IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUS1TRY APPLICATIONS. VOL. IA-23! NO.
4, JULY/AUGUST 1987 765
Maintaining Stationary Batteries
MARCO W. MIGLIARO,
Abstract-All stationary batteries require maintenance. Properly main-
tained batteries will allow a user to realize optimum life of the batteries.
Currently, standards exist for lead-acid stationary batteries and similar
standards for nickel-cadmium stationary batteries are under develop-
ment. These standards describe minimum maintenance requirements, but
do not necessarily provide details for the visual inspections and tests
recommended. Maintenance of stationary batteries, providing additional
information on "how" and "why," are addressed. Maintenance-free
batteries are also discussed. Although the emphasis of the paper is on
maintenance of lead-acid stationary batteries, information for nickel-
cadmium stationary batteries also will be highlighted.
INTRODUCTION
W ,rHEN used in the industry, the term " stationary
battery" refers to a battery type commonly used for
standby service in industrial control, electric generating
station, electric substation, uninterruptible power supply
(UPS), and communication system service. This type of
battery is normally applied in "full float operation" (see next
Section, "Definitions"). Currently, maintenance of station-
ary-type lead-acid batteries is addressed by ANSI/IEEE
Standard 450-1980 [1J (a revision of this document has
recently been approved by the IEEE Standards Board).
Maintenance of stationary-type nickel-cadmium (NiCd) bat-
teries will be addressed in a future IEEE document. It is
presently assigned as standards project P1106. (As a point of
interest, a maintenance document for lead-acid batteries for
photovoltaic service is under development by IEEE Standards
Coordinating Committee 21.)
As stated, stationary batteries are applied in standby
applications. This requires the battery to be available instanta-
neously should an ac power failure or other emergency occur.
Thus a stationary battery is normally in full-float operation and
is always at, or near, full charge, awaiting an emergency
which will require the battery to supply energy. Often these
batteries are never fully discharged (except for testing) during
their service life. This is in contrast to a motive power (e.g.,
forklift) battery, which is often charged/discharged daily. One
must therefore agree that a battery in standby application has
to be highly reliable. The user must be confident that the
battery will deliver energy to the load whenever called upon to
do so. To ensure this high degree of reliability, battery
manufacturers have designed cells specifically for stationary
Paper ICPSD 86-36, approved by the Power Systems Engineering
Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation at the
1986 Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Denver, CO, September
28-October 3. Manuscript released for publication January 28, 1987.
M. W. Migliaro is with Electrical Engineering Special Projects &
Standards, Ebasco Services, Inc., 2 World Trade Center, New York, NY
10048.
IEEE Log Number 8714272.
0093-9994/87/0700-0765$01.00 © 1987 IEEE
SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE
service; however the manufacturer's function ends with
shipment to the user. It is then the user's responsibility to
properly install and maintain the battery. Additionally, the
user is responsible for the proper sizing (or specification) and
design installation of the battery. Although this paper ad-
dresses maintenance only, [31 and [5]-[7] address cell selec-
tion, sizing, and installation.
Stationary batteries come in various sizes with various
alloys, plate types, and electrolyte specific gravities. Lead-acid
types may be pure lead, lead-antimony alloy, lead-calcium
alloy, or lead-antimony-selenium alloy, with lead (Plante),
modified Plante, pasted (Faure), or tubular plates. NiCd types
may have pocket or sintered plates. In the US, standards for
batteries have been established for use in defining capacity
and as a reference for voltage, specific gravity, and so forth.
This is necessary because the battery, being an electrochemi-
cal device, is affected by changes in temperature (e.g., its
capacity, specific gravity, and voltage all vary with tempera-
ture). These standards are applied when maintaining batteries
to convert all test values to a common base for comparison to
previous data. Unfortunately, these standards are not uniform
throughout the world (Europe, England, and Japan have
adopted other references).
Unless otherwise noted, this paper will assume US stand-
ards of reference for stationary batteries. For lead-acid cells
this means capacity will be based upon the 8-h rate, at 77°F,
1.215 SG, to 1.75 V per cell (Vpc). Voltage and specific
gravity (SG) will be at 77°F, and nominal SG will be 1.215 ±
0.010. Similarly, for NiCd cells, capacity is based upon the 8-
h rate, at 770F, to 1.14 Vpc. (Electrolyte SG is not a factor in
NiCd cells since it does not change appreciably during charge
or discharge.) For both lead-acid and NiCd cells, nominal SG
is always assumed to be at 77°F, at the high level line. As a
point of information, European, British, and Japanese stand-
ards use 10-h capacities for lead-acid cells, with standard
temperatures of 200C, 15°C, and 250C, respectively. In
addition, standard SG's are generally higher than those in the
US and have reference temperatures of other than 77°F
(25°C). This is true even for Japanese standards, which use
20°C for SG's although, as stated previously, they use 25°C
for capacity. A common reference for NiCd capacity outside
the US is 5 h.
