :rem Gonadal dose equivalent 1 u:rem Gonadal dose equivalent
Personnel Scanning Unknown 0.25-800 mrem Gonadal dose equivalent Unknown
Systems Very small 30-170 mrem Pelvic exposure Unknown
Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscopes per exposure
Processed Radioactive Materials
Radioluminous Products
Luminous Wristwatches 10,000,000 3 mrem 226Ra gonadal dose equivalent 150 :rem 226Ragonadal dose
16,000,000 0.6 mrem 3H whole-body dose equivalent 50 :rem equivalent
Section 1 – Basic Radiation Physics

2,000,000 < 1 mrem 147Pm gonadal dose equivalent < 10 urem 3H whole-body dose
Pocket Watches 20,000 6 mrem 226Ra gonadal dose equivalent ~ 0.5 urem equivalent
147Pm gonadal dose
Clocks 20,000,000 < 1 mrem 3H or 147Pm whole-body dose < 100 urem equivalent
10,000,000 < 7-9 mrem equivalent 226 Ra whole-body
dose ~ 0.3-0.5 Gonadal dose equivalent
Aircraft Instruments Unknown 1-5 rem equivalent Whole-body dose

226Ra dials from World War II mrem equivalent
January 2006
Page Phy-97
aircraft, Whole-body dose
whole-body Unknown equivalent
Figure 14

January 2006
Page Phy-98
Average Annual Avg Annual

No. of People Dose Equivalent Population
Exposed in the to the Exposed Dose
Source United States Population Remarks Equivalent Remarks
Processed Radioactive
Materials 800,000 1-100 mrem Whole-body dose equivalent 4-400 µrem Whole-body dose equivalent
continued
Check Sources 100,000 1 µrem Whole-body dose equivalent <<< 1 µrem Whole-body dose equivalent
Static Eliminators Very small < 0.1 mrem Gonadal and whole-body dose < 10 µrem Whole-body dose equivalent
Spark Gap- equivalent to user Whole-body dose equivalent
Irradiators 10,000,000 0.03-1.5 mrem Whole-body dose equivalent 1-45 µrem
Gas and Aerosol

Detectors
Personnel Dosimeters
Containing
Thorium: 375 0.2 mrem Whole-body dose 0.1 mrem Whole-body dose equivalent
Dosimeter Distributors equivalent for 20 year
and 150,000 1.3 mrem
Handlers 375 0.1 mrem 22 u:rem Gonadal dose equivalent
Dosimeter Wearers old thorium
Several 0.0002 mrem
Detector Replacers Presently used outside U.S.A.
None 0-25 urem 0 u:rem
Radiator Disposers Whole-body dose equivalent
Identification Cards
Natural Radioactive
Materials 50,000,000 8 rem Maximum estimated dose 2 rem Bronchial epithelial dose
Tobacco Products equivalent to equivalent
small areas of the bronchial
100,000,000 7 mrem epithelium at segmental 3.5 mrem Whole-body dose equivalent

Building Materials bifurcations
Whole-body dose equivalent;
5,000,000 4 mrem does not 0.1 mrem Gonadal dose equivalent
Highway and Road include lung irradiation from
222Rn
Construction Materials
daughters
Gonadal dose equivalent
Natural
Radioactive
Materials 50,000,000 0.25-4 mrem Lung dose equivalent 0.5-1 mrem Lung dose equivalent
Combustible Fuels 18,000,000 2-40 :rem Lung dose equivalent to people < 4 :rem Lung dose equivalent
Coal exposed within a radius of 10
Oil miles of an oil-burning plant
Average Avg Annual
No. of People Annual Dose Population
Exposed in Equivalent to Dose
Source the United the Exposed Remarks Equivalent Remarks
States Population
Natural Radioactive Materials
Natural Gas
Cooking Ranges 125,000,000 6-9 mrem Bronchial epithelial dose 5 mrem Bronchial epithelial dose
equivalent equivalent
Unvented Heaters 16,000,000 22 mrem Bronchial epithelial dose
Bronchial epithelial dose 2 mrem equivalent
equivalent
Natural Gas (Nuclear None < 1 mrem This whole-body dose equivalent is 0 mrem Whole-body dose
Stimulated) (projected) in addition to that received from equivalent
non-nuclear stimulated natural
Figure 14 continued
gas
Glass and Ceramics
Uranium in Dental Porcelain 45,000,000 60 rem Delivered to the superficial layers 10-15 rem Basal mucosal dose
of tissue in contact with these equivalent
teeth and subject to alpha
(Dentures and Crowns) << 1 rem radiation
Delivered from the uranium beta <<0.25 rem Basal mucosal dose
~ 0.1 rem radiation equivalent
Delivered from the potassium-40 ~ 0.02 rem
Unknown 1-4 rem beta radiation Basal mucosal dose
Delivered to germinal cells of the Unknown equivalent
cornea, assuming glass is in
compliance with federal

