Microsoft PowerPoint - Lect Soil Dynamics Wo Machine

Course Name
Name:: Soil Dynamics

Course Code
Code:: *******
Course Instructor
Instructor:: Dr
Dr.. Tensay Gebremedhin
e-mail
mail:: tensay@engineer
tensay@engineer..com
Semester:: I, AY
Semester AY:: 2018
2018//2019
Program:: Graduate
Program
Credit hours
hours:: 3
 Synopsis
 To introduce EQ
 To study the fundamentals of vibration
 To study wave propagation in soils
 To investigate dynamic properties of soils
 To learn the test methods used to study the dynamic properties of soils
both in field and laboratory
 To study methods to predict and estimate liquefaction
 To learn design methods for geotechnical structures)
Prepared by Dr. Tensay G (2011)

 Course content
I. Introduction to earthquakes
II. Theory of vibration
III. Wave propagation
IV. Strong ground motion
V. Dy Dynamic
namic soil properties
VI. Dynamic earth pressure problems and Retaining walls
VII. Earthquake resistant design of geotechnical
structures
VIII. Liquefaction of soils
IX. Impedance and compliance functions
 Reference:
1. Soil dynamics, 1981 by Shamsher Prakash
Prakash..
2. Vibration of soils and foundations, 1970 by R.E. Rechart Rechart,, R.D. Woods and J.R.
Hall
3. Principles of soil dynamics, 1993 by B.M. Das.
4. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, 1996G by
Prepared by Dr. Tensay Steven L. Kramer.
(2011)
1. Introduction to Earthquakes
Dynamic loads (or Sources of vibration)
 Earthquake
 Supported machines
 Bomb blasting
 Wind or wave action of water
Earth and earthquakes Core:
 Max depth of the source of earthquakesR- 3500 km
700 Km (2000°C, 30°C/Km) Liquid state
High temp 4500 oC
Gs- 9.7-12.3
Mantle:
Thickness-2900 km
Ultra basic Olivine rock
Gs- 3.3 – 5.7
Crust:
5-40 km
Igneous, Sedimentary and
Metamorphic rocks
General overview of EQ
• Earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the
rapid release of accumulated energy in elastically
strained rocks.
• Energy released radiates in all directions from its source,

the focus
• Energy propagates in the form of seismic waves
• Sensitive instruments around the world record the event
• Fig.1.3.docx
• Fig.1.4.docx Prepared by Dr. Tensay G (2011)
What causes an EQ?
Movement of Tectonic Plates
• Earth is divided into sections called Tectonic plates
that float on the fluid-like interior of the Earth.
• Earthquakes are usually caused by sudden
movement of earth plates
Rupture of rocks along a fault
• Faults are localized areas of weakness in the
surface of the earth
• Fig.1.1.docx

Location of EQ
•
7
General overview of EQ ... Cont‘d
• Measurement of EQ
• EQs are complex multi-dimensional phenomena.
• Size of Earthquakes (intensity and magnitude)
• These are still the two most widely used measures of an
EQ.
• Engineering design, however, requires measurement of
EQ phenomena in units such as force or displacement.
1. Rossi – Forel (RF) scale (1880s)- (I - Ⅹ)
2. Modified Mercalli (MM) scale (1931) – (I - ⅩⅡ)
3. Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA) scale - (I - ⅤⅡ)
4. Medvedev – Spoonheuer – Karnik (MSK) scale - (I - ⅩⅡ)
• Table 1.1.docx Prepared by Dr. Tensay G (2011)
Comparison of intensity values of the different
scales
MMI
RF (Rossi Forel)
JMA (Japanese
Metrological Ag.)
MSK (Medvedev-
-Spoonheuer Karnik)
• Magnitude
o Richter Local magnitude (ML)
 A is the max trace amplitude (micrometers) recorded
on a Wood-Anderson Seismometer located 100 Km
from the epicenter of the earthquake.
Ao is a standard value as a function of distance, for
instruments located at distances other than 100 km
and less than 600 km.
o Surface Wave magnitude(Ms)
 A- is the max ground displacement in m
 - is the epicentral distance of the seismometer in degrees
(360o max)
 used for shallow, distant and moderate to large EQ

Fig.* Saturation of various magnitude scales:

Mw (Moment Magnitude), ML (Richter , Local Magnitude),
Ms (Surface wave, magnitude), Mb (Short-period body wave,
magnitude), MB (Long-period body wave magnitude) & MMJA (After
Idriss, 1985)
• Earthquake Energy
• The total seismic energy released is often estimated
from this relationship
• Applicable to Mw as well

2. Theory of Vibrations
• Basic definitions
• Period : The time elapsed in repeating a periodic motion
once.
• Cycle : Motion completed during a period is referred to as
a cycle.
• Frequency : The number of cycles of motion in a unit of
time. (Hz : cycle/sec)
• Natural frequency : The frequency with which an elastic
system vibrates under the action of forces inherent in the
system.
• Forced vibrations : Vibrations that occur under the
excitation of external forces.
• Forced vibrations occur at the frequency of the exciting
force.
2. Theory of Vibrations … cont’d
• Degrees of freedom : The number of independent
coordinates necessary to describe the motion of a system.
• Resonance : If the frequency of excitation coincides with
any one of the natural frequencies of the system,
resonance is said to occur.
• Principal modes of vibration : In a principal mode, each
point in the system vibrates with the same frequency.
• The vibration of a multidegree freedom system can always
be represented by the superposition of principal modes.
Distributed mass system

(n ∞)
Concentrated mass
system (n = 3)
The first principal-
mode of vibration
N.P = nodal point
The second principal-
a point of zero
mode of vibration deflection
The third principal-
mode of vibration
• Fundamental frequency (the frequency of the first mode)

the lowest frequency among the principal modes of the
vibrating system
• Normal mode of vibrations
when the amplitude of some point of the system vibrating in
one of the principal modes is made equal to unity, the motion
is called the normal mode of vibration.
• Harmonic motion
The simplest form of periodic motion, occurring under the
influence of elastic restoring force in the absence of all
friction, which is represented by sine or cosine functions
1 cycle
 2 3
Phase plane representation of a harmonic motion
x
• Free vibrations of a spring-mass system

• the equation of motion (according to Newton`s 2nd law,

F=ma)
Governing Eq. (Linear 2nd order differential eq.)

