LABORTARY MANUAL

(MECHANICS OF SOLIDS – I)

Prepared By: Muhammad Touqeer

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

THE UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE
ISLAMABAD CAMPUS
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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Experiment
Sr. No

1 Layout of Strength of Materials Lab

To determine deflection of simply supported beam

2

To understand buckling of column under different support conditions

3

To compute the flexural strength of a material

4

To compute the tensile strength of steel (ASTM370/ASTM615M)

5

Verification of Hook’s Law

6

Impact Testing of Metallic Materials (ASTM E23)

7

To measure the dimensions of a small body using Vernier Calliper

8

To measure the dimensions of a small body using Screw Gauge

9

To find compressive strength of concrete by cylinder test

10

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 01
LAYOUT OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB

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Apparatus:

1. Compression Testing Machine: It is designed to test materials and other materials

under compression, bending, transverse and shear loads. Hardness test on metals can
also be conducted. High resolution test for routine and complex tests and calculation
with measurement of sample strain.

2. Universal Testing Machine (UTM): A universal testing machine is used to test the
tensile stress and compressive strength of materials. It is named after the fact that it can
perform many standard tensile and compression tests on materials, components, and
structures. Throughout the tests the control system and its associated software record
the load and extension or compression of the specimen.

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3. Flexure Testing Machine: This machine is designed for ascertaining compressive
strength and deformation of all kind of materials including concrete cubes, composite
materials, etc. With additional accessories many other test such as splitting strength
test, flexural strength test, etc. shall be carried out. The test method helps in measuring
behavior of materials that is subjected to simple beam loading where maximum fiber
stress as well as maximum strain is calculated for increments of load.

4. Curing Pound: It is used for curing of specimen

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5. Electric Vibrator: The apparatus consists of a rigidly built steel platform
mounted on flexible springs and is driven by an electric motor. The normal frequency
of vibration is 4000 rpm at an acceleration of 4g to 7g. The vibrating tables are very
efficient in compacting stiff and harsh concrete mixes required for manufacture of
precast elements in the factories and test specimens in laboratories.

6. Beam Deflection Apparatus: In engineering, deflection is the degree to which a

structural element is displaced under a load. It may refer to an angle or a distance. An
unlimited range of beam experiments can be performed to measure support reactions,
deflections and rotations of simply supported, fixed and two span continuous beams,
simple and propped cantilevers, and sinking supports. Differing material and section
beams supplied are carried by pinned supports on three load-measuring piers each
containing load. Under the different loads condition beam shows different behavior.

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7. Charpy Impact Testing Machine: The Charpy impact test, also known
as the Charpy V-notch test, is a standardized high strain-rate test which determines
the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. This absorbed energy is a
measure of a given material's notch toughness and acts as a tool to study temperature-
dependent ductile-brittle transition. It is widely applied in industry, since it is easy to
prepare and conduct and results can be obtained quickly and cheaply. Usually a material
does not break in just one way or the other, and thus comparing the jagged to flat surface
areas of the fracture will give an estimate of the percentage of ductile and brittle
fracture.

8. Column Buckling Apparatus:

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9. Vicat Apparatus: A device for determining the normal consistency and time of setting
of Portland cements that consists of a rod weighing 300 grams, having a needle in each
end, and supported in a frame with a graduated scale to measure the distance to which
the needle penetrates the cement.

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 Experiment No.02
TO DETERMINE DEFLECTION OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

Beam:

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting

bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own
weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.