The emphasis of this paper will be on the "why" and
"how" of maintenance. It will not duplicate material in the
standards unless it is necessary for clarity. Therefore the
reader should be familiar with current standards and consider
the material herein as supplemental information. When per-
forming maintenance the manufacturer's instructions should
always be followed. Where they differ from information
766 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-23, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1987
presented in this paper, the manufacturer's instructions should
be considered the governing document.
DEFINITIONS
A number of terms relating to batteries and their mainte-
nance will be used in this paper. Although many are included
in the references, they are repeated here to assist the reader.
Where a definition is taken from a reference, it is so-noted.
Acceptance test-a constant-current capacity test made on
a new battery to determine that it meets specifications or
manufacturer's ratings [1].
Battery rack-a structure used to support a group of cells
[11.
Capacity test-a discharge of a battery to a designated
terminal voltage [1].
Equalizing charge-an extended charge to a measured end
point that is given to a storage battery to insure the complete
restoration of the active materials in all the plates of the cells
[2].
Equalize voltage-the voltage applied during an equalizing
charge. This voltage is sufficiently high to ensure that the
local action of all cells is overcome.
Float voltage-the voltage applied during full float opera-
tion. This voltage is high enough to overcome local action
of the cells and replace discharge losses caused by electrical
load peaks, without overcharging the cells.
Full float operation-operation of a dc system with the
battery, battery charger, and load all connected in parallel,
and with the battery charger supplying the normal dc load
plus any self-discharge or charging current, or both,
required by the battery. (The battery will deliver current
only when the load exceeds the charger output [3].)
Gassing-evolution by electrolysis, of water into hydrogen
and oxygen within a cell, caused by excess current supplied
to the cell. This normally occurs near the end of a charge.
Intercell connector-an electric conductor used to connect
adjacent storage cells.
Jar-the container that holds the cell, or group of cells, and
electrolyte.
Local action-the internal losses of a battery standing on
open circuit or on float charge, without considering any
losses incidental to any discharge [4].
Performance test-a constant-current capacity test made
on a battery, as found, after being in service, to detect any
change in the capacity determined by the acceptance test [1].
Pilot cell-a selected cell whose condition is assumed to
indicate the condition of the entire battery [2].
Point (ofspecific gravity)-0.00 of specific gravity (SG);
e.g., a 0.010 change in specific gravity would be referred to
as a "10-point" change.
Rated capacity-the ampere-hour capacity assigned to a
lead storage cell by its manufacturer for a given discharge
time, at a specified electrolyte temperature and specific
gravity to a given end-of-discharge voltage [3].
Sediment-the active material that separates from the
battery plates and falls to the bottom of the jar.
Service test-a special test of the battery's ability to satisfy
the design requirements (battery duty cycle) of the dc
system [1].
Sulphation (lead storage batteries)-a state where the
battery has developed an abnormal amount of sulphate and
its capacity is impaired. This is different from normal
sulphation, which occurs during discharge.
Terminal connection detail (lead storage batteries)-
connections made between rows of cells or at the positive
and negative terminals of the battery, which may include
lead-plated terminal plates, cables with lead-plated lugs, and
lead-plated rigid copper connectors [1]. (Note: for NiCd
cells the plating would be nickel or cadmium and the
conductor would be copper or steel.)
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of a battery begins at the time of installation.
The tests and data taken at that time form the base set of values
for the battery to which all future data will be referenced.
Proper maintenance of a battery will result in optimum life,
assuming proper sizing and installation. As a caution, battery
maintenance should be performed by knowledgeable person-
nel. When performing maintenance, all safety precautions
should be followed (refer to applicable standards), with only
proper and safe tools used. Eyewash and quick drench
facilities should always be available (including portable
equipment).
Maintenance Program
Key to a successful maintenance program are both consist-
ency and regularity. Recognizing that battery maintenance is
labor-intensive, any program must also be economic, consid-
ering the cost of the installation and its importance to the
facility. For example, one would not expect the maintenance
program for a 50-Ah remote-located control battery to be as
rigorous as for a 3000-Ah central-station communication
battery. In addition, tests may be designed which accomplish
one or more objectives at once (e.g., a capacity test which also
checks for high connection resistance). When allocating time
to battery maintenance, ensure that it is sufficient for the tasks
performed. Small inaccuracies that can occur when personnel
are rushed can result in useless data. In addition, other
problems may be overlooked (e.g., if visual inspections are
made too quickly). One technique used to ensure frequent
maintenance at reduced cost is the use of one or more pilot
cells as representatives of the entire battery.