• the general solution
A, B = arbitrary constants, n- circular natural frequency

• Back substitute the solution into the governing eq.
• For one cycle of motion to be completed
• thus, natural frequency

• If we know the quantity of mass(m) & the spring

constant(k)
or if you know the static deflection fn(Tn, wn ) determined
• For particular solutions, substitute the initial conditions.
• Other types of expressions

• Equivalent Spring Constant
Springs attached in series

Springs attached in
parallel
Parallel springs:
Load ratio at a and b
Defl. ratio at a and b
• then, the deflection of pt c is
• From the definition

• Governing equation:
• Solution : try back substitute this into above Eq.
• ,
→ the general solution is
• If the expression in the radical above is zero,
• lt is termed as critical damping
• Damping Factor (ξ) – [ damping ratio, (attenuation factor) ]
• Modification of in terms of ξ
• If ξ ≥ 1, the motion is aperiodic & no oscillation

• when ξ = 1, the system returns to its original position in the
minimum time.
• Practically, ξ < 1
• the general solution becomes
• Circular natural frequency wnd in the viscously damped
system is ,
• The general solution may be expressed as
Z0,  are arbitrary constants determined from B.C (or I.C)

Prepared by Dr.Tensay
• Back-substituting these expression
• L.H.S becomes
• To satisfy the above Eq. always, we should have,
• Solve for Z0 & 
• Divide the 2nd Eq. above by cos

•
• Vectorial Solution of forced vibration with viscous damping
Z lags F by 
• If undamped;
• magnification factor, N depends on ;

the frequency of excitation force
the damping factor Prepared by Dr.Tensay
 For transient vibrations, use free vibration solution. These

vibrations actually dies outPrepared
in the first few cycles.
by Dr.Tensay
• Frequency- dependent Exciting force
• the unbalanced force
• the governing Eq. is
solution
•
• in non-dimensional form
• Peak amplitudes occur at
•
• Transmissibility
Forces transmitted to the foundation through the spring & the
dashpot: are out of phase at 90〫
•
• Directions Forces
• The exciting forces from machine operation
• Transmissibility(Tr)
•
• All curves pass through
For r >2, all approach the r axis, i.e. Tr=0
The higher the ratio, the better the isolation
But may experience the excessive amplitude
when starting & stopping
Damping helps to liit these amplitudes to
finite values.
• Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Systems (MDOF)
The conditions in most physical system is expressed with
MDOF.
Buildings, bridges, and other structures that are of interest
in EQ Eng‘g have MDOF.
Simple structures can be idealized with only few DOF
Others may require 100s or 1000s.
• Response Analysis Procedure for MDOF systems
Similar to SDOF except the complication of the algebra
One useful approach for linear MDOF systems is to
compute their response as the sum of the responses of a
series of SDOF systems.
• Systems with two degrees of freedom
•
•
•
• Systems with two degrees of freedom
• Let the natural freq of m1, m2 be
•
• let be the static defle of m1 due to Fo.
• Dividing 1st eqn by k1 & 2nd by k2
• To find the natural frequencies of the system, convert into

FV
• or
• The solution of will give the
natural frequencies of the systen
• Let
• or
• This how a 2DF system is solved!

• If in the fig, system 1 is the main sys, then system 2
represents vibrations absorber as it can reduce the
amplitudes of vibrations of the main system appreciably.
• From the two eqns
• Therefore
• Solving for Z2:
• If , then and
• Fo and Z2 are in phase opposition (- sign)
• infact Z1 becomes zero at this frequency bcus the force k2Z2
exerted by sprng 2 on m1 is equal to and opposite to Fo.
• Equations of Motion
For evaluating the response of MDOF, dynamic eqlm of all
masses must be snsured.
Rayleigh‘s Method
• The fund frequ of a continuous elastic system with infinite
DOF can be determined accurately by assuming a
reasonable deflec curve for the elastic system.
• The fundamental natural frequency as calculated from the
assumed shape of a dynamic deflection curve of a system
will be equal to or higher than the system`s true natural
frequency
(upper bound nature ↔ Southwell-Dunkerley Method)
• Small departures from the shape of the true dynamic –
deflection curve will not be critical in the determination of
the system`s n
(justifies the use of the static deflection curve) 50
The equation of Energy for a vibrating system
•  the original Eqn of motion for
SDOF:
 Multiply by
 Integrating:
Instantaneous Instantaneous
EK EP
51
52
• Ex. 1. Natural frequency of the spring-mass system
(It is assumed extension of

• the spring is linear )
Velocity of element , dx is:
Max. KE of the element

( mass = )
53
Spring mass
Total KE Total PE
54
• Ex. 2. Natural frequency of a cantilever beam
Assume the dynamic defl curve of the beam as a static defl
curve of a weightless beam with the concentr load P acting at
its end.
55
• Logarithmic Decrement
• This is a measure of the decay of successive max
amplitudes of viscously damped vibrations.
56
57
3. Wave Propagation …cont’d
• Determination of Viscous Damping
1. In a free vibation test
2. In a forced vibration test
58
• Determination of Viscous Damping
In a forced vibration test
1. Bandwidth method 59
3. Wave Propagation
Introduction
• Geologic materials are continuous in nature.
• Soil dynamics and geotechnical earthquake engineering is
different from structural components
• Discrete mass system with discrete source of stiffness
• Soil materials have to be treated as continua medium
• Their dynamics response must be described in the context
of wave propagation
• Unbounded media – relatively simple wave prblm
• Bounded and layered media- complicated wave prblm
• Trtmnt of 1D wave propagation and then extend it further.
60
Waves in unbounded media
• One-dimensional wave propagation
• Three different types of vibration can occur in a thin rod.
1. Longitudinal vibr
extension and contraction along the axis without lateral
displ
2. Torsional vibr
rod rotates about its axis without lateral displcmnt
3. Flexural vibr
the axis itself moves laterally
less applicable in soil dynamics
61
1. Longitudinal vibr
Free vibration of infinitely long, linear elastic, constrained rod
(X-sectional area (A), E, , ).
If constrained against radial straining-particle displ will be
parallel to the axis of the rod.
Assumptions:
Plane xsections remain planar
Stresses will be distributed uniformly over the cross section
• 1-D equation of motion

62
63
64
2. Torsional vibr
• vs is the shear wave velocity. 65

66
3. Wave Propagation…
67
68
69
70
71
Wave propagation in an elastic infinite medium
Assumption: Medium is homogeneous and isotropic
• Consider the variation of stresses on opposite faces of an
element of dimensions dx, dy and dz.
dx
x
dy
dz
72
Equilibrium Eqns (x- dirxn):
Neglecting body forces and applying NII Law (x-dirxn):
73
(y, z-dirxn):
Using the ff relationships

Strains
Rotations
After substitutions, we get the equations of motion
75
• There exist two solutions for the above equations.
1. One solution describes the propagation of an irrotational
wave.
This is obtained by differentiating the above eqns wrt x, y
& z respectively and adding all three eqns together.
76
2. The other describes the propagation of a wave of pure
rotation.
• This is obtained by differentiating the 2nd eqn wrt z and
3rd wrt to y and then eliminating , this results
From the rotation equations
The same expressions of rotation about y and z can be

obtained which implies rotation is propagated with
velocity
77
Combining and substituting for G in terms of E we get
Plot of this ratio
From the above analysis, it can be seen that an infinite

elastic medium can sustain two kinds of waves:
Compression wave (P-waves, dilatational, irrotational waves)
Shear wave (secondary wave, S-wave, distortional wave,
equivoluminal wave) 78
Assignment: (Due date *****)
• Wave propagation in a semi-infinite elastic half space
• Wave propagation in a layered body
• Attenuation of stress waves
• Propagation of Rayleigh wave
• Waves generated by a surface footing
79
4. STRONG GROUND MOTION
4.0 Introduction
• Microseismic activity vs Strong ground motion (SGM)
• Evaluation of the effect of earthquakes requires objectives &

description of the SGM Objectives of evaluation of effect of EQ
1. For New designing
2. Performance evaluation
• Ground motions at a site are complicated:

– 3 translation (2 H and 1 V) components
– 3 rotation components but are not important in practice.
• Characterization of earthquakes:
– Ground motion parameters: amplitude, frequency content &
duration of motion
4. STRONG GROUND MOTION…
4.1 Strong Ground Motion Measurement
• Identification & evaluation of ground motion parameters
requires measurement SGM in actual EQ.
• Seismographs: to measure relatively weak ground motion

• Seismograms: records produced by Seismographs.
• Accelerographs: for SGM
• Accelerograms:
Strong-ground Motion Processing

• Baseline error
• Baseline correction
• High-pass filter
Strong-ground Motion Processing
 Baseline error
 Baseline correction
 High-pass filter
– the initial and final acceleration equal to zero

– the initial and final velocities equal to zero and
– the initial displacement equal to zero
• FFT
x(t )   a k cos( k t )  bk sin( k t )

..
• FFT
2k
x(t )   ak cos(k t )  bk sin(k t ) k 
..
2t m 1 .. 2knt
ak  
T n 0
x(t n ) cos(
T
)
2t m 1 .. 2knt
bk  
T n 0
x(t n ) sin(
T
)
2 m 1 .. 2kn
a k  a ( k )   x(t n ) cos( )
m n 0 m
2 m 1 .. 2kn
bk  b( k )   x(t n ) sin( )
m n 0 m
• FFT
t ..
. m/2
 ak 
x(t )   x(t )dt bk
. ..
x(t )  x 0 t    sin( k t n )  cos( k t n )
0 k 1   k k 
• t .
1 .. 2 m / 2  a k bk 
x(t )   x(t )dt x(t )  x 0 t    2 cos( k t n )  2 sin( k t n )
2 k 1   k k 
0
..
• x 0 is the mean value of the acceleration data record.
• Baseline Correction
~
x (t )  c 4 t  c3 t  c 2 t  c1
4 3 2
~
x (t )  4c 4 t 3  3c3 t 2  2c 2 t  c
~
x(t )  12c 4 t 2  6c3 t  2c 2
~
ei  xi  x(t i  
ei  xi  12c 4 t i  6c3t i  2c 2
2

  
n
Et   xi  12c t  6c3 t  2c 2
2 2
4 i
i 1
• Baseline Correction
Et
c 4
 
 24 xi t i2  12c 4 t i4  6c3 t i3  2c 2 t i2 
i
Et
c3
 
 12 xi t i  12c 4 t i3  6c3 t i2  2c 2 t 
i
Et
c 2
 
 4 xi  12c 4 t i2  6c3 t i  2c 2 
i
Et
c 4
  
 0   xi t i2  12c 4 t i4  6c3 t i3  2c 2 t i2  0
i
Et
c3
  
 0   xi t i  12c 4 t i3  6c3 t i2  2c 2 t  0
i
Et
c 2
  
 0   xi  12c 4 t i2  6c3 t i  2c 2  0
i
• One can observe that there are three equations with three
unknowns and hence the determination of the three
parameters is possible.
• Next the acceleration is corrected by subtracting the
determined baseline from the filtered recorded acceleration.
• Discrete Data Points Integration
n
a (ti 1 )  a (ti ) n
v(t i 1 )  v(t i )
v(t n )    ti  v(t0 ) u (t n )    t i  u (t 0 )
i 0 2 i 0 2
Filtering of the acceleration records
• Original acceleration record has to be filtered so that the
frequencies that contribute very low energy would be
neglected.
• The filtering is done by a reasonable higher frequency filter.
• For this purpose the frequency distribution of the earthquake
data is analyzed so that the reasonable higher frequency will be
determined.
Strong Ground Motion Records
• Can be obtained from a number of sources (USGS)
Strong Ground Motion Records...
Ground Motion Parameters
• The amplitude
• The frequency content
• Describes the distribution of the amplitude of a ground motion

among different frequencies.
• Duration of SGM
• Power Spectral density ( a 2
 b 2
k )
S v ( k )  k
2 k
(a k2  bk2 ) T
S v ( k )   (a k2  bk2 )
 2  4
2 
T 
• Response spectra
Describes the max response of a SDOF system to a particular input motion as a
function of the natural frequency (period) and damping ratio of the SDOF
system.
• Response spectra (a, v, s)
Peak Acceleration
• PHA & PVA
• Peak Velocity
• PHV
• Peak displacement
• PD are associated with low-frequency components of an EQ.
Important terms and definitions
• Pseudostatic analysis
• Seismic coefficient
• Full analysis
• Design EQ and design level
• Soil classification
Important terms and definitions ...
• Base rock motion and Rock outcrop motion
• Design ground motion:

• Max surface acceleration, a,max (from chart or ground
response analysis)
5. Dynamic Soil Properties
5.1 Introduction
• Several problems in engineering require knowledge of the
dynamic properties of soils. why we need to classify problems in
dynamics properties of soil in to small
strain and large strain amplitude?
• These are divided into two: reason: In order to recommend appropriate
Laboratory and field test methods.
– Small strain amplitude response soil Properties to be determined from tests

1. shear strength in terms of strain rate and
stress strain characteristics
– Largge strain amplitude response 2.Damping Ration
3. shear modulus
• Variety of field and laboratory methods 4. Poisson's ratio
5. Liquefaction Parameters
- Cyclic shearing stress ratio
• Major soil properties that need to be asertained - Cyclic shearing strain
- Pore pressure response
– Shear strength interms of strain rates and stress-strain charact.
– Different soil moduli
– Poisson‘s ratio
– Damping
– Liquifaction parameters: cyclic shearing stress ratio, cyclic
deformation, and pore-pressure response.
101
5.2 Methods of evaluating the dynamic behavior of soil
1. Seismic testing methods from exploration geophysics
1. down hole seismic testing
– Borehole seismic testing methods 2. Up hole seismic testing
3. Cross hole seismic testing
– Surface wave methods
– From the geotechnical perspective, shear wave velocity (VS) which
were usually emphasized as a seismic design parameter could be
determined only from in-situ seismic tests.
2. Determination of shear modulus from in-situ tests
• Seismic field tests measure the small strain response of a
relatively large volume of ground
102
•
103
Importance of in-situ tests for seismic design of
geotechnical structures
• Reliable seismic design
• Seismic performance evaluation
• The VS profiles from the field seismic tests are very

important to reflect the site-specific characteristics
• Dynamic Stress Deformation and Strength Characteristics of