regulations
Ophthalmic Glass (Eyeglasses)

Miscellaneous Exposure Sources
High Voltage Vacuum Switches 40,000 < 30 mrem Gonadal dose equivalent. Higher 6 :rem Whole-body dose
doses are predicted for those who equivalent
test these devices; see text
Contaminated Raw Materials Very small Up to Dose is highly localized Unknown
thousands
January 2006
Page Phy-99
of rem
Aircraft Transport of 6,000,000 0.2 mrem Whole-body dose equivalent 7 :rem Whole-body dose
Radioactive Materials equivalent

Section 1: Basic Radiation Physics

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BASIC RADIATION PHYSICS

UW Environmental Health and Safety

A. Atomic and Nuclear Structure

2. Protons and Neutrons (Nucleons)

The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons. Protons have a positive (+ 1)

UW Environmental Health and Safety

4. Atomic Number, and Atomic Mass Number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic

The number of neutrons in an atom is called the neutron number and is

Table 1 illustrates the relation of A, Z and N for several atoms.

Table 1 – Examples of Z, N, and A

Atomic No. Neutron No. Mass No.

Standard nomenclature is used to identify atoms of different types. The chemical

UW Environmental Health and Safety

6. Nuclides, Isotopes, Isobars

It is convenient to classify atoms by similarities with other atoms. The term

As stated earlier, an element is a group of nuclides with the same number of

Hydrogen-1 (1 proton, 0 neutrons, A=1) 1

Hydrogen-2 (1 proton, 1 neutron, A=2) 2

Hydrogen-3 (1 proton, 2 neutrons, A=3) 3

UW Environmental Health and Safety

Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atom releases matter

Radioactive decay has applications in research, cancer therapy and medical

2. Stability and Instability

• The mass of the atom.

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• Even versus odd numbers of nucleons.

Consider the case of a radionuclide with a very short half-life, sodium-25.

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(H-3). Tritium has a half-life of 12.3 years. The corresponding decay

It is easy to see that a radionuclide with a short half-life will undergo

For convenience, radioactivity is measured in units of activity, or the

The International System of Units (Système International, or SI) utilizes a

Table 2 – Units of Activity

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Mathematically, the activity (A) is equal to the number of radioactive atoms

If the activity of a particular radionuclide is measured as a function of time, it

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As an example, consider the decay of iodine-131. This radionuclide has a

Initial Activity: A0 = 10 mCi

Elapsed time: t = 1 month

Since the half-life is listed in days,

Calculated decayed activity:

Some forms of ionizing radiation consist of subatomic particles ejected from

Table 3 – Examples of Particulate Radiation

Beta (-) β− Electron -1 0.000549 amu

Positron, or β+ Positron (antimatter +1 0.000549 amu

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b. X-rays and Gamma Rays

Other types of radiation are electromagnetic. Electromagnetic radiation

5. Types of Radioactive Decay

Alpha decay tends to occur in heavy radionuclides (massive nuclei). The

An example of alpha decay is Ra-226:

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An example of beta decay is H-3:

c. Electron Capture (EC)

The vacancy left by electron capture must be filled. An electron from a

An example of electron capture decay is Cr-51:

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A 0.32 MeV gamma is emitted in 9% of the Cr-51 decay processes. Weaker x-

A positron has the same mass as an electron but is opposite in charge. As it