Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is a branch of science which deals with energy. Engineering
thermodynamics is modified name of this science when applied to design and analysis
of various energy conversion systems. Thermodynamics has basically a few
fundamental laws and principles applied to a wide range of problems.
Thermodynamics is core to engineering and allows understanding of the mechanism of
energy conversion. It is really very difficult to identify any area where there is no
interaction in terms of energy and matter. It is a science having its relevance in every
walk of life. Thermodynamics can be classified as ‘Classical thermodynamics’ and
‘Statistical thermodynamics’. Here in engineering systems analysis the classical
thermodynamics is employed.
“Thermodynamics is the branch of physical science that deals with the various
phenomena of energy and related properties of matter, especially of the laws of
transformations of heat into other forms of energy and vice-versa.”
Or
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the interaction between energy and
material systems.
Internal combustion engines employed in automobiles are a good example of the
energy conversion equipments where fuel is being burnt inside the piston cylinder
arrangement and chemical energy liberated by the fuel is used for getting the shaft
work from crankshaft.
Applications of thermodynamics
1. Steam& nuclear power plants
2. Internal combustion engines
3. Gas turbines
4. Air conditioning
5. Refrigeration
6. Gas dynamics
7. jet propulsion
8. compressors
9. chemicals power plants

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

MACROSCOPIC AND MICROSCOPIC POINTS OF VIEW

Thermodynamic studies are undertaken by the following two different approaches.
1. Macroscopic approach—(Macro mean big or total)
2. Microscopic approach—(Micro means small)
Sl
MACROSCOPIC APPROACHES MICROSCOPIC APPROACHES
no
1 In this approach a certain quantity The approach considered that the
of matter is considered without system is made up of a very large
taking in to account of events number of discrete particles known
occurring at molecular level .In as molecules. These molecules have
other words this approach to the different velocities and energies. The
thermodynamics is concerned with values of these energies are
gross or over all behavior. This is constantly changing with time. This
known as classical is known as statistical
thermodynamics. thermodynamics.

2 The analysis of macroscopic system The behavior of the system is found

requires simple mathematical by using statistical methods as the
formula. number of molecules very large. So
advanced statistical and
mathematical methods are needed to
explain the changes in the system.
3 The values of the properties of the The properties like velocities,
system are their average values. momentum, impulse, kinetic energy
etc... Which describe the molecule
cannot be easily measured by
instruments.

4 In order to describe a system only a Large numbers of variables are

few properties are needed. needed to describe a system. So the
approach is complicated.

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

SYSTEM, BOUNDARY AND SURROUNDINGS

System - A system is a finite quantity of matter or a prescribed region of space (Refer

Fig)
Boundary - The actual or hypothetical envelope enclosing the system is the boundary of
the system. The boundary may be fixed or it may move, as and when a system
containing a gas is compressed or expanded. The boundary may be real or imaginary.
Surroundings- Everything outside the boundary is the surroundings.

Fig-The System

THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS
1. Closed System ( Control Mass)
2. Open System ( Control Volume)
3. Isolated System
4. Adiabatic System
5. Homogeneous System
6. Heterogeneous System

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

Closed System or (Control Mass):

A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and
no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system, as
shown in Fig. But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and the
volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed.
Open System (Control Volume)

An open system is one in which matter flows into or out of the system. Most of the
engineering systems are open. The boundaries of a control volume are called a control
surface.

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

Isolated System

An isolated system is that system which exchanges neither energy nor matter with any
other system or with environment.
Adiabatic System
An adiabatic system is one which is thermally insulated from its surroundings. It can,
however, exchange work with its surroundings. If it does not, it becomes an isolated
system.
Phase
A phase is a quantity of matter which is homogeneous throughout in chemical
composition and physical structure.
Homogeneous System
A system which consists of a single phase is termed as homogeneous system.
Examples: Mixture of air and water vapour.
Heterogeneous System
A system which consists of two or more phases is called a heterogeneous system.
Examples: Water plus steam, ice plus water and water plus oil.

THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if the temperature and pressure at all points
are same; there should be no velocity gradient; the chemical equilibrium is also
necessary.
A system in thermodynamic equilibrium satisfies:
1. Mechanical equilibrium (no unbalanced forces)
2. Thermal equilibrium (no temperature differences)
3. Chemical equilibrium (no chemical reaction)

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

Thermal equilibrium- The temperature of the system does not change with time and
has same value at all points of the system.
Mechanical equilibrium- There are no unbalanced forces within the system or between
the surroundings. The pressure in the system is same at all points and does not change
with respect to time.
Chemical equilibrium- No chemical reaction takes place in the system and the chemical
composition which is same throughout the system does not vary with time.
PROPERTIES OF SYSTEMS
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
1. Intensive properties. These properties do not depend on the mass of the system.
Examples: Temperature and pressure.
2. Extensive properties. These properties depend on the mass of the system.
Example: Volume.
Extensive properties are often divided by mass associated with them to obtain the
intensive properties. For example, if the volume of a system of mass m is V, then the
specific volume of matter within the system is V/m which is an intensive property.
FOR EXAMPLE.... to illustrate the difference between extensive and intensive properties,
consider an amount of matter that is uniform in temperature, and imagine that it is
composed of several parts, as illustrated in Fig. The mass of the whole is the sum of the
masses of the parts, and the overall volume is the sum of the volumes of the parts.
However, the temperature of the whole is not the sum of the temperatures of the parts;
it is the same for each part. Mass and volume are extensive, but temperature is
intensive.

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

Point function

When two properties can be

located on the thermodynamic
diagram, then those properties
are called point function. For
example pressure, temperature,
volume are the point function
since these can be located on
the thermodynamic diagram as shown in fig and their change can be written as
difference between their end states.

Change in volume dv= V2-V1

Change in pressure dp=P2-P1

Path function
There are certain quantities which cannot be located on the thermodynamic diagram
by point and also whose change cannot be written as the difference between their end
states. The change in their values given by the area under the thermodynamic diagram.
Such a quantities are called path function. For example heat and work

Change in heat

Work done

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

STATE
State is the condition of the system at an instant of time as described or measured by its
properties. Or each unique condition of a system is called a state.
PROCESS
Whenever one or more of the properties of a system change, a change in the state of the
system occurs. The path of the succession of states through which the system
passes is called the thermodynamic process.

One example of a thermodynamic process is increasing the temperature of a fluid

while maintaining a constant pressure.
A process may be non-flow and flow process
A process may be non-flow in which a fixed mass within the defined boundary is
undergoing a change of state.
Example: A substance which is being heated in a closed cylinder undergoes a non-flow
process. Closed systems undergo non-flow processes.
A process may be a flow process in which mass is entering and leaving through the
boundary of an open system. In a steady flow process mass is crossing the boundary
from surroundings at entry, and an equal mass is crossing the boundary at the exit so
that the total mass of the system remains constant.

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

Quasi-static Processes and non Quasi-static Processes

Or
Reversible process and Irreversible process
Quasi-static Processes {Quasi-infinite slowness}
A quasi-static process is also called a reversible process. This process is a succession of
equilibrium states and infinite slowness is its characteristic feature.
Let consider a system of gas contained in a cylinder as shown in fig. the system initially
is in equilibrium state, represented by the p1, v1, and t1. The weights on the piston just
balanced the upward force exerted by the gas. If is removed, there will be an

unbalanced force between the system and the surrounding, and under gas pressure, the
piston will move up till it hits the stops.

stops

weight
1
final state p1
p2 v2 t2
piston
weight
2
p2
intial state

gas
p1 v1 t1 v1 v2
boundary

Transition b/w two equilibrium states by an unblanced forces & pv diagram

The system again comes to an equilibrium state, being described by the properties p2,
v2, t2.but the intermediate states passed through by the system are nonequilibrium
states which cannot be described by thermodynamics coordinates. Fig shows position 1
and 2 as initial and final equilibrium states joined by a dotted line, which got no
meaning otherwise.

Mr. Somashekar D, Dept of Mechanical Engg, Samara University 9

 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

stops weights
4
3
Equillibrium states
2 1
1
final state p1
p2 v2 t2
Quasi-static process
4 piston
3 weights
2
1 p2
intial state
2
gas
p1 v1 t1 v1 v2
boundary

Infinitly slow Transition b/w two equilibrium states & pv diagram

Now if the single weight on the piston is made up of many very small pieces of weight
as shown in fig and these weights removed one by one very slowly from top of the
piston, at any instant of the upward travel of the piston, if the gas system is isolated, the
departure of the state of the system from the thermodynamics equilibrium state will be
infinitesimally small. So every state passed through by the system will be an equilibrium
state. Such a process, which is but a locus of all the equilibrium state, is known as
Quasi-static Processes. It is also called as reversible process.
Examples. Some examples of nearly reversible processes are :
(i) Frictionless relative motion.
(ii) Expansion and compression of spring.
(iii) Frictionless adiabatic expansion or compression of fluid.
(iv) Polytropic expansion or compression of fluid.
(v) Isothermal expansion or compression.
(vi) Electrolysis.
Examples. Some examples of nearly irreversible process are.
(i) Relative motion with friction (ii) Combustion
(iii) Diffusion (iv) Free expansion
(v) Throttling (vi) Electricity flow through a resistance
(vii) Heat transfer (viii) Plastic deformation

