PAPER SP 22-10

lnd·ustrial Research on
Connections for Precast and
In-Situ Conc·rete
By PETER COURTOIS
Based on the results of an intensive research program using
a variety of anchors and inserts, the development of a general
theory regarding the mode of insert failure is described. Verifi-
cation of the theory and accuracy of the program was checked
by field tests at dams in Kentucky and v\Tashington as well as
in many laboratory tests. It is indicated there is a need to ex-
plore additional areas of investigation so that meaningful re-
sults may be applied to the fabrication of safe, economical
anchorage devices.
Keywouls: anchors; bolts; bonding strength; compressive
strength; concretes; connections; embedment; failures; fas-
teners; formwork (construction) ; inserts; loads (forces) ; pre-
cast concrete; pullout tests; research; shear strength; tensile
strength; tilt-up construction.

• THE OVERALL RESEARCH PROGRAMS of the five or six major maufac-

turers of anchors and inserts were conducted as needed for product de-
velopment and a general knowledge of insert capacity. Early shelf angle
and threaded inserts were of malleable castings and it was not until after
vVorld War II that fabricated nietal wire inserts began to capture a larger
share of the market.

EARLY TESTING PROCEDURE

One of the fallacies in the early testing procedures was the use of a
small concrete block that contained the insert to be tested. It was neces-
sary to hold the small concrete block in position and as a tensile load was
applied, the block would usually fail in flexure before the true pullout
capacity of the insert was determined. \'Ve have since learned the im-
portance of having a sufficient mass of concrete available to insure against
a concrete flexure failure.

123
124 MECHANICAl FASTENERS FOR CONCRETE

ACI member Peter Courtois is marketing manager with

Superior Concrete Accessories, Inc., where he has been directing
research on inserts and anchors. A Civil Engineering graduate of
1llinois Insti tutc of Technology he is a member of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, ''Vcstern Society of Engineers, ami
National Society of Professional Engineers. Mr. Courtois has also
served on ACI CommitLee 3117 "Formwork for Concrete."

OUTLINING A RESEARCH PROGRAM

In 1961 it was decided that the test results from previous years were
not suflicienlly reliable for the increasing questions presented by archi-
tects, engineers and conlractors. All earlier tests were reviewed and a
program was outlined to determine if a general theory could be de-
veloped which could predict insert failure wilhout the need of time
consuming and rather expensive testing procedures. The fmn of '"'iss,
Janney, Elstner and Associates of Northbrook, 111. was engaged to con-
duct the testing program that would hopefully verify the general theory.
It may be of interest lo the reader to know that the average cost of a
single insert 1est is approximately $25.00. It is of li ttlc value to test only
one insert; generally a minimum of three tests will produce results
that arc reliable. It is 1herdore necessary to thoroughly plan the lest
program on the basis of obtaining maximum information for minimum
expenditure.
The final series of tests ·was completed in August, 1966, involving both
tension and shear tests and the results arc within ± 12 percent of the
general theory.
Anchors and inserts may be classified into four categories: light, medi-
um, heavy duly and custom fabricated.

TYPES OF INSERTS
Light duty inserts
Fig. 10-I indicates several typical examples of light duty inserts used_in
thin slabs, flat slabs, pan, or joist construction, etc., to support false ceil-
ings, lighting fixtures, water lines, clip angles, etc. The wire configuration
at the right is a riser frame that is used to provide an anchor for scat
brackets in bleachers or auditoriums as well as to support the riser forms
during construction. Safe load carrying capacities in tension vary with the
insert bolt diameter, and arc usually from 200 lb for % in. diameter up
to several thousand pounds for 1 in. diameter bollsfinscrls.
INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ON CONNECTIONS 125

Fig. 10-1-Typical light duty inserts

Medium duty inserts

Fig. 10-2 depicts medium duty inserts used in anchorage of formwork
to previous cast-in-place concrete, handling of small precast elements and
inserts for tilt-up construction. Tilt-up panels average 30,000 to 60,000 lb
in weight and the c1uantity and location of inserts is a function of panel

Fig. 10-2-Medium duty inserts used in anchorage of formwork, and tilt-

up construction
126 MECHANICAL FASTENERS FOR CONCRETE

thickness, height, and width as well as concrete strength at time of tilting.

Ultimate capacities for inserts of this type vary from 2000 to 18,000 lb.