When designing a maintenance program, the specific
battery installed should be addressed. That is to say that,
although the tests and frequency of maintenance may be the
same, there may be subtle differences between batteries. For
example, the nominal float voltage will vary between lead-
antimony and lead-calcium cells. In addition, the total float
voltage (i.e., terminal voltage) will be different for a nominal
125-Vdc battery if the number of cells vary, e.g., a 60-cell or
MIGLIARO: MAINTAINING STATION BATTERIES 767

BATTERY ID MFR/CAT NO. CELL TYPE

IPbSb, PbCa)
NOTE: CHECK TIME OF LAST
CELL SIZE AH @ _ HR RATE NO. OF CELLS WATER ADDITION AND
(U.S. STD IS 8 HRI EQUALIZE CHARGE BEFORE
TAKING ANY READINGS
NOMINAL SG @ 770F NO)MINAL SYSTEM FLOAT VOLTAGE
7- T- T- T-
ELECTRO ELECTRO MEASURED CELL CORRECTED
MEASURED mMEASURED I TEMP LEVEL CORRECTED CELL VOLTAGE CELL
CELL ELECTRO cCORRECTION ElELECTRO CORRECTION SG VOLTAGE CORRECTION VOLTAGE
NO. 1l TEMP (21 LEVEL (31 (1) + (2) + (31 (41 (51 (4) + (5)
1. TO CORRECT SG READING
FOR ELECTROLYTE
TEMPERATURE ADD.001
TO READING FOR EACH
3°F OVER 77OF AND
SUBTRACT.001 FOR EACH
3°F BELOW 77°F
2. ELECTROLYTE CORRECTION
FOR±t INCHES
ABOVE/BELOW THE HIGH
LEVEL LINE IS
+ ___ SG
3. TO CORRECT CELL VOLTAGE
14 READING ADD .003V FOR
EACH OF THAT THE CELL
TEMPERATURE IS ABOVE
THE AVERAGE OF ALL
CELLS
FOR NON-US MANUFACTURED
20 CELLS CONSULT THE
MANUFACTURER
CHARGER OUTPUT_ _ Vdc

WATER ADDED: YES - NO

26 (IF YES NOTE CELL NO. AND
WATER QUANTITY IN REMARKS)
29
CELL CONNECTORS RETORGUED
-YES -NO
ROOM AMBIENT TEMP.: _
35 PILOT CELL(S)
36
37
36 REMARKS:

42

48
49
t -_ =
50
51
52
53 _
54
55
56
57 INSPECTED BY:
58
59
60 --L DATE:
TOTA L TOTA ,L i. ._ i_ TOTAL
NO. OF CELLS AV NOR
OF CELL.s - NO. OF CELLS
AVERAGE/CELL AVERAGEICELI.L I AVERAGEICELL

a Adapted with permission from f8].

Fig. 1. Storage battery quarterly inspection report.

58-cell lead-acid battery, although the voltage per cell may be
the same. Another consideration is that the float voltage used
will vary with the nominal SG of cell. Although this may not
seem important, the author has seen many batteries replaced
because improper maintenance has resulted in irreparable
damage. One common instance where these items are over-
looked is when a battery is replaced. The new battery
continues to be maintained in the same manner as the old one;
however, the new battery may be of a different alloy, or of
nominal SG, or may contain a different number of cells. The
new battery may also be manufactured outside the US, and the
maintenance personnel may not recognize the differences in
the standard ratings and how they affect maintenance prac-
tices.
Data collected during maintenance must be corrected to
standard references. This is the only way that meaningful
comparisons between data can be made. Battery condition can
be assessed based upon these comparisons. (The only true test
of battery capacity is a capacity test, but voltage and SG
trending can be useful in identifying problems or in indicating
that additional testing may be required.) To do this, the forms
used for maintenance to record data should be straightforward
and must include provisions for making all corrections to
standard values. Each manufacturer has sample forms availa-
ble; however, the most complete form available to the author's
knowledge is included in [8]. This form, designed for lead-
acid cells, has been reproduced with slight modification and is
included herein as Fig. 1. (A similar form could be developed
for NiCd cells.)
Manufacturers normally can provide assistance in develop-
768 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-23, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1987
ing a maintenance program for their batteries. All have
maintenance instructions for their cells and some will conduct
maintenance seminars or presentations. This important source
of information should not be overlooked.
Visual Checks
A person knowledgeable in batteries often can identify
problems from a visual inspection. Some of the problems
encountered will be discussed in another section of this paper.
If the battery is in a clear (i.e., transparent) jar, inspection of
the plates also may be possible. Where plates are wrapped or
tubular plates are used, clear jars will not aid inspection. Many
users, especially in the utility industry, have a preference for
clear jars; however, clear jars do not always ensure detailed
visual inspection of the plates. In addition, most maintenance-
free batteries are not in transparent jars.
Measurements and Tests
Measurements are made of voltage and SG to identify the
condition of the battery. In addition, tests are made to
determine battery capacity, and measurements are made of
intercell connector and terminal connection detail resistances.
The only true indication of battery condition and capacity is
a discharge test; however, stationary cells are designed for
float operation, with no more than two deep discharges per
year. Additionally, with duration of these tests, the test setups,
personnel requirements, etc., make frequent testing impracti-
cal. One also must consider that the battery is not available to
serve its load during a capacity test. This would require a
shutdown or redundant/replacement battery to be provided.
