AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

ISSN Print: 2156-1540, ISSN Online: 2151-1559, doi:10.5251/ajsms.2014.5.2.44.53

© 2014, ScienceHuβ, http://www.scihub.org/AJSMS

A Non-Topographic Photogrammetric Approach to Monitoring Total

Suspended Solids (TSS)in Environmental Control Dams in the Ahafo Ano
District of Ghana
J. Ayer, S.K.Y Gawu, and S.A. Zakaria
ABSTRACT
Terrestrial-based remotely sensed data were utilized in this study to monitor Total Suspended solids
(TSS) in Environmental Control Dams and the Tano River at Ahafo-Kenyasi in Ghana. Two
algorithms were used to relate TSS with Spectrum Reflectance computed from DN values which
were extracted from digital photographs. The geometric mean Reflectance extracted for three bands
(red, blue and green) was used in this analysis. A modified optical model that accounted for
backscattering and also a polynomial Regression model were modeled using reflectance and in-situ
TSS values. Validation was made by finding correlation of estimated TSS with measured TSS. The
high correlation coefficients (0.95 with a standard deviation of 2.03mg/l) for the modified optical
model and (0.92 with standard deviation 2.08mg/l) obtained for the polynomial model showed that
non-topographic photogrammetry (Simple Digital Camera) can be used for water quality
measurements. A method was developed based on both models to compute or predict TSS values
from image data. These values were compared with EPA threshold of 50mg/L, to warn on the safety
of decanting the water trapped in these dams into streams and rivers. TSS maps of a water dam,
upstream and downstream of the Tano River was also produced for planning and environmental
monitoring.
Keywords: Environmental Control Dams, Total Suspended Solids, Non-Topographic
Photogrammetry, Water Quality, Surface Mining.
INTRODUCTION also damage fish directly by irritating or scouring their
gills, or by reducing the success of visual predators
Human activities like surface mining and farming in the
(Chapman, 1996).
catchments of streams and rivers generate lots of
sediments that can have detrimental effect on water Several studies have shown that suspended sediments
bodies. This ever growing threat of sediment are the most common pollutants of surface waters
generation, transport and deposition in water bodies (Robinson, et al., 1971; Lal, 1994). Suspended
could lead to pollution and degradation of water quality sediments increase the radiance emergent from
in streams and rivers. Surface mining, for example, surface waters in the visible and near-infrared portions
despite contributing to the development of many of the electromagnetic spectrum (Ritchie, et al., 1976,
economies such as that of Ghana, also comes along Ritchie, et al., 2003; Lindell, et al., 1999). In situ,
with significant landscape modifications. Some of these controlled measurements have shown that surface
landscape modifications include the disruption of water radiance is affected by sediment type, texture,
natural drainage patterns, the exposure of soils to and color (Novo et al., 1989; Binding et al., 2005,
erosion, and the transport of detrimental sediments to Mohammed, et al., 2003)
valuable aquatic environments. Such degradation of
The Tano River in Ghana, together with most of its
water quality would mean less availability of water for
tributaries, drains through or close to surface mine sites
humans and ecosystems.(Meybeck, 2004).
in the Ahafo-Kenyasi Newmont mining concession area
Transport of sediments into surface waters has both and as such, mining sediments could be deposited in
physical and chemical consequences for water quality these streams. To offset this, there is the need to put in
and aquatic ecosystem health; For example, place adequate control measures to monitor and
suspended solids interfere with fresh water since high manage sediment load and associated contaminations.
turbidity can decrease the amount of available sunlight Developing sediment quality guidelines to control the
and limit the production of algae and macrophytes that toxic effects due to mine sediments in aquatic
sustain aquatic life (Ashbolt, et al., 2001; Budd, et al., ecosystems in Ghana is mandated law and this is
2001) Fish habitats become degraded as spawning enforceable by the Ghana Environmental Protection
gravels become filled with fine particles which restrict Agency (EPA). However, implementing, monitoring and
the oxygen supply for buried eggs. Turbid waters may managing these guidelines require continuous currency