Heavy Duty Inserts

Heavy duty anchors used for anchorage of steel cantilever forms in
lock and dam construction and for handling of heavy precast elements
are shown in Fig. I 0-3. Ultimate capacities of this type of insert range
from 18,000 to 80,000 lb.

Fig. 10-3-Heavy duty inserts with a capacity range from 18,000 to

80,000 lb

Special Anchors
There arc any number of special anchors that arc fabricated to suit
unusual conditions due to reinforcing steel or prestress strand locations
in a concrete member, or there may be limitations for anchor placement
caused by the shape of the concrete element. Anchors of this nature arc
generally made of wire wclclmcnt configurations since the cost of special
malleable or ductile castings arc prohibitive. A few special anchors arc
illustrated in Fig. I 0-3a.

GENERAL THEORY OF INSERT FAILURE

After review of all tests conducted prior to 19GI, a general relation-
ship between anchor pullout capacity and compressive strength of con-
INDUSTRIAl RESEARCH ON CONNECTIONS 127

Fig. 10-3a-Special anchors of wire weldment

crete was found to exist. Some exploratory tests revealed depth of embed-
ment was another important variable that aliects pullout capacity. Since
the insert or anchor exerts a tensile force on the surrounding concrete, we
refer to the "shear resistance" value of the concrete area that happens to
be encompassed by the anchor.
This review and preliminary testing indicated that five types of fail-
ures can result when an insert is subjected to a tensile load along the
center line of axis of the insert bolt. Modes of failure arc:
PI = full shear cone
P2 = small shear cone plus bond failure
P3 = small shear cone plus yield of material
P'l = ultimate capacity of insert material
P5 = bolt capacity
Pl full shear cone
In this case the anchor length is sufficient to develop proper bond and
the material strength (yield) is in excess of the applied load P as well as
the bolt capacity. As the load P increases the applied tensile forces on the
surrounding concrete exceed the "shear resistance" of the concrete and a
full shear failure occurs. The insert itself has not failed but rather the
128 MECHANICAL FASTENERS FOR CONCRETE

concrete encased by the insert. This failure is typically associated with

low strength concrete. Refer to Fig. 10-4.
Corrective jJrocedures - A longer anchor must be selected such that
the shear cone area is increased thereby increasing the ultimate capacity.
Increasing the depth of embedment also contributes significantly to the
ultimate capacity.

' ', I
" I
Pseudo
"
shear~{_'\.
cone '-
1 '
I __ ' '
L

~~
Full Shear Cone
Fig. 10-4-Full shear failure of low strength concrete encasing insert

P2 small shear cone plus bond failure

In this type of failure the values are additive; as the load P increases,
the anchor length or configuration is not sufficient to develop the full
shear cone. The anchor begins to slip internally and transfers the load to
the front of the anchor and a small shear cone failure results. This failure
is the most difficult to predict because of the many variables associated
with the bond capacity. Refer to Fig. I 0-5a and I;ig. I 0-5b illustrating a
classical example of this condition.
Corrective jJrocedures- A longer andfor different anchor configura-
tion must be selected such that a bond failure does not occur. An increase
in depth of embedment has little elfect on ultimate load carrying
capacity.

P3 small shear cone plus yield of material

Failures of this nature (Fig. I 0-6) occur when the anchor configura-
tion assures proper bond and the full shear cone resistance value exceeds
INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ON CONNECTIONS 129

\ I
', I
Shear~L
cone I'"
I '
Pseudo shear~­
cone

Bond failure

Failure: Shear Cone+ Bond

Pu =(Ac)K~ + (K 1 )NF.(fb)L
Fig. 10-5a-Small shear cone plus bond failure

Fig. 1 0-5b-Ciassical example of failure type P11 small shear cone plus
bond failure, where depth of embedment is 6 in., compressive strength
440 psi, load at J{6 in., slip equals 14,000 lb, with ultimate load at
19,000 lb
130 MECHANICAl FASTENERS FOR CONCRETE

that of the yield strength of the insert material. Load P increases until the
yield strength of the material is reached at which time the anchor moves
forward internally transferring the load to the front of the anchor. Load-
ing continues until the small shear cone failure occurs. However, this is
not a failure of the insert proper; loading can continue, since bond still
exists, until the ultimate strength of the insert material is reached. The
pullout capacity P3 is a combination of the material yield point and the
small shear cone; in many cases this value will be in excess of the ultimate
strength of the insert material, which is identified as failure P'J. This
failure type is the most typical and the most predictable.
Corrective jnocedure - It is obvious that the anchor length and
configuration are satisfactory. Load carrying capacity can be increased
by changing materials so that the yield point of the insert is increased. A
larger depth of embedment would also increase the ultimate strength of
the insert.