(Recently, however, one user has developed a short-time
capacity test that tests batteries in service [9].) For these
reasons, voltage and SG are used for frequent monitoring of
the condition of the battery; they are indicators of state-of-
charge but cannot be used to determine the capacity of the
battery.
Instruments used in battery maintenance are the hydrome-
ter, the voltmeter, the ammeter (may be mounted on a panel or
the charger), the thermometer, the torque wrench, the micro-
ohmmeter, and the battery capacity test set. Where available,
digital meters of at least 3 2 digit display and 0.25 percent
accuracy are preferred. All instruments should be calibrated
periodically. A number of new instruments are available
which continuously monitor a battery. These can be applied
when economically justified.
Another test often overlooked is the water quality test. This
can be performed by the user or by the battery manufacturer.
All manufacturers can provide information on the maximum
allowable impurities in the water used for maintaining
electrolyte levels. Water should be stored in chemically inert,
nonmetallic containers.
One final caution is that instruments inserted into the
electrolyte should not be used for different battery types. For
example, a hydrometer used on a lead-antimony battery
should never be used on a lead-calcium or NiCd battery. Such
use of instruments will cause cell contamination.
Cleaning
When cleaning batteries, jars or covers should be wiped
with a clean lint-free cloth or wiper moistened with clean
water. If electrolyte has spilled on the cover or jar the cloth
should be moistened with a suitable neutralizing agent. Once
complete, wipe with a clean dry cloth or wiper. Never use
solvents, detergents, oils, waxes, polishes, or ammonia to
clean the jars, as this may cause permanent damage to the jar.
Terminal posts and connections should be cleaned with a
clean lint-free cloth or wiper moistened with a suitable
neutralizing agent, followed by a clean cloth moistened with
water, and finally by a clean dry cloth. In the case of heavy
corrosion, cleaning could present a safety hazard. These
connections should be unbolted and cleaned. If the battery
must remain in service during the cleaning, suitable means to
continue service (e.g., installing jumper cells) should be
arranged. Cleaning of heavily corroded posts and connectors
should follow manufacturer's recommendations. Do not clean
the surfaces so rigorously that the plating is removed. A plastic
bristle brush can be used. Once the connection is clean, a thin
coating of an approved corrosion inhibitor such as No-Ox-Id
should be applied (never use anticorrosion sprays in aerosol
containers, as they may contaminate the cells or damage the
jars or covers). When remaking the connection observe the
manufacturer's recommended torque values.
Flame arrestor vent caps should be cleaned periodically by
thoroughly rinsing in clean, clear water. No solvents or
detergents should be used.
Neutralizing Agents
The following neutralizing agents are recommended for use
when performing maintenance. Use of other neutralizing
agents may damage the jars.
lead-acid batteries: bicarbonate of soda solution (1 lb of
bicarbonate of soda to 1 gallon of
water).
nickel-cadmium boric acid solution (7 oz of boric
batteries: acid to 1 gallon of water).
Pilot Cells
Often one or more pilot cells are chosen. This reduces the
time necessary to perform inspections and tests while still
affording the user some degree of confidence in the battery's
condition. Although selection is arbitrary, one cell per rack
section should be chosen. Where multistep or tier racks are
used, pilot cells should be chosen so that all levels are
represented. Some users select pilot cells after complete sets of
quarterly voltages and SG's are taken. Criteria for selection
include cells with lowest SG, lowest voltage, highest SG,
highest voltage, or combinations of both voltage and SG. Pilot
cells should be rotated periodically (usually quarterly). One
reason for this is to limit electrolyte loss. Since pilot cell SG is
read frequently, it is expected that some small amount of
electrolyte will remain in the hydrometer after the electrolyte
removed from the cell for the SG reading is returned to the
MIGLIARO: MAINTAINING STATION BATTERIES
cell. This loss of electrolyte, although very small, would
ultimately affect the cell over a long period of time.
Maintenance-Free?
Currently, many manufacturers are offering maintenance-
free batteries. The only thing that is maintenance-free about
them is that they don't require watering. The user still should
make visual inspections, measurements of voltage and connec-
tion resistance, and capacity tests.
VISUAL INSPECTIONS
Visual inspections are recommended monthly (general) and
yearly (detailed) in accordance with [1]. These inspections
afford the opportunity to check the plates, jars, connections,
and so forth. A flashlight or other localized light source is
essential for these inspections. (Remember to avoid sparks in
the vicinity of the battery.)
When making an inspection, jars should be checked for
cracks or other structural damage. Covers should be checked
as well, as should the cover-to-jar and cover-to-post seals.
Failure of either seal will cause electrolyte to seep out. If clear
jars are being inspected, a light source can be directed through
the material to aid in locating cracks or structural damage.
Any cracks or structural damage to the jar or cover and their
seals should be noted. In these cases the manufacturer should
be consulted.
The plates can be examined where they are not wrapped and
where a clear jar is used. A person familiar with batteries and
their maintenance can make determinations about the battery's
condition from the general appearance of the plates. For a
lead-acid cell the color of the positive plate will vary from a
light to a deep chocolate brown. The darker the color the more
likely the battery has been overcharged. In contrast, the
negative plate is gray in color and tends to darken with age.