Soils
104
• Cyclic behavior of soils in a form of material model
correlating shear stress and shear strain should be
established.
• Modeling of soil behavior under cyclic or random loading

conditions must be made so that the model can duplicate
the deformation characteristics in the range of strains
under consideration.
• If within the range of small strain, the use of an elastic

model is justified and the shear modulus is a key parameter
to properly model the soil behavior
105
•
106
Frame work for a nonlinear stress-strain model
• When the cyclic stress with a fairly large amplitude is
applied to soils, the stress-strain curve constitutes a closed
hysteresis loop as shown below.
• Suppose the load is increased first to a level indicated by

point a and then cycled through points bcdefa.
107
• A stress reversal from unloading to reloading occurs at
point d which is located symmetrically to the first reversal
point a.
• In this stress-strain curve, there are two parts:
• One associated with monotonic loading doa, and

• The other constituting a cyclic loop acdef.
• The former is called a backborne curve or skeleton curve
and the latter is called a hysteresis loop.
• If the stress value in the hysteresis curve is subtracted on

the diagram from that of the skeleton curve, two separate
curves are obtained as displayed below.
108
• This is an indication of a nonlinear behavior of soils.
• The skeleton indicates the elastic property and the

hysteresis loop as the energy dissipating characteristics
which are nonlinear. 109
• Because of the nonlinearity, the skeleton curve is not a
straight line, nor does the hysteresis loop have rounded
corners.
• In constructing a nonlinear cyclic stress-strain relation,

what is common to all models is that they consist basically
of two functions, one specifying the skeleton curve and the
other expressing the hysteresis loop.
110
• Let the skeleton curve be expressed by:
• Normally, this relationship is obtained from monotonic

loading tests on soils.
111
• Now suppose the load reversal occurs at point A where =a
and =a, then the equation of the stress-strain curve for
the subsequent unloading is assumed to be given by:
•
• For reloading curve
• The next step would be to derive a series of formulae to

calculate the shear moduli & loss coeff or Damping ratio.
• The nonlinear deformation characteristic is normally

represented by the secant modulus which is defined as a
slope of a line connecting the origin & pt of strain
amplitude on the skeleton. 112
• Thus the secant modulus G is determined merely by
• The energy dissipation per cycle is represented by the area

enclosed by the hysteresis loop W.
113
• Similarely the damping ratio is given by:
• where W is the maximum stored energy.
• For the nonlinear case there are several ways to define the
stored energy, but most logical would be to assume it as
equal to the area of the triangle bounded by a straight line
defining the secant modulus.
• Thus the stored energy is expressed as
114
• The secant modulus and the damping ratio obtained above
are the two major parameters specifying the nonlinear
deformation characteristics of soils.
• It is to be noted that both the parameters are expressed as

a function of shear strain amplitude 115
• In terms of the shear stress :
Models for nonlinear stress and strain relations

• Many kinds of material models have been used to describe
the nonlinear stress-strain relations of soils.
116
1. Hyperbolic Model (Hardin Drnevich) Model
• the stress-strain relationship for the skeleton curve is
assumed to be represented by a hyperbolic equation
formulated by Kondner and Zelasko (1963).
Go 
 
Go
1 
f
• Hardin and Drnevich (1972) defined the reference strain as
f G

1
r  Go 1   a
Go
r
   
   
 
4
1
1   1  1 ln1   a  2
 
 a    a   r   
 1   
 r   r  117
• It is logical to assume that any stress-strain curve of soils is
bounded by two straight lines which are tangential to it at
small strains and at large strains.
118
119
• The stress-strain curve for the hyperbolic model can be
obtained directly from the ff eqn by setting n=2.
• This equation has been extensively used for representing

the stress-strain relations of a variety of soils since it was
used by Kondner and Zelasko (1963) and Duncan and
Chang (1970).
• The hyperbolic model has also been used to specify the

hardening rule in the theory of soil plasticity (Vermeer,
1978). 120
• The expression for the secant modulus in the cyclic loading
is obtained as:
121
• The expression for the secant modulus in the cyclic loading
is obtained as:
• Similarly, the damping ratio is expressed as;
• Eliminating the strain amplitude from both eqns of G and D
122
•
123
• Advantage of HD model
– It can assign a limit stress corresponding to failure strength.
• Disadantages of HD model
– But it is difficult to model both the strain dependent shear

modulus and damping ration with the use of these two
parameters only. by only Go and taw( shear stress) @failure
– The model does not give the possibility of adjusting parameters to

achieve a fit to an experimentally obtained data of soil.
– The H-D model tends to yield an intolerable large damping ratio

when the shear strains are large. 124
2. Exponential Model
• This model is sometimes used in the theory of plasticity.
125
3. Ramberg-Osgood Model
• The original form of the stress-strain relation for the
skeleton curve is given by:
  
r 1
  
 1   
y y y
 
• 4 parameters model (2 of them to be appropriately

choosen: shear strength and reference strain, 2 are
constants)
G0 
 r 1

1 
c f
126
• The expression for the strain-dependent modulus for the
cyclic loading condition can be obtained by putting =a &
=a.
• G 1
 r 1
Go  G   a 
1     
 Go   r 
r 1
G   a 
  
2  r 1  Go   r 
    r 1
  r  1 G   a 
1     
 Go   r 
127
The shear strain increases
increase indefinitely with
increasing shear strain, which is
inconsistent with the real behavior
of soils. as proportional to the
shear strain when the shear
strain becomes large.
What are the drawbacks of the R-O model? 128

4. Sigmoidal Models
• They have appropriate asymptotic behaviour.

• Thus the functions are well-suited for the purpose of representing
modulus degradation curves.
• There exists two Sigmoidal models with 3 & 4 parameters of fit.
a
Ms 
  L  xo 
1  exp    
  b 
a
M s  yo 
  L  xo 
1  exp    
  b 
129
While considering a hysteresis model:
• A model should be able to express the shear modulus as a
function of shear strain and shear stress.
• The function should be constructed such that it gives the

initial tangent modulus at small strains.
• When the shear strain becomes large, the shear stress

expressed by the model should reach a certain limiting
value which is equal to the shear strength of soils.
• The model should give a reasonable value of the damping

ratio specially for the large strain range.
130
5.2 Methods of evaluating the dynamic behavior of soil …
Advantages of the Cyclic Simple
Triaxial Test Shear Test. There are several
Laboratory Test advantages in conducting cyclic
1. Cyclic Triaxial simple shear tests. They are

more representative of the field
2. Resonant Column
conditions, since the specimens can
3. Direct simple shear be consolidated in K0 state.
test Solid soil specimens used in resonant

column tests can provide good results
up to a shear strain amplitude of
about 10^-3 % Similarly, the hollow
samples used in resonant column
studies provide results within a
strain amplitude range of 10^-3 %
to about 1%.
However, cyclic simple shear tests
can be conducted for a wider range
of strain amplitude (that is,10^-2 %
-to about 5%. This range is the
general range of strain encountered
in the ground motion during seismic
activities. 131
132
• Resonant Column Test
• Base-excited, top-free type Top-excited type
133
• Resonant Column Test Apparatus
The resonant column test essentially