Apparatus:
1. Steel Beam
2. Load Hangers
3. Loads
Procedure:
1. Dimensions of beam are measured.
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2. Moment of inertia is calculated by the following formula I= 𝑏𝑑 ⁄12
3. Deflection is first calculated theoretically for simply supported beam.
4. Loads are then hanged in the center and actual deflection is measured.
5. Actual and theoretical deflections are compared and checked for any error

Calculations

Length of Member = 660mm

Width of Specimen = 24mm

Depth of Specimen = 5mm

Moment of Inertia of Beam Specimen = 𝑏𝑑³⁄12

Dial Gauge reading, 1div = 0.01mm

Elastic modulus = 2 x 105 N/mm2

4
Deflection at the center of simply supported Beam = 5𝑤𝑙 ⁄384𝐸𝐼

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 Deflection (mm)
Applied Load (N)
Experimental Deflection Theoretical Deflection Percentage Error
Dial gauge reading Deflection (mm) (mm)
5
10
15

20
25

Beam Deflection Apparatus

Reasons for percentage error

 Support conditions are not ideal

 Load is not in center
 Elastic modulus of steel used may not be accurate for the steel beam we have used.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 03

TO UNDERSTAND THE BUCKLING OF COLUMN

Column:

Column is the structural member which provides a continuous support for upper part of the
building and carries the load directly up to foundation. The load acts along the longitudinal
axis of the member. May be made by bricks R.C.C or steel.

Buckling:

The deflection is occur in column when compressive load is applied to it is known as buckling
of column. Buckling is characterized by a sudden failure of structural member subjected to
high compressive load, where the actual compressive stress at the point of failure is less than
the ultimate compressive stresses that the material is capable of withstanding

Types of buckling:

1. Self-buckling

A free standing, vertical column, with density ρ, young modulus E, and radius r, will buckle
under its own weight if its height exceeds a certain critical height

2. Plastic Buckling
Buckling will generally occur slightly before the theoretical buckling strength of a
structure, due to plasticity of the material. When the compressive load is near to
buckling, the structure will bow significantly and approach yield, and the modulus of
behavior of material is not strictly linear even below yield, and the modulus of elasticity
decreases as stress increases, with more rapid change near yield. This lower rigidity
reduces the buckling strength of structure and causes premature buckling. This is the
opposite effect of plastic bending beam, which cause late failure relative to the Euler-
Bernoulli beam equation.
3. Dynamic buckling
If the lad on the column is applied suddenly and then released, the column can sustain
a load much higher than its statics buckling rod. This can happen in a long, unsupported
column used as a drop hammer. The duration of compression at the impact end is the
time required for the stress wave to travel up the rod to other end and back down as a
relief wave.

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 Procedure:
In procedure we have deflection apparatus from which we will check the buckling of
column in deflection we have four case

Case 1:

In case one we have column which is fixed from both ends. Now put a compressive load
of 30 N on the column and check the buckling in it. The column will show buckling in the
center which shows that both the ends are not allowed buckling in it.

Case 2:

In case 2 we have a column which is free from the top and fixed from the bottom. Now put
a compressive load of 30 N on the column and check the buckling in it. The column will
show 0.75 buckling from top to bottom and not allowed at the bottom because column is
fixed from bottom which is 0.25.

Point of contra flexure

Buckling Buckling
Length Length
Point of contra flexure

Point of contra flexure

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Case 3:

In case 3 we have a column which is fixed from top and free from bottom. Now put a
compressive load of 30 N on the column and check the buckling in it. The column will
show 0.75 buckling from bottom to top and not allowed at the top because column is fixed
from the top which is 0.25.

Case 4:

In case 4 we have a column which is free from both end top and bottom. Now put a
compressive load of 15 N on the column and check the buckling in it. You can observe that
the entire column is showing buckling in it which means that they are not stable.

1- Column fixed from both ends used in buildings.

2- Column fixed from one end used in bridges etc.

Conclusion:

From this we concluded that the bending effects near the support which is fixed is less as
compare to the free support. We also notice the both end free support which shows the
maximum bending moment.

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 Experiment No. 04
To compute the flexural strength of a material
Scope:

These test methods cover the determination of flexural properties of unreinforced and
reinforced plastics, including high-modulus composites and electrical insulating materials in
the form of rectangular bars molded directly or cut from sheets, plates, or molded shapes. These
test methods are generally applicable to both rigid and semi rigid materials. However, flexural
strength cannot be determined for those materials that do not break or that do not fail in the
outer surface of the test specimen within the 5.0 % strain limit of these test methods. These test
methods utilize a three-point loading system applied to a simply supported beam.