Any buckling, warping, scaling, swelling, or cracking of
plates should be noted. Sulphation can sometimes be detected
on the plate edges by shining a light source on the plates; it will
reflect off the sulphate crystals. If visible, inspect the
connection between the plates, strap (i.e., bus bar connecting
the plates to the post), and post, for obvious abnormalities.
This check is important for installations located in areas of
high seismic activity since this connection has sometimes
failed during seismic testing.
Electrolyte levels should be inspected. Cells with electrolyte
levels below the high-level line should be watered. If the
electrolyte level is below the plates, the manufacturer should
be consulted immediately. Water should not be added to these
cells until the manufacturer has agreed or has inspected the
cells. Electrolyte levels below the plates can cause permanent
cell damage, requiring replacement of the cell. A record of the
amount of water added to each cell should be kept. Battery
manufacturers can supply the normal water consumption for
each type of cell. (Lead-antimony batteries will normally
experience an increase in water consumption with age.)
Excess water consumption is an indication of overcharging.
Do not add water to a cell that has been recently moved or
transported until it has been placed back on charge for a period
of time; if the plates are exposed, consult the manufacturer.
769
When a cell is moved or transported, vibration will tend to free
any hydrogen bubbles attached to the plates. The loss of these
bubbles will cause a decrease in electrolyte level. Once the cell
is installed, the bubbles will once again be present and the
electrolyte level will increase. Never add acid (or alkali) to a
cell, nor any additive that claims to rejuvenate cells.
The visual inspection should also include checks for
electrolyte spillage, evidence of corrosion, and vent cap
damage. If any problems are evident they should be corrected.
In addition, the cables connecting the battery to the charger or
the load should be examined. They should not be putting any
strain on the cell posts. If cables are used as intercell
connectors, e.g., between racks or between steps or tiers, a
similar check should be made.
Gassing should be noted during an inspection. Although
gassing on recharge is normal, excessive gassing can indicate
overcharging. Lead-acid batteries begin to gas when cell
voltage reaches approximately 2.30 Vdc. If a cell gases when
it is on open circuit or on float charge it may be an indication
of high local action and undercharging. In these cases the gas
will come from the negative plate; however, it should be
understood that this gas is not being generated but is being
squeezed out of the active material as it expands (i.e., as
sulphate is formed due to discharge). This may be hard to
detect for lead-acid cells by SG readings since the bulk of the
local action takes place at the negative plate and the positive
plate may remain well charged. Thus the SG drop will not be
as great as for a uniformly discharged cell. In addition, cells
which do not gas during charge may indicate problems such as
undercharge, short circuits in the cell, or impurities in the
electrolyte.
Vibration also is a problem for batteries. In severe cases the
surface of the electrolyte will indicate that the battery is
experiencing vibration. Any type of vibration will, over a time
period dependent upon the vibration level, reduce the life of
the battery. Another indicator of vibration might be excess
sediment where there is no apparent reason for the sediment
(i.e., the battery has not experienced over- or undercharging).
Maintenance personnel should not ignore vibration as a
problem and should be made aware of the damage it can cause.
Frozen Electrolyte
It is unlikely that electrolyte will freeze since nominal
1.200-SG acid electrolyte starts forming slush at approximately
- 20°F. During discharge, a lead-acid cell's SG will decrease
with a resultant increase in the temperature at which slush will
form (e.g., at 1.100 SG freezing begins at 16°F). If ice
crystals form and the battery freezes, irreparable damage will
occur, even though this damage may not be visible. In essence,
the frozen electrolyte will cause the active materials to expand
and lose contact with the grid. The frozen electrolyte also can
cause structural damage to the jar.
Hydration
The cause of hydration is overdischarge of a lead-acid
battery without immediate recharge, for example, as might
occur in an unattended location if the charger should fail or if a
lead-acid battery is kept in storage for an extended period
770 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-23, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1987

without recharging. Once hydration is evident, the cell is standard reference (and correction) for non-US manufactured
irreversibly damaged and must be replaced. If the battery is in batteries should follow the manufacturer's recommendations.
clear jars, a whitish "bathtub ring" will be visible approxi- Operation of a battery with high or low electrolyte tempera-
mately halfway up the jar. Hydration occurs when the lead and tures affects battery performance and life. Life is affected by
lead compounds in the cell dissolve in the water released on high temperature, and as a rule of thumb, life is assumed to be
discharge, forming lead hydrate. The lead hydrate deposits on halved for each 15°F increase over 770F.
the separators, and when the battery is placed on charge this Differential temperatures between cells can be a problem. If
causes thousands of short circuits between the positive and the electrolyte temperature differential between any two cells
negative plates. Hydration also can occur if a dry-charged is greater than 5°F, a problem requiring correction exists.