consists of a soil column
that is excited to vibrate in
one of its natural modes.
Once the frequency at resonance is
known, the wave velocity can easily be
determined. The soil column in the
resonant column device can be excited
longitudinally or torsionally , yielding
velocities of vc or vs respectively.
134
135
Conventional Field test
1. SPT with borehole drilling investigation
136
2. Piezocone penetration test (CPTu)
137
• The testing methods for VS are divided as in-situ tests and
laboratory tests.
• The in-situ tests:
– non-intrusive methods such as surface seismic tests and
– intrusive methods such as borehole seismic tests.
• The surface seismic tests are often less expensive and can
be performed relatively quickly.
• The borehole seismic tests are usually more accurate and
have generally the information gained directly from the
boring investigation. Types of Field Test
1. Deterministic tests: in which data's are obtained directly
from test
ex. seismic surface test, Pressurmeter test etc
2. correlational tests:data taken by statistical regression
example: Spt, pt 138
139
Cross-hole Seismic Test
140
Cross-hole Seismic Test
• Need more than two boreholes: one for source and the
others for receivers
• Generation of body wave within a borehole and its
detection at another borehole at the same depth.
• More reliable than other seismic testing methods and more
simple for interpretation.
• VS = (Distance from Source to Receiver) / (Travel Time of
Shear Wave)
141
Downhole Seismic Test
142
• Need only one borehole: use surface source
• Limitation of exploration depth due to use surface source
• Rigorous interpretation method is required considering
refracted ray path
• After obtaining waveforms with depth from the downhole
seismic test in a field, wave arrival times with the testing
depth should be first picked by means of several picking
methods: cross-over method, peak-to-peak method,...
• After picking the wave arrival times or time differences, the
VS profile is deduced by means of several downhole
interpretation methods: direct method, interval method,
modified interval method, and refracted ray path method. 143
peak-to-peak method
144
Interpretation Methods:
a) Direct method
• Determination of mean velocity profile using direct
(corrected) travel time
• Shear wave velocity (Vs) of each

soil layer having similar travel time
145
b) Interval method
• Using travel time (Tl or Tu ) delay between two receivers
• Shear wave velocity (Vs) between two receivers (or
adjacent testing depth)
146
c) Modified Interval Method
• Considering the stiffness
of upper layers & straight
ray path
147
d) Refracted ray path method
• Considering refracted ray
path due to the stiffness
differences between layers
• Adopt Snell’s law and
the equation same as the
modified interval method
148
6. Dynamic Earth Pressure Problems
(Slope Stability and Retaining Walls)
6.1 Seismic Slope Stability
Introduction:
• Landslides occur on a regular basis throughout the world
as part of the ongoing evolution of landscapes.
• Slides occur in natural slopes/ man-made slopes
• Very stable to margginally stable state
• When EQ occurs, then ....
• Resulting damage ranges from insignificant to catastrophic
• Evaluation of seismic slope stability
Prepared by Dr. Tensay 149

Types of Earthquake-induced Landslides:
Factors: Geologic and hydrologic conditions, topography, climate,..
Types:
1. Disrupted slides and falls
2. Coherent slides
3. Lateral spreads and flows
Evaluation of slope stability:

• Geology, hydrological, topographical, geometrical and material
characteristics

Static Slope Stability Analysis:
• Limit equilibrium analyses
• Stress-deformation analyses
Calibration against many actual slope failure
Seismic Slope Stability Anaysis
• It is complicated because:
• Dynamic stresses are induced
• Effect of those stresses on the strength and stress-strain
behaviour of the slope material...
– Inertial instabilities
– Weakening instabilities Due to cyclic loading,there is stiffness degradation

6.1 Seismic Slope Stability …
What is the principles of Pseudostatic analysis?
Pseudostatic Analysis = Representation of effects of EQ by constant horizontal/ vertical
acceleration
• Effect of earthquake is represented by constant
horizontal/vertical acceleration... -A horizontal,
downslope
inertia force
(M*a) is applied to
the sliding mass.
-Routine slope
stability analyses
conducted
– Bishop
– Method of slices,
– Etc.

Pseudostatic Analysis
Limitation of Pseudostatic Approach
1. Representation of the complex, transient, dynamic effects
of EQ shaking by a single constant unidirectional
pseudostatic acceleration is obviously quite crude.
2. The concept it conveys of EQ effects on slopes is very
inaccurate.
– Eventhough FS is greater than 1.0, the slope could be
unstable.
3. Unreliable if there is build of large pore pressure

4. Unreliable if there is more than a 15% strength
degradation due to EQ shaking.
5. Many dams failed eventhough the computed FS using the
pseudostatic approach is well above 1.0.
Dam kh FS Effect of EQ
Sheffield Dam 0.10 1.2 Complete failure
Lower San 0.15 1.3 Upstream slope failure
Fernando Dam
Upper San 0.15  2-2.5 Downstream shell, including
Fernando Dam creat slipped about 6 ft ds
Tailings Dam 0.20  1.3 Failure of dam with release of
(Japan) tailings
Discussion about Pseudostatic Approach
1. It has a number of attractive features. (simple and straight
forward)
2. It produces a scalar index of stability that is similar to
static stability analysis.
3. There is difficult y in the assignment of the coefficient
4. Does not give any information regarding the deformation
5. Methods based on the evaluation of permanent slope
deformation are being used increasingly for seismic slope
stability analysis.

Newmark Sliding Block Analysis
• First method to assess stability in terms of deformations
rather than factor of safety.
• Assumes rigid-plastic materials
• Assumes knowledge of the time history of the acceleration
acting on the slope.
• Yield coefficient
• yield acceleration

6.1 Seismic Slope Stability…
Newmark Sliding Block Analysis
Advantages:
• Estimates deformations
• Relatively easy to use.
Disadvantages
• Potential failure mass and slope are assumed to be rigid.
• Lateral displacements may be out of phase with the inertial
forces at different points .
• Can significantly over predict deformations

6.1 Seismic Slope Stability…
Makdisi-Seed Analysis
• Based on the sliding block method
• Uses average accelerations and the shear beam
method.
• Plot of average maximum acceleration with depth
of the potential failure surface
• Plot of normalized permanent displacement with
yield acceleration.