Summary of Test Method

A bar of rectangular cross section rests on two supports and is loaded by means of a loading
nose midway between the supports. A support span-to-depth ratio of 16:1 shall be used unless
there is reason to suspect that a larger span-to-depth ratio may be required, as may be the case
for certain laminated materials. The specimen is deflected until rupture occurs in the outer
surface of the test specimen or until a maximum strain of 5.0 % is reached, whichever occurs
first.

Apparatus:

Wooden Specimens, Micrometer or Vernier Caliper, Flexural Testing Machine

Bend or flexure Testing

Wood has been used for building purposes from the very beginning of history. It is weak
building material but it can be cut to any shape and size, and it is still being used in building
construction for many purposes. Bending or flexure test is measure of tension stress of a
material caused by bending moment. It is also known as Modulus of Rupture.

It can be calculated from the following equation.

My
 
max I

Where; M = PL/4; I = b.dᶟ/12; and Y =d/2

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Maximum deflection occurs at mid-point, and is given by the formula,

ȡ = PLᶟ/48EI

And E = PLᶟ/48Iȡ

Students should work out the stress at fracture loading and calculate Modulus of Rupture,

F.R = M(frac) x y/I

Loading Arrangement

Loading arrangement for this experiment is shown in the figure below, where a point load is
applied at the mid span of the beam. The load could be applied at third points, which gives
better results.

Procedure:

First of all measure the breath and height of the wooden sample with the help of steel scale.
Fix the wooden beam sample in FTM. Fix the dial gauges under the beam as shown in the
figure above, according to the distances shown.

Now apply the load gradually on the beam and note down the amount of deflection against
each loading. Note down all the deflection up to failure of specimen and finally find the
Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of Rupture from their respective formulae.

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Observation and Calculations:

Sr. No Load Deflection

Description Specimen 1 Specimen 2

Thickness, b (mm)

Depth, d (mm)

Span length, L (mm)

Flexure load at maximum,

Pmax (N)

Bending strength at
maximum, σmaxb (MPa)

Deflection at maximum load

Elastic modulus, E (MPa)

Fracture details

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 Experiment No. 05
To compute the tensile strength of steel (ASTM E8)
Tensile strength of steel by universal testing machine.

Basic Principle

• An axial force applied to a specimen of original length (lo) elongates it, resulting in a
reduction in the cross-sectional area from Ao to A until fracture occurs.

• The load and change in length between two fixed points (gauge length) is recorded
and used to determine the stress-strain relationship.

Basic Principles:

• Step 1: Original shape and size of the specimen with no load.

• Step 2: Specimen undergoing uniform elongation.

• Step 3: Point of maximum load and ultimate tensile strength.

• Step 4: The onset of necking (plastic instability).

• Step 5: Specimen fractures.

• Step 6: Final length.

• Primary Test Output:

The primary output from a tensile test is the load vs. elongation curve of the
specimen, which is recorded in real-time using a load cell and an extensometer. This curve is
then used to determine two types of stress-strain curves:

– Engineering stress-strain.
– True stress-strain.
• Test Materials and Equipment
– Universal testing machine.
– Tensile specimen (ASTM specifications).

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 Calculations:
• Load vs. Elongation (Data obtained from the tensile test):
• Material Data:
• Y=
• TS =
Effect of Strain Hardening:
• The influence of work/strain hardening on the load vs. elongation during the tensile
test can be demonstrated using finite element (FE) analysis.

• The tensile test simulations for these two materials show the effect of strain hardening
on the load required for deformation and the uniform elongation prior to the onset of
necking.

