CHAPTER 8 CONTROL CENTERS

CONTENTS

8.1 Introduction 58
8.2 Control Room 58
8.2.1 Analogue Control Rooms 59
8.2.1.1 Illumination 59
8.2.1.2 Panel Types 59
8.2.1.3 Graphic Panels 60
8.2.1.4 Back-Of-Panel Layout 61
8.2.2 Digital/Analogue Or DDC Control Rooms 61
8.2.3 Human Engineering 61
8.2.4 Panel Piping And Tubing 62
8.2.5 Panel Wiring 62
8.2.5.1 Wiring And Terminal Identification 63
8.2.6 Power Distribution 63
8.2.7 Back-Up Power Supply 64
8.2.8 Panel Construction Material 65
8.3 Inspection Of A Newly Constructed Control Centre 65
8.3.1 Evaluating The Panel Construction Dimensions 66
8.3.2 Checking The Panel Construction Materials 66
8.3.3 Construction Features Of The Control Panel 66
8.3.4 Instruments Fitted To The Panel Should Adhere To The Following 66
8.3.5 Power Distribution 66
8.3.6 Testing Of Alarm And 24 / 220 V Control Circuits 67
8.3.7 Checking Of Electronic Instruments 67
8.3.8 Direct-Digital-Control Or Digital-To-Analogue Instrumentation 67
8.3.9 Compiling The Specifications For The Instrumentation Panel 67
8.4 Conclusion 68
References 68

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8.1 Introduction

Due to technological advancements, control centres and the development of control

centres are a highly skilled and sophisticated process. The integration of plant units and
the use of computerized control systems caused the size of the plant and the number of
control loops controlled from one control centre being increased tremendously. Older
types of instrumentation are still in use and therefore all the different types of control
centres will be discussed in this section. Among the different types of control centres in
use is the following:

Analogue control: this is the conventional type of instruments consisting of recorders,

controller, and indicators. The instruments can be pneumatic or electronic. The
instruments are mounted separately each instrument being mounted in its own enclosure.
Analogue-to–digital shared display: Individual analogue controllers are used but shared
display is obtained using a cathode ray tube.
Direct digital control (DDC): this system is a hybrid of analogue and digital control.
Signals to the field and from the field are analogue but it is converted to digital before
being passed to the CPU of the system.

8.2 Control Room

The design of the control room depends on many factors such as the type of instruments
being used, the layout of the control room, complexity of the process, the control
philosophy used, panel profile and aesthetics of the control room.

There are certain rules that should be adhered to when designing the control room. Some
of the most important aspects to be kept in mind are the following:
- Only operations relevant to the control of the plant should be performed in the
control room.
- The operators should not be distracted by un-associated functions.
- Access to the control room should be limited and the control room should not act as a
passageway.
- The control room should be located in such a position that it will not act as a
gathering place for non-process personal for instance it is preferred to place the
control room on the first floor of the building to prevent easy access.
- The panels should be designed to prevent unauthorized people to tamper with
instruments or auxiliary equipment.

Air conditioning or room pressurization should be considered. Apart from operator

comfort, the constant temperature at which the control room is kept will also prevent
instrument drift and problems of electronic failures due to over temperature of the
instruments. Room pressurization is normally applied when the control room is situated
in an explosive atmosphere. Pressurization of the control room permits the reduction of
the control room area from hazardous or semi-hazardous to unclassified. This will bring
about considerable savings since the special enclosures required for hazardous areas will
no longer be required for the instruments.

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8.2.1 Analogue Control Rooms

The most economic layout of the control room is when the panel can be in the form of a
“U”. The corners of the panel should be at 45 degrees instead of right angles. This
arrangement ensures that there will be no interference in the withdrawal or opening of the
instruments. A typical arrangement of a control room is shown in figure 8.1

BACK OF PANEL AREA

45
INSTRUMENT PANEL

OPERATOR DESK

CONTROL ROOM

Figure 8.1: Typical control room layout for analogue controllers

8.2.1.1 Illumination
Illumination should be at a level consistent to close work. The lightning controls should
be placed at standard locations near the entrances of the control room. Reflections on
instruments should be minimized. To achieve this, louvers, baffles or egg-crate type
ceiling fixtures should be used. Light sources should be located so that uniform
illumination is achieved without any dark spots or shadows.