battery is accidentally filled with water instead of electrolyte. This problem normally occurs when one portion of a battery is
located near a localized heat source. It also may be due to
Mossing sunlight (e.g., a window allowing the sun to shine on a portion
Mossing is caused in lead-acid cells by overcharging or by of the battery) or use of a battery rack with more than two
charging at excessively high rates. Some cells may include a steps or tiers. The effect on the battery in these cases is to
moss shield on top of the plates. Mossing refers to the overcharge some cells in the battery while undercharging
accumulation of a sponge-like material on top of the negative others.
plates or the strap. The material is shed from the plates Ambient temperature of the battery area should be read and
(predominantly the positive) and is carried to the top of the recorded periodically where the room or area is environmen-
plates by gassing. When it comes in contact with a plate, it is tally conditioned. Battery performance is based upon the cell
converted to the active material of that plate. Material electrolyte temperature, which can differ from the room
deposited on the positive plates simply washes off again due to ambient. Optimum battery performance is obtained when
gassing; however, the material deposited on the negative plate electrolyte temperature is maintained at 77°F.
adheres to the plate. Over time this buildup continues until it
bridges a separator and makes contact with a positive plate, SPECIFIC GRAVITY
causing a partial short. If mossing is found during an Specific gravity should, as a minimum, be read and
inspection, expect to find excessive sediment as well. recorded monthly and quarterly in accordance with [1]. For
lead-acid cells, SG is a good indication of state-of-charge.
Sediment Corrections for electrolyte temperature and level must be
The quantity and color of sediment in lead-acid cells can applied to adjust the SG readings to a standard reference.
provide much information on a battery. Here, again, sediment Level corrections can vary for each cell type and should be
can be observed only if the battery jar is clear. Most often, obtained from the manufacturer. Note that SG readings should
excessive sediment indicates overcharge or charge at exces- not be taken within 72 h of the termination of an equalize
sively high rates. Normally the sediment space in the bottom charge or a water addition. In addition, SG readings can be
of a cell is more than sufficient to hold all the sediment inaccurate where stratification of electrolyte occurs. (See the
generated over the life of the battery. For a well-maintained appendices of [1] for a more complete discussion of these
cell this may look like a layer of dust on the bottom of the jar. subjects.)
In the worst case the sediment may completely fill the space It is important to recognize that batteries may have different
provided (in the form of hills under the plates) to the point nominal SG's. This is important to note when replacing a
where it reaches the bottom of the plates, causing partial short battery, so that maintenance personnel can be alerted. Most
circuits. often, new high-performance cells for uninterruptible power
If the sediment is dark or chocolate brown in color and service (UPS) or non-US stationary cells will have nominal
located in hills beneath the positive plate, continuous over- SG's as high as 1.300. In similar cells, higher SG's mean
charge is indicated. A gray deposit in hills beneath the higher float voltage requirements, increased local action, and
negative plate indicates continuous undercharge. If, however, higher water consumption. Some application considerations
the sediment is excessive but somewhat mixed, showing both may also cause a manufacturer to vary the nominal 1.215 SG
positive and negative materials, the battery has probably for stationary cells. For instance, higher SG electrolyte mnay be
undergone random periods of undercharge and overcharge. provided when ambient temperatures are extremely low. This
When excessive sediment is noted, be certain to examine the increases cell performance and serves to lower the freezing
cells for mossing. point of the electrolyte. Similarly, in high ambients (normally
above 900F), lower SG electrolyte may be provided to reduce
TEMPERATURE losses and maintain expected life.
Electrolyte temperature should be read and recorded any When measurements of SG are made the corrected value
time SG or voltage readings are taken. Normally only a should be compared to previous data. Readings should be
representative sample of cells are checked for electrolyte uniform, with a minimum difference between the high and low
temperature ([1] recommends every sixth cell), even when readings. Where SG's vary considerably over the battery they
each cell's voltage and SG are read. These readings are used to are termed "ragged," and corrective action is most likely
correct SG (along with the level correction) and voltage to a required. Acceptable limits and corrective actions are included
standard reference in accordance with instructions in [1]. The in [1].
MIGLIARO: MAINTAINING STATION BATTERIES 77 1

VOLTAGE Capacity Tests

The open-circuit voltage of a lead-acid cell is a direct
function of SG and can be approximated by (1). This As discussed, this is the only test that can check the capacity
relationship holds for cells that are truly open-circuited (i.e., of a battery. The results of a capacity test can be used to
no current flowing through it) and have been off charge for determine the timing for a replacement battery. Currently,
more than 16 h with well-mixed electrolyte. A problem may battery test sets are available from a number of manufacturers,
be indicated if a voltage check indicates a voltage below that or the user can fabricate a load bank (sometimes the actual
expected by (1): loads can be used). Three types of battery capacity tests are
described in the standards, namely, acceptance, performance,
E (open-circuit) =SG+ 0. 84. (1) and service tests. Of these, the last two are included in normal
maintenance and testing. Details on these tests are included in
Any maintenance program must recognize minimum float [1]. As in other battery tests, the key is to compare the results
and equalize voltages. Float voltages are directly related to cell to prior test data to establish a trend. Remember that battery
type and plate alloy as well as cell SG. The higher the SG, the capacity may be less than 100 percent of nameplate during the
higher the minimum float voltage. This ensures that sufficient first few years of operation, unless 100-percent capacity at
charging current is available to overcome the increased local delivery was required by the purchase specification. The
action. Too high a float voltage will result in overcharging capacity (normally 90-95 percent of nameplate) of a new
and, therefore, reduced battery life; however, in some battery will rise to its rated value after several charge-
installations a slightly higher float voltage is selected to reduce discharge cycles or after several years of float operation.