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 Experiment No. 06
Verification of Hook’s Law
Scope:

To investigate how a spring behaves if it is stretched under the influence of an external force.
To verify that this behavior is accurately described by Hook's Law. To find the spring
constant of a given spring.

Significance:

Design of almost all structural elements is based on relation between stress and strain which
are related by Hook’s law. This necessitates the experimental verification of Hook’s law in
laboratory.

Related terminology:

Stress:
Stress is defined as the internal resisting force developed in a body as a reaction to an
external force divided by the area resisting the external force. Mathematically,

F
σ=
A
Where σ = Stress developed in the body

P = Internal resisting force set up by the body

A = Cross-sectional area resisting the external force

Tensile stress is the tensile force per unit area.

Strain:

Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to original dimension of a body when it
is deformed. Mathematically,

∆x
∈=
x
where ϵ = strain in the body

x = Original dimension of the body

Δx = Change in dimension of the body

Linear strain is the change in length of a body per unit original length.

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Hook’s law:

Hook’s law states that within the elastic limit, the compression or extension of an elastic
material is directly proportional to the applied load. Mathematically, Hooke's law can be
represented as:

F = k Δx
Δx is the extension or compression in the elastic material

F is the force applied on the material; and

k is the spring constant.

Apparatus:

Clamp stand
Helical spring
Ruler
Weight hanger
Weights
Procedure:

 Suspend a helical spring from a screw projecting out of the clamp stand.
 Suspend a weight hanger from the end of the helical spring.
 View position of the end of the spring on ruler. Take reading on the scale of the ruler.
 Add a weight to the weight hanger and take reading on the scale of the ruler.
 Add more weights to the weight hanger and take reading after adding each weight.

Observations and calculations:

Cumulative
Weight added Elongation in
weight added to Ruler Reading
to the hanger spring
the hanger
(N) (N) (cm) (cm)

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Safety instructions and additional precautions:

 Ensure that the ruler is vertical.

 Read the scale of the ruler at eye level to avoid parallax error.
 Take reading after the spring comes to rest.
 Avoid overloading the spring. This can cause the spring to elongate beyond its elastic
limit and undergo plastic elongation. Such a spring is not usable for performing the
experiment in future.

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 Experiment No. 07
Impact Testing of Metallic Materials (ASTM E23)
Scope

Test method describe notched-bar impact testing of metallic materials by the Charpy (simple-
beam) test. The essential features of an impact test are: a suitable specimen (specimens of
several different types are recognized), a set of anvils, and specimen supports on which the
test specimen is placed to receive the blow of the moving mass, a moving mass that has
sufficient energy to break the specimen placed in its path, and a device for measuring the
energy absorbed by the broken specimen.

Significance and Use

These test methods of impact testing relate specifically to the behavior of metal when
subjected to a single application of a force resulting in multi-axial stresses associated with a
notch, coupled with high rates of loading and in some cases with high or low temperatures.
For some materials and temperatures the results of impact tests on notched specimens, when
correlated with service experience, have been found to predict the likelihood of brittle
fracture accurately.

Procedure:

The Charpy test procedure may be summarized as follows:

 The test specimen is thermally conditioned and positioned on the specimen supports
against the anvils; the pendulum is released without vibration, and the specimen is
impacted by the striker. Information is obtained from the machine and from the
broken specimen.

 To position a test specimen in the machine, it is recommended that self-centering

tongs should be used. If keyhole specimens are used, modification of the tong design
may be necessary. If an end-centering device is used, caution must be taken to ensure
that low-energy high-strength specimens will not rebound off this device into the
pendulum and cause erroneously high recorded values.

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 To conduct the test, prepare the machine by raising the pendulum to the
latched position, set the energy indicator at the maximum scale reading, or initialize
the digital display, or both, position the specimen on the anvils, and release the
pendulum.

 Remove the test specimen from its cooling (or heating) medium with centering tongs
that have been temperature conditioned with the test specimen, place the specimen in
the test position, and, release the pendulum smoothly.