8.2.1.2 Panel Types

Three basic panel types are commonly used. These are: flat panels, breakfront panels and
consoles.

Flat panels: advantages of flat panels are that they are the least expensive design and the
easiest to construct. Orderly layout of equipment like conduits, electrical ducting tubing
and other miscellaneous equipment can be achieved behind the panel. Easy access to all
instruments and auxiliary equipment for maintenance and calibration is thus possible. The
lower row of the panel ( 1 m from ground level) is used for recording and indicating
instruments since this height is inconvenient for operating purposes. A disadvantage of
this type of panel is that a maximum of 4 rows of instruments can be installed this type of
panel will require more control room space.

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Breakfront panels: This panel is an improvement on the flat panel since greater utilisation
of the front plane of the panel is achieved. The top portion of the panel is swung
downwards while the bottom portion of the panel is swung upwards. This allows for
additional rows of instruments to be installed. The overall length of the panel can thus be
reduced which will mean a reduction in the size of the control room. A disadvantage of
this type of panel is that since the density of the instruments are higher less space is
available behind the panel for installation of auxiliary equipment. Maintenance is also
difficult due to the higher density of the instruments.

Consoles: They are often used with high-density instruments in smaller control room. The
length of the console is chosen so that a certain section of the plant is performed per
console. This means one operator per console and one console per operator. The lengths
of the consoles vary from 1 m to 4 m. Auxiliary equipment can be installed inside the
console cabinet. Due to the high density of the instruments space is limited for
maintenance purposes. Consoles are used in just about every installation where DCS
systems or SCADA control is applied. The consoles can also be used with flat panels as
backup panels for larger instruments.

8.2.1.3 Graphic Panels (Mimic Panels)

A graphic panel is a simplified layout of the plant and the control methodology applied to
it. Various materials can be used for the depiction. Most common materials used are
coloured plastics or melamine. Some of the reasons for making use of a graphic panel
are:
- To enable the operator to better visualize a complex process flow diagram.
- To make a complex and sophisticated control philosophy with various complex
interrelationships more understandable.
- To make training of new operators easier.
- For enhancement of the control room.
There is no standardization of the sizes and shapes of the various equipment symbols and
dimensions are changed to suit the individual application. There are however certain rules
to be observed when designing the graphic depiction of the plant. Although the rules are
described for graphic panels, the same rules can also be applied when designing a layout
of the plant when using a DCS or SCADA system. Some of the rules to be kept in mind
are:
- Horizontal and vertical lines should be used for flow diagrams.
- Keep the density and pattern the same throughout the depiction.
- Vessels and containers should take up the middle three fifths of the graphic depiction
and should have a common bottom line if possible.
- Similar equipment should take up similar positions in the depiction for instance
condensers should be at the same height throughout the graphic sketch.
- The top and bottom sections should be used for feed lines to and from the equipment.
- Where lines cross, the horizontal line should break.
Graphic panels can be full graphic or semi-graphic.

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Semi-graphic panels: Either flat or breakfront panels can be used. The top portion of the
panel will house the graphic part. The centre and bottom portions of the panel will house
the instruments and other controls. The instrument positions must be so chosen that the
instrument is installed directly underneath (or as close as possible) its symbol in the
graphic flow diagram. The numbering of the instrument and its symbol should be the
same and very clear in both locations. Alarm and running lights can also be installed on
the graphic section of the panel. A disadvantage of this type of panel is that the
instrument density is being reduced by the need for the instruments to be located below
its symbol in the graphic panel.

Full graphic panel: With this type of panel the graphic section covers the whole of the
control panel with the instruments being installed at the point that corresponds with its
symbol in the graphic panel. Instruments can be aligned in horizontal or vertical rows in
order to simplify the back of panel layout. The instrument density is even lower with this
type when compared to semi graphic panels.