Stress-deformation Analysis
• Dynamic computer programs
1. Strain potential approach
2. Stiffness reduction approach
3. Nonlinear analysis approach
– Finn Models (FLAC)
– Hyperbolic model
– Others

• Finn Models (FLAC)

6.2 Dynamic Earth Pressure Problems and Retaining Walls
• Lateral Earth Pressure Problems
• Earth pressure problems are encountered in retaining walls,
bulkheads, sheeting and bracing in cuts, culverts, tunnels, and
cofferdams.
• In many cases, the problem is statically indeterminate
• It depends on soil-structure interaction
• Classical earthpressure theories (coulomb, Rankine, Terzaghi,
Peck).
• If the retaining wall does not undergo any deflection, none of
the above theories is applicable.
• Earth pressure at rest
• Active earth pressure
• Passive earth pressure Prepared by Dr. Tensay 163
Development of active and passive earth pressures

• If the wall is rigid and does not move with the pressure
exerted on the wall, the soil behind the wall will be in a
state of elastic equilibrium.
• Consider a prismatic element E in the backfill at depth z
shown in the Fig below

Fig. Lateral earth pressure for at rest condition
Table 4.1 Coefficients of earth pressure for at rest condition

• Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theory
Fig. Rankine's condition for active and passive failures in a semiinfinite

mass of cohesionless soil
Fig. Rankine's condition
for active and passive
failures in a semiinfinite
mass of cohesionless soil

COULOMB'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY
• FOR SAND FOR ACTIVE STATE

COULOMB'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY FOR SAND FOR ACTIVE STATE
The maximum value of Pa so obtained may be written as

COULOMB'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY FOR SAND FOR PASSIVE
STATE

COULOMB'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY FOR SAND FOR PASSIVE STATE
Differentiating;, we get
For a smooth vertical wall with a horizontal backfill, it

coincides with Rankine’s Prepared
EP coef. by Dr. Tensay 172
ACTIVE PRESSURE BY CULMANN'S METHOD FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS
Culmann's (1875) method is the same as the trial wedge
method. In Culmann's method, the force polygons are
constructed directly on the -line AE taking AE as the load
line. The procedure is as follows:

6. Dynamic Earth Pressure Problems and Retaining Walls
• Behavior of Retaining Walls During Earthquakes
d a C
H PA
Failure
wedge
c b Active Earth
Pressure
• Rates of movement of the wall and the wedge

a
Ground motion
R L LR
b d
0 t1 t2 t3 t4 Time
c
Pdyn Pdyn
Pa Pa
b1
L R RL
a1
Movement of
c1 c2 c‘
2
wall
0 t1 t2 t3 t4 Time

Hence, questions are :
① What is the change in earth pressure?
② Where is its point of application?
③ How much displacement of the wall occurs?
Yielding Walls
• Retaining walls that can move sufficiently to develop min active/max
passive
• Dynamic pressures acting on yielding walls are usually estimated
using psedostatic procedures.
Mononobe-Okabe (M-O) Method

• Based on pseudostatic approach
• It is direct extension of the static Coulomb theory to pseudostatic
conditions.
Modification of Coulomb`s Theory

• Inertia forces on the trial wedge (horizontal and vertical
directions)
• ah: horizontal acceleration, av: vertical acceleration
• During the worst

- conditions for wall stability:
acts toward the wall, &
acts downward (or upward)
• are horizontal and vertical seismic

coefficients
Referring to the Fig
The forces acting on the wedge abc1

• Weight of the wedge, W1
• Earth pressure, P1 • From the force polygon, P1 is obtained
• Soil reaction R1
• Horizontal inertia force W1αh
• Vertical inertia force W1αvP,repared by Dr. Tensay 179
• For the passive case, Ptotal is obtained in similar procedure
• Modified Culmann`s construction
• use
• Point of Application – a little bit
higher than H/3 above thePrepared
baseby Dr. Tensay 181
Qh
H W
 
Pae
h F


• Remarks:
• Dynamic response is very complex
• Wall movements and pressures depends on:
– response of underlying soil
– Response of backfill
– Inretial and flexural response of the wall
– Nature of input motions
• Few well-documented case histories exist.
• Most of the understanding is from model tests and
numerical analyses
• As the wall moves:
– the shape of the EP distrbn changes
– Point of appln moves up and down along the wall
• Dynamic wall pressures are influenced by the dynamic
response of the wall and backfill.
• Dynamic wall pressure increases near the natural frequency
of the wall-backfill system.

Dynamic Bearing Capacity
Sand
Earthquake Loads on Footings (Pseudostatic Approach)
1. Effect of moments only
Horizontal
accln force
• Due to the shaking of the structure: horizontal acceleration
force at the lamped mass center,
Prepared by Dr. Tensay CG 190
2. Effect of Thrust only

Present state of practice for earthquake loading
• Bearing capacity and settlement :
– pseudostatic approach
– Equilibrium of failure wedge
– Numerical techniques
• Interconnecting beams (Tie beams) be provided to tie the
foundation columns.
– Transmits the unbalanced shear and moment

– Reduces the differential Prepared
settlement
by Dr. Tensay 193
Dynamic Analysis for Pile Foundations
• Three techniques exist
1. Continuum with linear elastic
2. FE technique
3. Discrete or lumped masses,
spring, dashpot

•

•

•

•

• Maximum bending moment coefficients






7. Earthquake-Resistant Design of Geotechnical Structures
7.1 Procedure:
Determination of design seismic loadings
– Construction locations of structures
– Importance level of structures
– Performance level of structures
– Soil type
Ground Response Analysis considering characteristics of
Soil
– Peak acceleration at surface
– Profile of the maximum acceleration and shear strain with
depth
211
7.1 Procedure ... Cont‘d
Evaluation of Liquefaction
– Simple prediction method
– Detail prediction method
Dynamic analysis of geotechnical structures
– Pseudostatic analysis with peak acceleration
– Dynamic analysis considering Soil-Structure Interaction
– Model tests with similitude
Geotechnical structures for earthquake-resistant
design
– Foundation
– Slopes
– Retaining walls 212
7.2 Geotechnical structures for earthquake-resistant design
1. Earthquake resistant Design of Foundations

– Soil stiffness model
– Design loads for the foundation
• Analysis:
– Pseudo static analysis (Similar with static analysis but
different loading and FOS)
• For shallow foundations
– Sliding, overturning, bearing capacity, settlement
• For pile foundations
– Displacement, member forces
213
214
Modeling technique of foundation and soil

1. Fixed end
– Simple but too conservative
215
2. Spring (6th DOF spring, p-y spring)

– Determine of the spring coefficients is very important
216
3. Whole modeling (Solid and beam modeling of whole

foundation and soil system)
– Complicated and rigorous
217
• Shallow Foundation
218
• Design requirements for shallow foundations

– Satisfaction with static requirements
– No liquefaction
– Factor of safety
219
Consderations for pile foundations

• Liquefaction : deterioration of vertical/lateral bearing
capacity of soils
• Batter pile : too excessive axial force at pile heads
• Soil-Structure Interaction
– Mechanical behaviors between piles and their surrounding
soils
– Variation of soil profile and soil properties with depth
– Pile spacing, superstructures etc.
• Separation of pile and its surrounding soils
– Decrease of vertical/lateral bearing capacity
220
221
Design requiremets for shallow foudations

• Satisfaction with static requirements including
displacement requirement
• OBE(Operating Base Earthquake)
– Only elastic deformation is allowable

– Same criteria with static conditions
– 1% Diameter of pile if D > 1500 mm
– 1.5 cm if D <= 1500 mm
222
MCE(Maximum Credible Earthquake)