 If a fractured impact specimen does not separate into two pieces, report it as unbroken
specimens with absorbed energies of less than 80 % of the machine capacity may be
averaged with values from broken specimens. If the individual values are not listed,
report the percent of unbroken specimens with the average. If the absorbed energy
exceeds 80 % of the machine capacity and the specimen passes completely between
the anvils, report the value as approximate; do not average it with other values. If an
unbroken specimen does not pass between the machine anvils, (for example, it stops
the pendulum), the result shall be reported as exceeding the machine capacity. A
specimen shall never be struck more than once.

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 Experiment No. 08
To measure dimensions of a small body using Vernier Calliper

Scope:

Use of Vernier Callipers to measure diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body, measure

the dimensions of a given regular body of known mass and hence to determine its density; and
measure the internal diameter and depth of a given cylindrical object like beaker/glass and
hence to calculate its volume.

Apparatus:

Vernier Calliper, circular or regular body to determine dimensions.

Vernier Calliper:

1. A Vernier Calliper has two scales–one main scale and a Vernier scale, which slides along
the main scale. The main scale and Vernier scale are divided into small divisions though of
different magnitudes. The main scale is graduated in cm and mm. It has two fixed jaws,
projected at right angles to the scale. The sliding Vernier scale has jaws projecting at right
angles to it and also the main scale and a metallic strip. The zero of main scale and Vernier
scale coincide when the jaws are made to touch each other. The jaws and metallic strip are
designed to measure the distance/ diameter of objects. Knob is used to slide the vernier scale
on the main scale. Screw is used to fix the vernier scale at a desired position.

2. The least count of a common scale is 1mm. It is difficult to further subdivide it to improve
the least count of the scale. A vernier scale enables this to be achieved. The difference in the
magnitude of one main scale division (M.S.D.) and one vernier scale division (V.S.D.) is called
the least count of the instrument, as it is the smallest distance that can be measured using the
instrument.

𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞

Least Count = ( )
𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞

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Procedure:

1. Keep the jaws of Vernier Callipers closed. Observe the zero mark of the main scale. It must
perfectly coincide with that of the vernier scale. If this is not so, account for the zero error for
all observations to be made while using the instrument.

2. Gently loosen the screw to release the movable jaw. Slide it enough to hold the
sphere/cylindrical body gently (without any undue pressure) in between the lower jaws. The
jaws should be perfectly perpendicular to the diameter of the body. Now, gently tighten the
screw so as to clamp the instrument in this position to the body.

3. Carefully note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale against the main scale.
Usually, it will not perfectly coincide with any of the small divisions on the main scale. Record
the main scale division just to the left of the zero mark of the vernier scale.

4. Start looking for exact coincidence of a vernier scale division with that of a main scale
division in the vernier window from left end (zero) to the right. Note its number (say) N,
carefully.

5. Multiply 'N' by least count of the instrument and add the product to the main scale reading
noted in step 3. Ensure that the product is converted into proper units for addition to be valid.

6. Repeat steps 3-5 to obtain the diameter of the body at different positions on its curved
surface. Take three sets of reading in each case.

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8. Record the observations in the tabular form with proper units. Apply zero
correction, if need be.

9. Find the arithmetic mean of the corrected readings of the diameter of the body. Express the
results in suitable units with appropriate number of significant figures.

Observation and Calculations:

Least Count:_______________.

Zero Error (if any): ___________________.

Sr. No Main Scale Reading Vernier Scale Reading Total Reading

(N) (m=n X L.C) (N+m±Zero Error)

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 Experiment No. 09
To measure dimensions of a small body using Screw Gauge

Scope:

Use of screw gauge to measure diameter of a given wire, measure thickness of a given sheet;
and determine volume of an irregular lamina.

Apparatus:

Screw Gauge, Wire, metallic sheet, irregular lamina, pencil.