Failure: Shear Cone + Yield

Pm = ( Ac) K~ + (N ) Fy
Fig. 10-6-Small shear cone plus yield af material failure

P4 ultimate capacity of insert material

This case is closely associated with case P3 and many times is difficult
to distinguish from P3, depending upon the time-rate of loading. In a
rapid time-rate of loading situation it is extremely difficult to observe the
change from P3 condition to P'J condition, see Fig. I 0-7.
INDUSTRIAl RESEARCH ON CONNECTIONS 131

In P4 the small shear cone has a low value and loading continues un-
til the ultimate strength of the material is realized. If the depth of em-
bedment is large enough such that the small shear cone capacity is in
excess of the ultimate strength of the material or of the bolt, loading may
continue until either the insert or the bolt fails, whichever has the lessor
ultimate value.

Fa i I u r e : PDr = ( N ) Fu
Fig. 10-7-Failure caused by exceeding ultimate strength of material

Corrective Jnocedures - The weakest link in this case is, of course,

the material itself.
Higher ultimate strength material must be selected to increase the
value of P'L

PS ultimate capacity of bolt

This type of failure must not occur regardless of insert use, whether
it be for a cantilivered form as used in lock and dam work or for a
rigging/lifting arrangement for handling a architectural precast concrete
clement. Fortunately, most bolts used today are of high tensile quality
and the ratio of bolt capacity to safe working load of the insert is usually
a minimum of 5 to I.
Failures of bolts arc generally caused by excessive wear on threads,
field modification of bolt, bending and restraightening of bolt, etc.
Only in small diameter insert sizes, such as !4 and % in., Is the bolt
capacity similar to the insert capacity. Fortunately, this type of insert is
132 MECHANICAL FASTENERS FOR CONCRETE

used for very light duty application; suspended ceilings, lighting fixtures,
etc.
Corrective jYrocedures - In handling of precast concrete clements, the
cost of a replacement boll is insignificant when related to replacing the
concrete shape, clean-up of the broken member, and how does one place
a \'lalue on personal injuries? Every erector must establish a control
program that replaces bolts after a predetermined number of uses re-
gardless of their exterior appearance.

GENERAL THEORY EQUATIONS

For the various failure types we developed an equation that would
predict insert/concrete failure, with the basis of concrete failure being
similar to that of a column "punching'' through a slab. Fig. 10-8 shows a
column loading a slab. Note that d/2 is the location for checking the value
of allowable shear, which is used as a measure of diagonal tension. In the
equation, total shear V = (v) (bod), where v is the allowable shear stress
and (b,) (d) is the shear area. The shear stress in accordance with ACI
318 should not exceed 2V/1 for working stress design and 3.4VfT in
ultimate strength design, which has taken into account the capacity re-
duction factor for diagonal tension loadings. By substituting the ultimate
value of v into the total shear equation the result is
V = 3.'! (bo) (d) VfT
Fig. 10-9 illustrates the similarity between an insert "loading" the
surrounding concrete and a column "loading" a slab of Figure 5. The
general formula for a full shear cone failure is
P1 = (Ac) (K) (Vf:[:
where
P 1 = pullout capacity of anchor (concrete failure)
A.,= Pseudo-shear cone area, (located at d/2 as in the column ex-
ample
K = constant (a function of mix proportions)

Tests have shown that the value of K varies from 1.8 for low strength
concrete as used in lock and dam construction (3 and G in. aggregate,
188 to 282 lb of cement per cu yd and various percentages of fly ash re-
placement) to 4.2 for normal strength concrete.
Fig. 10-'1 through 10-7 illustrate the equations used in predicting
insertfconcrete capacity for PI, P2, P3 or P'L P5, ultimate bolt capacity is
academic, and is therefore not listed.
In P2, note that N represents the number of strut wires and Fy is the
yield strength of the material.
 z
0
c:
en
-1
:;a

>
r-
:;a
m
en
m
V = Tot a I shear )>
d d :;a
2 2 t = Column diameter (")
:I:

b0 = Periphery of column 0
z
d = Slab thickness (")

I / / ' ' I t Shear stress v=

v
(b0 )(d)
0
z
z
I// ',II 450
m
(")
-1
/I I ,~ or V = ( v )( b0 )( d ) (6A) 6

"" zen

~ Loco~of
/-
Allowable Pseudo
1 shear stress shear area
'L c:ical section
failure for shear as a measure of
diagona I tension. Called
pseudo area.