– Displacement (=elastic displacement X displacement ductility
coefficient) < allowable maximum displacement
– Allowable maximum displacement is usually increased by 50% of
ordinary condition
223
224
2. Earthquake resistant Design of Slopes

Newmark sliding block method
• Calculation of displacement of slope during earthquakes
• Yielding acceleration : acceleration when FOS of slope
becomes 1
• Assumption
– Sliding mass in slope : rigid sliding block on inclined plane
– Displacement occurs only when earthquake acceleration exceeds
yielding acceleration
• Permanent displacement of sliding mass = twice
integration of acceleration difference between earthquake
acceleration exceeding yielding acceleration and yielding
acceleration 225
226

Design requirements
• Satisfaction with static requirements
• No liquefaction
• Ensure the safety against MCE of 2nd importance level
(return period = 500 years)
• Pseudo static analysis
• Criteria of FOS = 1.1
• Allowable displacement
– OBE : 10 cm
– CME : 30 cm
227
3. Earthquake resistant Design of Retaining walls

Design criteria
• Factor of Safety
– Pseudo static analysis, limit equilibrium analysis
• Displacement
– Richard-Elms method(upper bound of displacement)
– Whitman-Liao method(average of displacement)
– Dynamic numerical analysis
228

Forces acting on the wall during earthquakes
• Static components
– Static water force in front of the wall
– Static water force in the back of the wall
– Static earth pressure in the back of the wall
• Dynamic components
– Dynamic water force in front of the wall
– Dynamic water force in the back of the wall
– Dynamic earth pressure in the back of the wall
– Inertia force of the wall
229
230

Horizontal seismic coefficient for pseudo static analysis
• Horizontal seismic coefficient kh = 1/2×amax
• Horizontal seismic coefficient kh = (1.5 or 1.0) ×amax only

when displacement of wall is restrained
• Maximum acceleration, amax

– Maximum acceleration at surface without backfill if height of
wall is smaller than 10 m
– Maximum acceleration in backfill considering magnification of
acceleration if height of wall is larger than 10 m
231

Dynamic earth pressure
• Mononobe-Okabe method
– Expansion of Coulomb theory
(adding equivalent seismic force)
– Including the static earth pressure
• M-O dynamic earth pressure
232

Dynamic water force
• Westergaard’s solution
• Locations - 0.4H
• Dynamic water force in backfill should be considered

when the permeability is large(k > 5x10-4 m/sec)
233
234

Design requirements
• Satisfaction with static design requirements
• No liquefaction
• Criteria of FOS = 1.1 (translation, overturning, bearing
capacity)
• Allowable displacement
• OBE : 10 cm
• MCE : 30 cm
235
8. Liquefaction of Soils
8.1 Introduction:
o Among the most important, complex, interesting and
controversial topics in GEE
o 1964 Good Friday EQ (9.2) in Alaska & Niigata EQ (7.5) in
Japan
o Both EQ produced liquifaction-induced damage
236
237
8.1 Introduction:
Seed and Idriss:
o “If a saturated sand is subjected to a ground vibrations, it
tends to compact and decrease in volume.
o If drainage is unable to occur, the tendency to decrease in
volume results in an increase in pore pressure.
o If the porewater pressure builds up to the point at which it
is equal to the overburden pressure, the effecive stress
becomes zero, the sand loses its strength completely, and
liquefaction occurs.“
o Liquefaction : soils that has lost all shear strength behaves
like a viscous fluid. This is a quick condition (in static
condition)
238
8.1 Introduction:
239
8.1 Introduction:
o Liquefaction:
o flow liquefaction & cyclic mobility
Flow liquefaction:
o The most dramatic effects of all the liquefaction-related
phenomena – flow failures
o Occurs when the shear stress required for static
equilibrium of a soil mass is greater than the shear
strength of the soil in its liquefied state.
o Once triggered the large deformations produced by flow
liquefaction are actually driven by static shear stresses.
o Example: the flow slide of Lower San Fernando Dam.
240
8.1 Introduction:
Cyclic Mobility:
o Can produce unacceptably large permanent deformations
during earthquake shaking.
o Can occur when the static shear stress is less than the
shear strength of the liquefied soil.
o Deformations produced are driven by both cyclic and
static shear stresses.
o This occur on very gently sloping ground or on virtually flat
ground adjacent to bodies of water.
o Ground level liquefaction
241
8.2 Where does liquefaction occur?
o Liquefaction of sand may develop in any zone of a deposit

where the necessary combination of in-situ conditions and
vibratory deformations may occur.
o The zone may be at the surface or at some depth below

the ground surface, depending only on the state of sand
and indced otions
242
8.2 Where does liquefaction occur?
Initial liquefaction:
o A condition in which the effective stress in the soil at least
momentarily reaches a value of zero
o The pore pressure ratio, ru is the ratio of excess pore water

pressure to the effective confining stress.
o The stiffness of the soil is typically extremely low at the

point of initial liquefaction, but tendencies to dilate to
keep the shear strength from reaching a value of zero.
243
8.3 Evaluation of Liquefaction Hazards
o Both of the above can produce damage at a particular site.
Questions:
o Is the soil susceptible to liquefaction?
o If the soil is susceptible, will liquefaction be triggered?
o If liquefaction is triggered, will damage occur?
o Susceptibility-initiation-effects
244
8.4 Liquefaction Susceptibility
1. Historical criteria
o Observations from earlier EQ provides a great deal of

information about the liquefaction susceptibility of certain
types of soils and sites that have liquefied in the past can
liquefy again in the future EQ.
245
246
2. Geological criteria
o Geological process has a strong influence on its liquefaction
susceptibility
o Saturated soil deposits created by sedimentation in rivers and

lakes (fluvial or alluvial deposits)
o Deposition of debris or eroded mat‘l (colluvial deposits)
o Deposits formed by wind action (aeolian deposits)
o Particles of uniform grain sizes in loose state tends to densify

when shaken by EQ. 247
3. Compositional criteria
o Whether fine-grained soils will liquefy?
o Non-plastic silts are fully susceptible for liquefaction
o Plasticity characteristics rather than grain size alone

influence fine grained soils
o Sensitive clays can exhibit strain-softening behaviour

similar to that of liquefied soils.
248
o PI > 10 tends to decrease liquefaction susceptibility.
o Clayey soils can exhibit strain-softening behavior - can

produce failures that have many of the same
characteristics as liquefaction failures.
o Chinese criteria for identifying liquefaction susceptibility

of fine grained soils. (Wang 1979, Seed and Idriss 1982)
1. clay fraction (finer than 0.005 mm)  15%
2. l  35%
3. n  0.9 l
4. Liquidity Index  0.75
249
Fig ** Limits in the gradation curves separating liquefiable and