Screw Gauge

1. With Vernier Callipers we are usually able to measure length accurately up to 0.1 mm. More
accurate measurement of length, up to 0.01 mm or 0.005 mm, may be made by using a screw
gauge. As such a Screw Gauge is an instrument of higher precision than a Vernier Callipers.

2. The distance advanced by the screw when it makes its one complete rotation is the separation
between two consecutive threads. This distance is called the Pitch of the screw.

3. When the end of the screw and the surface of the stud are in contact with each other, the
linear scale and the circular scale reading should be zero. In case this is not so, the screw gauge
is said to have an error called zero error. When the reading on the circular scale across the
linear scale is more than zero (or positive), the instrument has Positive zero error. When the
reading of the circular scale across the linear scale is less than zero (or negative), the instrument
is said to have negative zero error.

𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐜𝐡
Least Count = ( )
𝐍𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞

27
Procedure:

1. Take the screw gauge and make sure that the rachet R on the head of the screw functions
properly.

2. Rotate the screw through, say, ten complete rotations and observe the distance through which
it has receded. This distance is the reading on the linear scale marked by the edge of the circular
scale. Then, find the pitch of the screw, i.e., the distance moved by the screw in one complete
rotation. If there are n divisions on the circular scale, then distance moved by the screw when
it is rotated through one division on the circular scale is called the least count of the screw
gauge.

3. Insert the given wire between the screw and the stud of the screw gauge. Move the screw
forward by rotating the rachet till the wire is gently gripped between the screw and the stud.
Stop rotating the rachet the moment you hear a click sound.

4. Take the readings on the linear scale and the circular scale.

5. From these two readings, obtain the diameter of the wire.

6. The wire may not have an exactly circular cross-section. Therefore. it is necessary to measure
the diameter of the wire for two positions at right angles to each other. For this, first record the
reading of diameter d1 and then rotate the wire through 90° at the same cross-sectional position.
Record the reading for diameter d2.

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7. The wire may not be truly cylindrical. Therefore, it is necessary to measure the
diameter at several different places and obtain the average value of diameter. For this, repeat
the steps (3) to (6) for three more positions of the wire.

8. Take the mean of the different values of diameter so obtained.

9. Substract zero error, if any, with proper sign to get the corrected value for the diameter of
the wire.

Observation and Calculations:

Least Count:_______________.

Zero Error (if any): ___________________.

Sr. No Main Scale Reading Circular Scale Reading Total Reading

(N) (m=n X L.C) (N+m±Zero Error)

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 Experiment No. 10
To find compressive strength of concrete by cylinder test
Scope

This test method covers determination of compressive strength of cylindrical concrete

specimens such as molded cylinders and drilled cores. It is limited to concrete having a unit
weight in excess of 50 lb/ft3 [800 kg/m3]. This test method consists of applying a compressive
axial load to molded cylinders or cores at a rate which is within a prescribed range until failure
occurs. The compressive strength of the specimen is calculated by dividing the maximum load
attained.

Apparatus

Universal Testing Machine, Weigh Balance, Test Specimen

Procedure

 Compression tests of moist-cured specimens shall be made as soon as practicable after

removal from moist storage. Test specimens shall be kept moist by any convenient
method during the period between removal from moist storage and testing. They shall
be tested in the moist condition.

 Place the plain (lower) bearing block, with its hardened face up, on the table or platen
of the testing machine directly under the spherically seated (upper) bearing block. Wipe
clean the bearing faces of the upper and lower bearing blocks and of the test specimen
and place the test specimen on the lower bearing block. Carefully align the axis of the
specimen with the center of thrust of the spherically seated block.

 Apply the load continuously and without shock. Apply the load until the specimen fails,
and record the maximum load carried by the specimen during the test. Note the type of
failure and the appearance of the concrete.

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Observation and Calculations:

Calculate the compressive strength of the specimen by dividing the maximum load carried by
the specimen during the test by the average cross-sectional area and express the result to the
nearest 10 psi [0.1 MPa].

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