or even eliminate the need for periodic equalizing charges for
maintenance purposes. Equalize voltages are normally limited
by system considerations [7]. Individual Charging
Voltages should, as a minimum, be read and recorded Occasionally a few cells may not respond to a complete
monthly and quarterly in accordance with [1]. Correction charge of the battery. In these cases they may be charged
should be made for electrolyte temperature. Similar to SG's, individually or a group of adjacent cells may be charged
voltages should not be taken within 72 h of an equalizing together using a portable charger. It is not necessary to remove
charge. They should also be uniform rather than ragged, with these cells from service. Simply connect the portable charger
minimum spread between the high and low readings. Measur- to the cell(s), making sure the charger voltage is correct (e.g.,
ing of terminal voltage of a battery should be done at the a portable 12-Vdc charger can charge six lead-acid cells).
battery terminals. Measurements at the charger are not Continue the charge until the problem cells are corrected.
acceptable since the voltage drop in the cables to the battery
may result in low voltage at the battery terminals with In-Service Maintenance
resultant undercharging of the battery. Acceptable limits and
corrective actions, as well as additional discussions on The majority of batteries do not have a backup battery that
voltage, are included in [1]. can be used if the normal battery has to be taken out of service
OTHER MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS for maintenance. Therefore, maintenance requiring a battery
outage is normally performed during a facility shutdown.
Connection Resistance Occasionally this may not be possible. One method to avoid
This check is one of the most important, but is often the removing the battery from service is to use jumper cells. This
most neglected. It can be conducted with the battery in service allows sections of a battery to be disconnected and maintained
using instruments normally used to measure power circuit- while the remainder of the battery continues to serve the load.
breaker contact resistance. These instruments pass a moderate- The procedure for inserting jumper cells must be performed by
to-high current through the connection under test, measuring experienced personnel. Accidental shorting of the cells in the
the voltage drop, with its meter output in /tQ. The difficulty battery to be maintained must be avoided. The cables used to
with these measurements is how to perform them without connect the jumper cells, as well as the jumper cells and
significant error, especially when the cells have multiple posts safety-switch, must have sufficient ampacity to handle the
per cell and multiple intercell connectors per post. In these maximum system current, should it occur while the jumper
instances multiple measurements per cell are required. As in cells are in the circuit. Usually a motive power cell or diesel-
all other battery maintenance, the test, once performed at engine cranking battery can serve as the jumper cell. The
installation, should be repeated periodically ([1] recommends jumper cells are connected to the jumper cables with a safety
annually) and the results compared. Additional information on switch in one set of leads. With the safety switch open, the
this test, including a discussion of potential errors can be jumper cables are connected across an appropriate number of
found in [10]. Undetected high connection resistance can cells in the battery (e.g., a 12-Vdc jumper battery would be
cause severe damage if a stationary cell is required to connected across six lead-acid cells). The safety-switch is then
discharge at a high current rate for a period of time. closed, paralleling the jumper cells and the cells in the battery
Applications in UPS require this type of discharge. The author to be maintained. The cells that have been jumpered out can
has seen batteries where the posts have melted due to a high now be disconnected and maintained. The procedure is
connection resistance. reversed to restore the battery.
772 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-23, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1987
Battery Racks
Battery racks should be checked during visual inspections.
Included are checks for structural integrity, corrosion, and
proper grounding. The check should also include an inspection
of the corrosion-resistant covers (e.g., plastic channels),
which normally are installed on the rack materials where the
jars rest. Any corrosion must be cleaned, and the rack must be
recoated using an acid- (for a lead-acid battery rack) or alkali-
resistant (for a NiCd battery rack) coating, in accordance with
the manufacturer's instructions. Cracked or broken corrosion-
resistant covers should be replaced.
If the battery rack is a seismic (i.e., one designed for use in
installations requiring earthquake protection) type, additional
checks of the raiis and spacers must be made. Seismic racks
use rails and spacers to prevent movement of cells during an
earthquake. In addition, the spacers function to prevent
adjacent cells from knocking together. Where the side rails
contact the jars they are covered by a corrosion-resistant cover
(e.g., a plastic channel). During a rack inspection, check to
ensure all side rails, end rails, and spacers are in place and
bolts are properly torqued. Occasionally, portions of the
seismic equipment for the rack may be disassembled to allow
maintenance to be performed on the battery (e.g., cell
removal). If this equipment is not reinstalled, the ability of the
rack to protect the battery during an earthquake will be
impared. If replacement spacers are required, consult the
manufacturer. Spacers must be corrosion-resistant and non-
swelling (normally a styrofoam-like material is used). Swell-
ing of spacers could damage the battery jars. During the
inspection, all rack bolts must be checked and retorqued. In
addition, the components used to anchor the rack (e.g., bolts,
steel plates, welds) must be checked. Any deficiencies must be
noted and corrected in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations/drawings.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR NiCd BATTERIES
In general, all of the procedures and tests described are
valid for NiCd batteries, except for SG. The NiCd electrolyte
is a solution of potassium hydroxide in water with an SG
between 1.180 and 1.200, depending upon the manufacturer.