data.
Most mining companies have in place some sediment
control measures that include the construction of water
management systems consisting of upslope diversion
ditches, onsite collection ditches, and sediment ponds
sometimes called Environmental Control Dams
(ECD’s). These control measures are aimed at the
retention of hazardous materials and controlling
detrimental sedimentation, as near to the source as
possible instead of their direct discharge into streams.
The dams are then monitored until suspended particle
levels in them fall below allowable thresholds for safe
water quality prior to their decanting into natural
streams.
Monitoring of dams has been mostly through
conventional sampling methods which provide spot
checks at sampled stations followed by time consuming
and expensive laboratory tests. In this method, design
fraction sediments are normally settled out of
suspension, checked against a threshold limit of
50mg/L (EPA Ghana, 2001) to determine safe
discharge into the natural drainage system. As water
clarity correlates well with water quality (Nelson et al.,
2002; Low Hui Xiang et al., 2011), clarity or
transparency measurements, based on the Secchi disk
transparency (SDT) device used in open waters
of lakes, bays, and the oceans to obtain Seechi depths
,are related to the water turbidity. The Suspended
Solids Meter model 3150 (Insite Instrumentation Group
Inc, 2012) used currently in the monitoring of Total
Suspended Sediments (TSS) are improved forms of
the SDT device.
Due to the time consuming nature of collecting samples
including the risk of getting to sample points not close to
river banks before conducting laboratory tests on
results, remote sensing, with its capacity for extensive
spatial and frequent temporal coverage of an area, is
considered after some research as an ideal alternative
to shipboard sampling. Satellite remote sensing
methods has the ability to derive the optical
characteristics of water and provide both spatial and
temporal information on changes in the water quality
parameters investigated in a cost-effective, easier,
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Am. J. Soc. Mgmt. Sci., 2014, 5(2): 44-53
faster and less labour intensive manner and could
provide data for multiple dams, rivers or lakes within a
single image (Lathrop et al., 1991, Rodríguez-Guzmán
and Gilbes-Santaella, 2003, Lim et al., 2013,
Mohammad et al., 2003). Water quality mapping by
using remote sensing data provides adequately good
result at a relatively cheaper cost (Yunpeng Wang, et
al., 2004).
However, in tropical countries, acquisition of cloud
free images for the remote sensing technique to be
applied is itself a major challenge hence the use of
terrestrial photography could be explored instead.
This study employed the application of a
non-topographic photogrammetry approach to the
monitoring of TSS in the Ahafo Ano District of Ghana
and develops a model (x-monitor) Fig 7, which derives
the TSS values from DN or reflectance values. The
system provides a quick, cost effective, continuous and
spatially unbiased information on TSS and warns on
the quality of the water by comparing the TSS
concentration with EPA thresholds to give indication to
safety decants of water from ECD’s into rivers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials: A Sumsung digital camera with suitable
zoom for taking photographs of the water surfaces and
a Garmin 60csx GPS for establishing the position of
each sampling location provided coordinates for
geo-referencing the photographs.
Study area: The area of study is located at Ahafo
Kenyasi in the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana, about
forty kilometers south of the Regional capital city
Sunyani (Fig 1),within the geographical coordinate
limits of 6°57’36”N, 2°18’29” W and 6°58’00”N,
2°22’00”W. The dams under study labeled ECD X,
ECD A, ECD B and ECD C in Fig 1 were constructed by
Newmont mining company. The area is drained by the
Tano river and its tributary rivers, the Subri, Subika and
Awonsu, all of which receive discharges from the dams.
The dominant mine spoil facilities in addition to the
dams, located within this area are, three active open
pits, the processing plant, stockpile of mined ore and
waste rock heaps the tailings dam.

