Sedimentary structure and their significances

Introduction

Through careful observation over the past few centuries, geologists have discovered that the accumulation of sediments
and sedimentary rocks takes place according to some important geological principles, as follows:

 The principle of original horizontality states that sediments accumulate in essentially horizontal layers. The
implication is that tilted sedimentary layers observed to day must have been subjected to tectonic forces.

 The principle of superposition states that sedimentary layers are deposited in sequence, and that unless the entire
sequence has been turned over by tectonic processes, the layers at the bottom are older than those at the top.

 The principle of inclusions states that any rock fragments in a sedimentary layer must be older than the layer.
For example, the cobbles in a conglomerate must have been formed before the conglomerate.

 The principle of faunal succession states that there is a well-defined order in which organisms have evolved
through geological time, and therefore the identification of specific fossils in a rock can be used to determine its
age.

In addition to these principles that apply to all sedimentary rocks, a number of other important characteristics of
sedimentary processes lead to the development of distinctive sedimentary features in specific sedimentary environments.
By understanding the origins of these features, we can make some very useful inferences about the processes that led to
deposition the rocks that we are studying.

Bedding, for example, is the separation of sediments into layers that either
differ from one another in textures, composition, colour, or weathering
characteristics, or are separated by partings — narrow gaps between adjacent
beds (Figure 6.19). Bedding is an indication of changes in depositional
processes that may be related to seasonal differences, changes in climate,
changes in locations of rivers or deltas, or tectonic changes. Partings may
represent periods of non-deposition that could range from a few decades to a
few centuries. Bedding can form in almost any depositional environment.

Cross bedding is bedding that contains angled layers and forms when
sediments are deposited by flowing water or wind. Cross-beds in streams
tend to be on the scale of centimetres to tens of centimetres,
while those in aeolian(wind deposited) sediments can be on the
scale of metres to several metres.

Formation of Cross Bedding

When a depositional environment has sand in it and water or air moves

the sand grains around, those grains can build up into piles of sediment.
When the sediment piles reach a height where they are unstable - called
the angle of repose - the grains will avalanche down the side of the pile
and make a thin depositional layer of the grains that moved. Over time,
multiple avalanching episodes will result in many thin parallel layers
next to one another. These are called cross bedded laminae, because they
form at an angle to the horizontal nature of the main bed. See the graphic
below for an idea of how these cross-beds form over time.
Which way is up?

When cross beds form, the grains avalanche down the face of the form as previously mentioned. As with any item that
falls downhill, there is a zone of "run out" at the bottom - the grains do not just roll to the base of the bed and stop
immediately. The grains will fall down the side and roll a little distance along the surface until they lose momentum. This
makes a sort of "tail" to the cross bedded laminae that lays on top of the bottom bedding surface which we can use to
determine stratigraphic up. On the other hand, the top of cross beds are not typically preserved because subsequent
movement of grains erodes this part. The result is a rock that has a base portion which shows the "run out" of the
avalanching grains and a top that is truncated by the next bedding plane.

The photo to the left shows a well-formed set of cross beds. The same photo is shown next to it, this time with outlines
showing the bottom and top portions of a single cross bed along with inner lines that follow a couple of cross bedded
laminae. Note how the tops of the cross bed lines are cut off by the top of the bed and the lower parts of the cross bed
lines comes down to and then follow along the bottom of the bed. This shows us that this bed is in a stratigraphic up
position.

GRADED BEDDING means that the grain size within a bed

decreases upwards. This type of bedding is commonly associated with
so called turbidity currents. Turbidity currents originate on the the
slope between continental shelves and deep sea basins. They are
initiated by slope failure (see diagram), after sediment buildup has
steepened the slope for a while, often some high energy event
(earthquake) triggers downslope movement of sediment. As this
submarine landslide picks up speed the moving sediment mixes with
water, and forms eventually a turbid layer of water of higher density
(suspended sediment) that accelerates downslope (may pick up more
sediment). When the flow reaches the deep sea basin/deep sea plain,
the acceleration by gravity stops, and the flow decelerates. As it slows down the coarsest grains settle out first, then the
next finer ones, etc. Finally a graded bed is formed. However, decelerating flow and graded bedding are no unique feature
of deep sea sediments (fluvial sediments -- floods; storm deposits on continental shelves), but in those other instances the
association of the graded beds with other sediments is markedly different (mud-cracks in fluvial sediments, wave ripples
in shelf deposits).

Mudcracks are tension cracks or fractures that extend downward from a bed top into the sediment below. They are
arranged in a network, which in some cases comprises nearly regular hexagons or rectangles but more commonly are of
irregular geometry. Their characteristic spacing ranges from a few centimeters to many decimeters in extreme cases. They
commonly taper downward to a sharp lower end, at depths of centimeters to as much as a few decimeters in extreme
cases. It is clear that the form during shrinkage consequent upon drying of the a surficial layer of unconsolidated
sediment. The sediment can shrink vertically with no cracking, but lateral shrinkage causes tensile stresses that result in
the cracking.
Mudcracks form in very fine clay material that has dried out. As the moisture is removed, the surface will split into cracks
that extend a short way down into the mud. These cracks form polygons on the surface of the mud. The top of the bed has
the widest distance between the polygons and the cracks taper downwards into the bed. If later sediments come and fill in
the cracks and are preserved, the relationship of the bed to the tapered feature will be saved. The tips of the cracks are
always oriented downwards, pointing to the bed base or older part of the formation.

Which way is up?

There are a few ways that mudcracks can be used to figure out the original orientation of a rock that contains them. In the
photograph to the right, the edges of the mudchips are curled upward. This curling of the chip edges can be preserved and
will point to which way was up.

A second way of determining stratigraphic up is by looking at a plan view

of cracks that have formed, like you were a bird flying over the mudcracks.
They have a typical semi-regular pattern of polygons that form across the
surface. An example of this from a modern environment is shown in the
photo. This polygon-laced surface is often preserved. When geologists see
this pattern in a rock that is being studied, they can tell that they are looking
down onto the top of an ancient surface.