8.2.1.4 Back-Of-Panel Layout

The following should be kept in mind when designing the back of the control panel:
- Sufficient room should be provided to run conduits, air headers, ductworks and other
types of cabling.
- There should be sufficient room for auxiliary equipment such as switches, relays
converters and amplifiers.
- The auxiliary equipment should be installed in such positions that they do not
interfere with accessibility of or obstruct maintenance and calibration of the
instruments on the panel.

8.2.2 Digital/Analogue Or DDC Control Rooms

The control room for this type of control is normally smaller since the equipment takes
up less space but an additional room is required in close vicinity of the control room is
required for auxiliary and computerized equipment. A false floor comes in very handy for
routing of cables. Allowance must be made for peripheral devices such as printers, I/O
cabinets, CPU and other associated equipment. Space should also be allocated for future
expansion if required.

8.2.3 Human Engineering

Psychological and physical considerations are important. A control room should be

designed so that 95% of the population of that specific country will be able to see and
operate the plant without any difficulties. The most important rules to adhere to in the
design of a control room are:
- Take note of the colours used. Red should be used for stop, orange for caution green
for go or safe.
- Selector switches, scales and other instruments should push in or up, rotate clockwise
or slide to the right for “increase” or “on”.

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- Emergency trip switches should be designed to be easy to use but at the same time
accidental trips should be prevented.
- Instruments should be arranged on the panel as though they are in a graphic panel.
Different sections should be grouped together

8.2.4 Panel Piping And Tubing

There are three different types of materials used commonly for piping. They are copper,
plastic and aluminium.

Copper is relative resistant to corrosion. It is readily available and rigid enough to require
only a minimum of support. It can however be easily bend to precise measurements. It is
obtainable with a PVC coating for corrosive atmospheres. Tin plated copper pipe is also
available for damp atmospheres.

Aluminium piping is better suited for ammonia atmospheres than copper. Aluminium is
slightly softer than copper and therefore requires more support. A problem experienced
with aluminium piping is that it tends to work harden and is therefore susceptible to
vibration failures. Aluminium tubing is also available with a PVC coating.

Plastic tubing is normally manufactured from polyethylene. The cost of plastic tubing is
much les than metallic tubes but since it is softer, support is required all the way. The
support consists plastic or metal ducting. The support should be taken to 50 mm from
the instrument where it is to be connected. Unsupported lengths should be avoided since
the plastic tubing has a tendency to kink and can’t be run neatly without support.

8.2.5 Panel Wiring

Before the correct equipment for a specific plant can be selected, the degree and nature of
hazardous areas should be determined. This was dealt with in a previous course and will
not be discussed here.

In order to reduce the mechanical protection require for wiring, panel should be fitted
with lockable doors to limit access so that the area can be classified as authorised
personnel only. This can be done if the area is non-hazardous and general purpose.

Wiring to the back of panel instrumentation can be run in ducting manufactured from
plastic or metal. Insulated wires can be run without any protection from the ducting to the
instrument if the length is 25 to 50 mm. Bare wires or exposed terminals are however
not permitted.

8.2.5.1 Wiring And Terminal Identification

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The 4-20 mA current loop is the most commonly used loop for all transmissions of
control signals. In this type of transmission the power is supplied to the transmitter using
two wires. The same two wires are also used for carrying the 4 – 20 mA signal from the
transmitter concerning the measured variable. To reduce cost of cabling, auxiliary
equipment are normally mounted behind the panel. Complex interconnecting wiring are
then done behind the panel without any long lengths of wiring having to run all the way
to the plant.

For reasons of flexibility and if future changes are to be made, all loops are wired to a
central terminal cabinet where a set of numbers are assigned to each loop. The terminals
and wires connecting to the terminals should be marked clearly. There are no standard
when it comes to identification of wires and terminals. Each company and vendor or
contractor has its own way of marking terminals. As a minimum the loop number, the
function of the loop and the polarity of the wire should appear on the identification. The
colours of the wires can be used to identify the function and polarity of the wires but
should be applied consistently.

8.2.6 Power Distribution

The power source for instrumentation should be a reliable source with automatic
switchover to a back-up power supply in case the main supply should fail. Stand-by
supplies will be dealt with in a later chapter. A typical layout of an instrumentation supply
is shown in figure 8.2.