The electrolyte does not enter into the reaction of the NiCd cell
and therefore is not an indication of state-of-charge. For this
reason SG readings are not part of normal routine mainte-
nance. The electrolyte in a NiCd cell will start to freeze (slush)
at approximately -100F. Occasionally, grayish-white de-
posits may be seen on the cell tops. This is potassium
carbonate, which forms when electrolyte entrained in gases
escaping from the vent reacts with carbon dioxide in the air.
This deposit is not corrosive but is a conductor when damp. It
therefore should be removed from the battery.
When maintaining NiCd batteries, the material in this paper
can be used, changing parameters as appropriate for alkaline
cells. For example, float voltages for NiCd cells are signifi-
cantly different from those for lead-acid cells, although the
battery terminal voltage may be the same (a 125-Vdc lead-acid
battery may have 60 cells, while a NiCd may have 92 cells).
Once the current standards project P1106 is published,
information presently available in [1] for lead-acid batteries
will be available for NiCd batteries.
CONCLUSION
A complete discussion of stationary battery maintenance has
been presented. It should be used in conjunction with industry
standards and manufacturers' information. The emphasis of
the paper has been on the "hows" and "whys" of mainte-
nance. Frequency of maintenance is defined in current
standards for lead-acid batteries and in standards projects
currently under development for NiCd batteries. Although
much of the information presented applies to lead-acid
batteries, NiCd batteries require the same routine visual
inspections and tests, except for SG. The information pre-
sented here, when properly applied in a maintenance program,
will contribute to the optimum life of a battery.
REFERENCES
[1] IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and
Replacement of Large Lead Storage Batteries for Generating
Stations and Substations, ANSI/IEEE Standard 450, 1980.
[2] IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms,
ANSI/IEEE Standard 100, 1984.
[3] IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Large Lead Storage
Batteries for Generation Stations and Substations, IEEE Standard
485-1983.
[4] The Storage Battery Its Fundamental Principles, Operation and
Care. Horsham, PA: Exide Corporation, 1980.
[5] IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and Installa-
tion of Large Lead Storage Batteries for Generating Stations and
Substations, IEEE Standard 484, 1981.
[6] Supplement to IEEE 484, 1981, IEEE Standard 484A, 1984.
[71 M. W. Migliaro, "Considerations for selecting and sizing stationary
batteries," in Conf. Rec. IEEE-IAS 1985 Annual Meeting, 85
CH2207-9, pp. 345-353.
[8] R. V. Casalaina and J. F. Montalbano, "Installation and maintenance
of lead acid stationary batteries for generating stations," presented at
IEEE Power Engineering Society 1986 Winter Meeting, IEEE Paper 86
WM 030-1.
[9] A. L. Lamb and J. H. Bellack, "Battery diagnostic testing for
improved reliability," presented at 1986 Industry Applications Society
Annual Meeting, Denver, CO, Sept. 28-Oct. 3.
[10] J. W. Anderson, "Testing of large lead batteries," presented at IEEE
Power Engineering Society 1986 Winter Meeting, IEEE Paper 86 WM
020-2.
Marco W. Migliaro (S'67-M'69-SM'81) was born
in Brooklyn, NY, in 1948. He received the B.E.E.
degree from Pratt Institute in 1969.
E MHe was employed by American Electric Power
Service Corporation and Gibbs & Hill, Incorpo-
rated, where he was responsible for design and
engineering of electric generating stations. He
joined Ebasco Services Incorporated in 1981 and is
currently Manager-E.E. Special Projects & Stand-
ards.
Mr. Migliaro is a Senior Member of IEEE and is
a member of the Industry Applications and Power Engineering Societies. He
has been involved with batteries and their application for many years and was
a member of the Power Generation Committee, Battery Working Group, for
more than 12 years. He currently is the Battery Chapter Chairman for the
proposed Yellow Book. He has authored a number of articles on batteries, as
well as chapters in the Handbook of Electric Power Calculations and in
Basic Electronics, both published by McGraw-Hill. He is a Lecturer at the
Alber Engineering, Battery Maintenance and Testing Course. He also is
currently Chairman of the Power Engineering Society (PES) Standards
Coordinating Committee, Secretary of the PES Power Generation Committee,
and is a member of the PES Technical Council. He is Vice Chairman of the
IEEE Standards Board and is a Registered Professional Engineer in the State
of New Jersey.