Fig.1: Area of study depicting Environmental Control Dams.
METHODOLOGY
This study aimed at establishing an empirical
relationship between in situ TSS measurements and
water reflectance values obtained from terrestrial
photographs of lakes and dams. Terrestrial
photographs from a Samsung digital camera were
taken from which the digital numbers of each sample
point is obtained. These values are converted to
reflectances which are matched with their
corresponding in situ TSS values. A Garmin 60csx GPS
was used to geo-locate the position of each sampling
point. Sampling locations were carefully selected to
cover a wide range of TSS concentrations and to be
representative of the study area. Coordinates of
sampled stations that were clearly identified on the
photographs were utilized as controls for
geo-referencing. The sample gathering sites were
specifically selected to be points completely identifiable
on the photographs downstream from discharge points.
At each sampling site, water was collected with a
dark-colored bottle from depths of 0 and 2 m and was
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Am. J. Soc. Mgmt. Sci., 2014, 5(2): 44-53
taken in situ for further analysis in the laboratory
Digital number extraction: Sampling stations were
identified in the photographs and DN or brightness
values extracted from the digital camera images. These
values were matched with their corresponding TSS
values (Table 1). For each of the images, DN values
were obtained for the Red, Blue and Green bands and
the Geometric Mean Reflectance (GMR) of the three
bands were computed and used. The choice of the
geometric mean as the band combination method was
occasioned due to the fact that its values are unaffected
by extreme values but it represents a sequential
correction that will terminate whenever a zero value
would occur.
Optical Model of Water with photogrammetric
data: Fig 2 shows a plot of TSS values against
Reflectance for all bands whilst Fig 3 shows a plot of
TSS against Geometric Mean Reflectance. As seen
from the figures, the geometric mean shows a good
trend representation of the TSS against reflectance
values. A physical model relating radiance of water

column concentrations to water quality provide the
most effective way of analysing remotely sensed data
in water quality studies as investigated by several
investigators. Kirk, 1984, Stumpf, and Pennock, 1989,
Doxaran, et al., 2002. For a case involving water quality
component, TSS, the equation given by Gallie and
Murtha, 1992 was modified by Lim et al.,2011 into a
simple regression model given by
1 + 𝑎0 𝑅𝜆
𝑇𝑆𝑆 =
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑅𝜆
Table 1: Extracted DN values and computed reflectance (Digital camera)
Fig. 2: Plot of TSS against Reflectance values
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Am. J. Soc. Mgmt. Sci., 2014, 5(2): 44-53
Where a0, a1 and a2 were the algorithmic coefficients
that can be solved empirically and Rλ is the reflectance
at wavelength λ. This model is subsequently
implemented as a TSS prediction software X-monitor
that can subsequently receive reflectance values to
predict corresponding TSS. The plot of TSS against
reflectance fig 3 further suggests a polynomial
regression fit. This polynomial model is also
implemented on the data in Table 1.

Fig.3: Geometric mean Reflectance (GMR) and Actual TSS values (digital camera)
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Using values in Table 1, the modified optical model
1+4.50937𝑅𝜆
yields; 𝑇𝑆𝑆 = ; and for the polynomial regression model RMS value of
0.107302+0.004458𝑅𝜆
and with a regression coefficient of r2 =0.95
The polynomial approach yields; 𝑇𝑆𝑆 = −22.031𝑅𝜆 +
29.904𝑅𝜆2 + 33.152𝑅𝜆 + 9.1423 , with a regression
coefficient r2 = 0.92
The efficiency of the implemented algorithms is
investigated based on the observations of correlation
coefficient (R) and root-mean-square deviations
(RMS).
These results show that both models fit well
comparatively although the modified optical model (r2 =
0.95) gives a slightly better fit than the polynomial
regression r2 = 0.92. Differences between estimated
and measured TSS values for both models also show
no significant differences (Table 2).
Table 2, shows estimated values from both models and
their deviations from measured in-situ values. The
modified optical model produced a Root Mean Square
(RMS) value of 2.031mg/l whilst the polynomial
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Am. J. Soc. Mgmt. Sci., 2014, 5(2): 44-53
regression model produced RMS value of 2.078mg/l.
The results from the validation of the models produced
for the modified optical model, RMS value of 1.733mg/l
1.570mg/l.
The implemented algorithm is used to produce TSS
colour coded maps over the study area. Figures 4, 5,
and 6. These maps show a continuous spatial
distribution of water quality. The maps were generated
using the Geosoft 3D modeling software. The upstream
Tano water quality map Fig. 5 shows values ranging
between 4.6 and 21.7 mg/L. These are below the
threshold value of 50mg/L, an indication that the water
quality is within acceptable limits. The Tano
downstream water quality map Fig. 6 shows TSS
values ranging between 4.6 and 15.4 mg/L. This range
is also below the threshold value of 50mg/L and an
indication that the quality of the water is within
acceptable limits.
 Am. J. Soc. Mgmt. Sci., 2014, 5(2): 44-53