TI ALARM ANNUNCIATOR
THREE PHASE CABINET
TRANSFORMER

2 A FUSE 5 A FUSE

TO OTHER
INSTRUMENTS
220 V 50 Hz SINGLE 

POLARIZED
PLUGS
6 A FUSE 6 A FUSE
FR FRC
FR
LIC

TIC TRC

PIC
TO OTHER PRC
INSTRUMENTS

Figure 8.2 Instrumentation power distribution system

To avoid possible overloading of circuits, the circuit breakers should be loaded to half
their rated capacity.

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8.2.7 Back-Up Power Supply

Certain factors have to be considered in order to determine if a back-up power supply for
a specific plant is required. Some of the factors to be kept in mind are:
- The power source has a history of failures of up to half hour’s duration.
- There are relays and solenoids involved in the control that is to be manually reset
after a power failure.
- There is a burner with flame safety equipment involved
- The process is a fast reacting process with controllers in critical service.
- There is computerized control involved in the process.

A typical back-up power supply is shown in figure 8.3. It consists of a battery, a battery
charger and an inverter. Since the back-up system is feeding the instruments, there is no
need for synchronisation before changing over to the back-up system. In this case, if a
power failure should occur, the battery will provide the power to the inverter from where
it will feed the power to the instruments.

BATTERY STEPDOWN
CHARGER TRANSFORMER

BATTERY

DC TO AC SYNCRONISING LINE
INVERTER

TRANSFER
SWITCH –
MAKE BEFORE
BREAK
UPS BUS

NORMAL POWER SUPPLY

DISTRIBUTION
TO INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

Figure 8.2: Standby power supply system with battery back-up

The capacity of the battery should be sized according to one of the following criteria:
- Length of time of average outage x 1,5.
- Period the plant will remain operable after the mains has failed x 1,5
- Time it will take to switch to an alternate power supply x 2.
- Time required to shutdown the plant in an orderly manner.

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In the system in figure 8.2 the battery charger should be capable of supplying the
necessary power to operate the plant as well as charging the battery at the same time.

8.2.8 Panel Construction Material

Materials used most frequently for manufacturing of control panels are steel and various
plastics. The advantages of using steel are the following;
- Strength: Since the steel is stiff, very little support is required at cut outs for
installation of the instrumentation.
- Easy to work with: Holes can be drilled and supports can be welded to the panel at
any required point.
- Safety: Since it is a metal panel, the panel forms an excellent path to ground if a
short circuit should be experienced in any instrument.
- Attractive finish: The panel can be painted in any colour and seams can be finished
of to be invisible.
- Availability: High quality steel sheets are readily available.

The disadvantages of steel panels are the following:

- Susceptible to corrosion: In a corrosive atmosphere any scratches on the panel will
cause the panel to corrode.
- Difficult to add cut outs: Once the panel is in use, it is very difficult to add cut outs if
additional instruments are to be installed since the metal filings can interfere with the
mechanical or electrical operation of the existing instruments.

Plastics available for the manufacturing of panel boards are Formica, Micarta, Peonite,
and Textolite. The thickness of the sheets is normally 12,5 mm. The advantages of plastic
panes are:
- Durability: Plastic panels are very resistant to scratching and heat.
- Available in different colours: a variety of colours are available.
- Seam is required every 1,2 m: The plastic sheets are only a specific size and if longer
panel lengths are required, there will be a seam.
- A steel frame is required: the plastic sheet is flexible and requires a lot of support.
- Routing of holes is required: due to the thickness of the plastic sheet, routing may be
necessary for installation of panel lights, switches, etc.

8.3 Inspection Of A Newly Constructed Control Centre

Inspection of a newly constructed instrument panel can be done at the manufacturer’s

workshop. With the instrumentation and auxiliary equipment fitted to the control panel,
everything on the panel from the field tie-ins can be checked. Each control panel has its
own design and instrumentation and other detail but the following can be used as general
guidelines in order to compile a complete inspection list to check the operational
functionality of the equipment fitted to the control panel.
8.3.1 Evaluating The Panel Construction Dimensions:

- Overall dimensions.

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- Material thickness.
- Size and dimensions of the frame.

8.3.2 Checking The Panel Construction Materials:

- Materials used for the panel and frame.