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

CYCLE

Any process or series of processes whose end states are identical is termed a cycle.
Or
If, at the end of the process, the properties have returned to their original values, the
system has undergone a cyclic process or a cycle.
The path refers to the series of state changes through which the system passes during a
process.
Diathermic wall- The wall which permits to flow of heat is known as Diathermic wall
(Q≠ 0).
Adiabatic wall- The wall which not permits to flow of heat is known as Adiabatic wall
(Q=0)
TEMPERATURE
The temperature is a thermal state of a body which distinguishes a hot body from a cold
body.
Instruments for measuring ordinary temperatures are known as thermometers and
those for measuring high temperatures are known as pyrometers.

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

Zeroth law of thermodynamics’ states that if two systems are each equal in temperature
to a third, they are equal in temperature to each other.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if the bodies A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body C separately then the two bodies A and B shall also be in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

TEMPERATURE SCALES
Celsius Scale or Centigrade Scale- Anders Celsius gave this Celsius or Centigrade scale
using ice point of 0°C as the lower fixed point and steam point of 100ºC as upper fixed
point for developing the scale.
Fahrenheit Scale- Fahrenheit gave another temperature scale known as Fahrenheit scale
and has the lower fixed point as 32 F and the upper fixed point as 212 F.

Rankine scale- Rankine scale was developed by William John MacQuorn Rankine, a
Scottish engineer. It is denoted by letter R. It is related to Fahrenheit scale as given
below.

Kelvin Scale- Kelvin scale proposed by Lord Kelvin is very commonly used in
thermodynamic analysis. It also defines the absolute zero temperature. Zero degree
Kelvin or absolute zero temperature is taken as –273.15ºC. It is denoted by letter K.

Mr. Somashekar D, Dept of Mechanical Engg, Samara University 12

 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

Mr. Somashekar D, Dept of Mechanical Engg, Samara University 13

 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

Constant Volume Gas thermometer

In its original state the glass bulb is full of air and the mercury levels are the same. A
mark(X) is made against the glass to record this.
When the bulb is placed in a hot liquid for a temperature reading, the air in the bulb
expands, pushing the mercury down on the left and up on the right.
To get the air in the flask back to its original volume, the movable tube is lowered until
the mercury is at the level previously marked.
There is now a level difference (head) h between the two tubes. This is a measure of the
pressure of the gas without taking account of atmospheric pressure pA. So accounting
for atmospheric pressure, the pressure pθ of the gas at temperature θ is:

It follows that the temperature of the gas, θ is given by:

where p0 and p100 are pressures at 0oC & 100oCrespectively.

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

EXAMPLES
1. Determine the human body temperature in degree Celsius (°C) if the
temperature in Fahrenheit is 98.6°F.

2 A temperature scale is being developed using the following relation.

Where ‘p’ is thermometric property and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants. Determine celsius
temperature corresponding to thermometric property of 6.5, if ice point and steam
point give thermometric property value of 3 and 8.

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 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

3 In a thermoelectric thermometer for t°C temperature, the emf is given as;

Thermometer is having reference junction at ice point and is calibrated at ice point and
steam points. What temperature shall be shown by the thermometer for a substance at
30°C?

4. Estimate the % variation in temperature reading from a thermocouple having its

test junction in gas and other reference junction at ice point. The temperature of
gas using gas thermometer is found 50°C. Thermocouple is calibrated with emf
varying linearly between ice point and steam point. When thermocouple’s test
junction is kept in gas at t°C and reference junction at ice point, the e.m.f.
produced in mill volts is,

Mr. Somashekar D, Dept of Mechanical Engg, Samara University 16

 Unit 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

5. A temperature scale of certain thermometer is given by the relation

t = a ln p + b
where a and b are constants and p is the thermometric property of the fluid in the
thermometer. If at the ice point and steam point the thermometric properties are found
to be 1.5 and 7.5 respectively what will be the temperature corresponding to the
thermometric property of 3.5 on Celsius scale.

6. A thermocouple with test junction at t°C on gas thermometer scale and reference
junction at ice point gives the e.m.f. as

Mr. Somashekar D, Dept of Mechanical Engg, Samara University 17