nonliquefiable soils (Tsuchida, 1970). 250
4. State Criteria
o Liquefaction depends on the initial state of the soil (stress and
density state at the time of liquefaction)
Critical Void Ratio (CVR)
q e Undrained
CVR lineLoose
Dense Drained
(Contractive) Dr
(Dilative) Un 251
‘3 ‘3
4. State Criteria
e
Susceptible wrt Flow
Liquefaction
CVR line
Non-susceptible
log ‘3
Strain-contrld/stress-contrld
252
Steady state of Deformation
o Castro (1969) performed static and cyclic triaxial tests both on
isotropically and anisotropically consolidated specimens.
o Very loose specimens
o Peak undrained strength at low shear strain and then collapsed to large
strains at low confining pressure and low large-strain strength.
o Dense specimens
o Initially contracted but then dilated until a relatively high constant
effective confining pressure and large strain strength was reached.
o Intermediate specimens
o Exceedence of peak strength at low strain followed by a limited period
of strain-softening behavior and ended with the onset of dilation at
intermediate strains.
253
Steady state of Deformation
o Phase transformation point
o The reversal from contractive to dilative behavior in the intermediate
density occurs at the phase transformation point
o Further loading with this soils produced continued dilation to higher
effective confining pressure & consequently, higher large-strain
strengths. This behaviour is termed as Limited liquefaction.
o Steady state of deformation
o The state at which the soil flowed continuously under constant shear
stress and constant effective confining pressure at constant volume
and const velocity.
o Steady-state line SSL
o The locus of points describing the relationship between void ratio and
effective confining pressure in the steady state of deformation.
254
255
256
Monotonic and Cyclic Loading
257
State Criteria
o The SSL demarkets the susceptibility for the flow liquefaction
o Plots below the SSL are not susceptible to flow liquefaction.
o Plots above the SSL are susceptible to flow liquefaction if static
stress is greater than steady-state strength (Ssu).
Cyclic mobility:
o The above generalization does not hold true.
o Cyclic mobility can occur in both dense and loose soils.
258
8.5 Evaluation of Initiation of Liquefaction
o If a soil deposit has been determined to be susceptible to
liquefaction, the second step in a liquefaction hazard
evaluation is consideration of the potential for initiation of
liquefaction.
o This generally involves characterization of the intensity of

seismic loading that the soil will be subjected to and
characterization of the liquefaction resistance of the soil.
o By characterizing both loading and resistance in common

terms, the two can be compared to determine the liquefaction
potential of the soil.
259
Approaches used:
o Cyclic Stress Approach
o Cyclic Strain Approach
Cyclic Stress Approach

o Commonly used for evaluation of liquefaction potential
o Both the loading imposed on the soil by the earthquake & the
resistance of the soil to liquefaction are characterized in terms
of cyclic shear stresses.
260
o By characterizing both loading and resistance in common
terms, they can be directly compared to quantify the potential
for liquefaction.
o This approach benefits from the fact that cyclic stress

amplitudes can be computed relatively easily and accurately,
and from the fact that it has been verified as a conservative
predictor of liquefaction by field observations.
o Its drawbacks include its potential conservation and the fact

that liquefaction is not as closely reated to shear stress
amplitude as it is to other aspects of soil response.
261
o The cyclic stress method represents the classic approach to
evaluation of liquefaction potential.
o It has been thoroughly tested and validated as a useful

practical approach for evaluation of liquefaction potential and,
therefore, it continued use is recommended for at least the
near future.
262
263
264
265
266
Number of cycles, Nc, required for liquifaction
Nc depends on the duration of shaking i.e. the magnitude of
the earthquake
Determine stress that cause liquefaction from cyclic triaxial or

simple shear test
267
Cyclic Strain Approach
amax σ v rd
γcyc  0.65
g G(γcyc )
268
8.6 Factors affecting liquefaction potential
1. Grain size distribution of sands

– fine and uniform sands are more prone to liquefaction
– Permeability, density
2. Initial relative density
3. Vibration characteristics
– shock loading or steady-state,
– frequency, pulse form,
– horizontal or vertical,
– Duration
269
8.6 Factors affecting liquefaction potential
4. Location of drainage & dimensions of deposit.

– in large dimensions → undrained condi on for a quick
loading
– (gravel drains may be introduced, kd ≥ 200 ks)
5. Magnitude & nature of superimposed loads
– for a large initial effective stress to be transferred to the pore
pressure → need a large intensity or number of stress cycles of
vibration
6. Method of Soil Formation
– characteristic soil structure
7. Period under sustained load –age of deposit
8. Previous strain history
270
9. Trapped air : helps reduce the possibility
8.7 Prevention/ Control
Reading Assingment
 Soil modification
 Reduced Loads
 Drainage (pore pressure relief)
271
272
273
274
275

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Course Name

Name:: Soil Dynamics

Prepared by Dr. Tensay G (2011)

• Energy released radiates in all directions from its source,

• Energy propagates in the form of seismic waves

• Sensitive instruments around the world record the event

Prepared by Dr. Tensay G (2011)

Prepared by Dr. Tensay G (2011)

Fig.* Saturation of various magnitude scales:

Prepared by Dr. Tensay G (2011)

Distributed mass system

• Fundamental frequency (the frequency of the first mode)

• Free vibrations of a spring-mass system

• the equation of motion (according to Newton`s 2nd law,

Governing Eq. (Linear 2nd order differential eq.)

A, B = arbitrary constants, n- circular natural frequency

• For one cycle of motion to be completed

• thus, natural frequency

• If we know the quantity of mass(m) & the spring

• Other types of expressions

Springs attached in series

• From the definition

• If ξ ≥ 1, the motion is aperiodic & no oscillation

Z0,  are arbitrary constants determined from B.C (or I.C)

• To satisfy the above Eq. always, we should have,

• Solve for Z0 & 

• Divide the 2nd Eq. above by cos

• magnification factor, N depends on ;

 For transient vibrations, use free vibration solution. These

• the governing Eq. is

• Dividing 1st eqn by k1 & 2nd by k2

• To find the natural frequencies of the system, convert into

• This how a 2DF system is solved!

• Solving for Z2:

(It is assumed extension of

Max. KE of the element

2. In a forced vibration test

• 1-D equation of motion

• vs is the shear wave velocity. 65

Neglecting body forces and applying NII Law (x-dirxn):

Using the ff relationships

After substitutions, we get the equations of motion

From the rotation equations

The same expressions of rotation about y and z can be

Plot of this ratio

From the above analysis, it can be seen that an infinite

• Evaluation of the effect of earthquakes requires objectives &

• Ground motions at a site are complicated:

• Seismographs: to measure relatively weak ground motion

Strong-ground Motion Processing

– the initial and final acceleration equal to zero

x(t )   a k cos( k t )  bk sin( k t )

• Describes the distribution of the amplitude of a ground motion

• Design ground motion:

– Small strain amplitude response soil Properties to be determined from tests

• Reliable seismic design

• Seismic performance evaluation

• The VS profiles from the field seismic tests are very

• Dynamic Stress Deformation and Strength Characteristics of

• Modeling of soil behavior under cyclic or random loading

• If within the range of small strain, the use of an elastic

• Suppose the load is increased first to a level indicated by

• In this stress-strain curve, there are two parts:

• One associated with monotonic loading doa, and