Table 2: Estimated TSS and deviations for modified optical and polynomial regression models

Estimated TSS Estimated TSS Deviations from Deviations from

Actual TSS(mg/l) (physical model) (regression model) physical model. regression model
13 12 11.4 -1 -1.6
16 13.7 13 -2.3 -3
19 19.7 19.1 0.7 0.1
21 21.9 21.5 0.9 0.5
17 14.6 13.8 -2.4 -3.2
18 15.6 14.8 -2.4 -3.2
20 21.9 21.4 1.9 1.4
22 23.1 22.8 1.1 0.8
30 28.7 29.2 -1.3 -0.8
23 25.6 25.6 2.6 2.6
29 24.6 24.5 -4.4 -4.5
27 27.3 27.6 0.3 0.6
10 12.5 11.8 2.5 1.8
5 3.3 5.1 -1.7 0.1
7 5.2 6.2 -1.8 -0.8
6 6.5 7.1 0.5 1.1
Sample standard deviations 2 2.1

Fig. 4: TSS map of water dams in project area (Dec.2011).

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Fig. 5: TSS. of section of Tano upstream (March-2013)

Fig. 6: TSS map of Tano downstream (Digital camera, March 2013)

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Fig. 7: The X-Monitor interface

Data validation: The values in Table 3 show actual deviations obtained for each. Four digital camera
TSS values and modelled values based on the two images taken at different dates were used for validation
different mathematical formulations together with the of the models.

Table 3: Validation results from physical and regression models.

DATE Actual TSS(mg/l) Est. TSS Model 1 Est. TSS Model 2 Dev. From model 1 Dev. From model 2
4-Sep 14 13.99422215 13.23057714 0.769422856 0.005777848
12-Sep 18 21.71665139 21.25059565 -3.250595651 -3.716651385
13-Sep 21 23.2053601 22.92134561 -1.921345611 -2.205360098
24-Sep 18 19.25357424 18.55910257 -0.559102566 -1.253574243
Sample standard deviations 1.732832708 1.570250107

Limitations
A simple atmospheric correction, namely darkest pixel
technique was performed in this study. This is a very
simple correction, based on 2 assumptions:
 In the darkest water pixel of the image, there is
total light absorption and the radiation light
recorded by this pixel comes wholly from the
atmospheric path radiance.
 The atmospheric path radiance is uniform all
over the image.
The radiation of the darkest water pixel is subtracted
from the whole image. The darkest pixel is found by
searching for the lowest values over water surface
image for all wavelengths. The pixel with the lowest
value for each band was selected as the darkest pixel.
The extracted DN values were converted into
irradiance values and then converted into reflectance
values.
CONCLUSIONS
This study indicates that TSS mapping can be carried
out using terrestrial photographic techniques. Fairly
good empirical relationship were defined between in
situ, TSS and Reflectance values extracted from digital
photographs using regression models developed from
a suggested optical model and also a polynomial
regression equation. Application of developed
equations resulted on TSS products able to detect
spatial variations associated to typical patterns of water
surface reflectance. The modified optical model
proposed by Lim et al., (2011) showed a high
correspondence between observed and estimated
values (RMSE 2.03 mg/l) whereas the polynomial
regression model gave RMSE of 2.08mg/l. However,
both algorithms investigated resulted in reasonable
TSS pixel values when compared with data from in situ
measurements therefore both are recommended for
application. The results obtained in this study provide
a baseline to develop TSS operational products for
monitoring environmental control dams instead of the

51

traditional determination of the spatial distribution of
water quality parameters through in–situ sampling
abroad a boat followed by laboratory measurements of
the water constituents. The results reveal significant
distribution of TSS spatially over the entire water
body instead of only sampled points, possible through
interpolated surface creation.
It is known that the relationship between TSS and
measured reflectance can display distinctly different
trends for different water bodies (Wang, et al., 2005),
such as for storm water retention/detention ponds, for
streams and for Environmental Control Dams. It is
therefore suggested that some calibration be done
before the model is used for each water type. The
factors causing such differences have not been
investigated and could well provide the subject for
further research.
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