- Panel paintwork, correct colour, smooth finish etc.
- Materials used for pneumatic instrumentation piping if present.
- Materials used for wiring for example correct wire gauge, insulation and type.

8.3.3 Construction Features Of The Control Panel:

- A workmanship like finish to the control panel.

- All instruments and other equipment properly aligned.
- All wiring and piping neatly done and supported and installed in such a way as not to
interfere with normal maintenance.
- Equipment to be rigidly mounted.
- All instruments and auxiliary equipment to be clearly marked.
- Al field tie-ins to be identified.

8.3.4 Instruments Fitted To The Panel Should Adhere To The Following:

- Instruments should be installed in their proper locations.

- Instruments are to be fitted with the correct charts, scales, correct model number and
should be properly identified.

8.3.5 Preliminary checks can be performed on the instruments fitted to the panel. The
following are of the items that can be checked:

8.3.5 Power Distribution:

- Ensure that no one is working on the panel.

- Check the grounding system of the panel.
- Ensure that all switches and circuit breakers are in the off position.
- Disconnect all polarised plugs.
- Use a high resistance lamp across the input terminals and switch on power to the
panel.
- If the light dims, there is a leakage to ground or a short circuit. Find and fix the error.
- Energise and check each circuit individually and de-energise after completion of the
testing.
- If any pneumatic instrumentation is present, piping, filters, shut off valves, etc should
be checked for functionality.

8.3.6 Testing Of Alarm And 24 / 220 V Control Circuits:

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- Bridge input terminals one at a time and verify that the correct annunciator light
comes on. The siren can be disconnected after the first test.
- Test relay circuits by simulating input signals.
- Test outputs by connecting a test lamp or multi-meter across the output terminals.
- Verify that all input and output terminals are correctly numbered for identification
purposes.
- Ensure that all recorder chart drives are functioning properly.

8.3.7 Checking Of Electronic Instruments:

- De-energize all loops before testing so that loops can be checked individually.
- Simulate the input signal at the input terminals and check instrument for proper
functioning.
- Connect appropriate resistance across the output terminals to test the output.
- Ensure that all wiring is properly marked for identification purposes.

8.3.8 Direct-Digital-Control Or Digital-To-Analogue Instrumentation:

- Simulate an appropriate input signal at the input/output terminal cabinet

- Connect a resistance to the output terminals at the input/output cabinet.
- Check the display for the response.
- Make sure that square root extraction has been applied to all flow signals within the
PLC or DCS system.
- Verify that all algorithms and PID settings within the system are correct.
- Verify that all relevant instrumentation has been grouped together on the CRT
display.
- Ensure that all wiring has been properly identified.

After the inspection a “punch list” is to be prepared. A copy of this document is to be

handed to the panel manufacturer.

8.3.9 Compiling The Specifications For The Instrumentation Panel

In order for there to be no misunderstanding as to what exactly is required from the panel
manufacturer, a written specification covering all important aspects of the panel
manufacturing is to be compiled. This document should instruct the manufacturer as to
what materials is to be used and design options available. At least the following points
should be covered in the design specifications:

- General: defining the design drawing specification and codes furnished by the
purchaser that is to be followed by the panel manufacturer.
- Engineering: Description of the drawings to be developed by the panel manufacturer
and whether as-built drawings are required.
- Construction: Description of the type of panels and their fabrication. Area
classification, ambient conditions, etc should also be included.

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- Design: methods of installing and materials to be used for installing wiring, piping,
etc should be specified.
- Materials: a list of all the materials to be used for construction.
- Cost: itemised billing should be applied in order to simplify additions and deletions.
- Inspections: should indicate at what stages inspections is to be done during the
manufacturing process. The extent of the inspection is to be included.
- Shipping: the method of moving the panel from the manufacturing plant to the site is
to be clarified.
- Guarantees: conditions under which the panel can be rejected and the duration of
cover supplied by the manufacturer’s warranty.

8.4 Conclusion

The above is not everything to be said on this subject. Since each control room is unique,
different designs and different methods can be applied.

References:

Instrument Engineer’s Handbook Bela G Liptak

Revised edition (Chilton Book Company)

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