Fig. 1 0-8-Column load punching through slab

(..)
(..)
 w
.1::>.

P1=Anchor/concrete, (lbs.)
I /
ultimate capacity
, 45o I I / //
~
_j
L = Anchor length (in.)
I }/ . b0 =Periphery of anchor (in.)
;r',l /I L
'~-,
Shape of actual~ / I
Ac =Pseudo shear area {in.2 )
~
m
K =Factor for determining ()
::J:
tensile capacity of concrete. )>
z
()

shear P1 = (Ac)(K)(~) {68) )>

r-

area ...,
r
Pseudo
shear area
'
Allowable
shear stress
)>
VI
-t
m
zm
;;c
VI
Note similarity between Equations 6A and 68. ...,
0
;;c

Fig. 10-9-lnsert applying load to concrete causes failure similar to ()

column load failure shown in fig. 10-8 0

z()
;;c
m
-t
m
INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ON CONNECTIONS 135

In the bond failure portion of the equation for P3, K 1 is a constant

that was developed through a series of tests considering the configuration
of the insert shape, strut wire deformations and strut wire lengths. N,
again represents the number of strut wires, L their length, A 8 the cross
sectional area and fu the permissible bond stress.
P'l is simply the ultimate mechanical strength of the anchor for N
number of strut wires. P5, the ultimate bolt capacity was considered as a
parameter when a computer program was undertaken after development
of the failure modes.

COMPUTER PROGRAM
The main purpose in pursuing this insert theory was to develop
reliable insert capacities for the industry a!Hl to evaluate an inventory of
wire sizes for possible multi-product usage in hopes that the wide range
of wire diameters and carbon selections that were maintained could be
reduced.
vVriting of the program was somewhat cumbersome because of the
many variables that could influence the insert capacity. They were:
a. Ultimate bolt capacity for various diameters
b. Depth of embedment
c. Concrete strength (split cylinder tests are more informative than
compression cylinder results) .
d. Bond values of strut wires
c. Length of strut wires
f. Strut wire diameters and chemistry

Print out consisted of the values of PI, P2, P3, and P4 for a given set
of conditions which we were able to study for selection of the most effi-
cient anchor length, wire diameter, and chemistry for a known anchor
load.
Verification of the theory and accuracy of the program was further
checked by conducting field tests at Barkley Dam (Paducah, Ky.) and
Boundary Dam (Metaline Falls, 't\Tash.) as well as many laboratory
tests. Over-all accuracy of actual test result capacity compared to thcm·eti-
cal capacity ± 15 percent. Sample calculations and test results for a
rather simple insert are illustrated at the end of this paper see Fig. 10-11.

INSERT ENVIRONMENT
Depth of embedment and concrete strength are the two factors that
can greatly affect pullout capacity of an insert. Fig. 10-10 compares the
calculations for an insert flush with the concrete surface to an insert
with a 6 in. embedment. The pseudo shear cone area for the latter has
 tp tp
I

I
-i + (.)
', ' , i

Wi
' 45o I 0..
I d=6" I //
' I "

_/>,:r,
Shear cone
failure I '-, /
// / i _ j l = l 2
1
I
'- '-
',
II

' I
I
1 II
I //
//

1
',, /rI /
I
I

L_~~ ~ ~
'
'

4'
/
---
_j

II
I
' ' '-
'-
f/
L=12"

/
//
/

I1
I
I
L----~'
'
' /
:L_/ _ _ _ _ j
I

Pseudo diameter

d;Lj 4"
Pseudo diameter
Ld~L S:
m
()
::r:
)>
z
()
Case A d=O" )>
r-
Case B d=6"
"TI
)>
Pseudo Shear Cone Areas (Acl V>
-1
m
z
Ac = ( ~ ~ + 4")( Ll7T
m
Case A: + ::0
V>

Ac = (16)(12)7T = 605in.2
"TI
where L= I 2" 0
::0
()
Case 8: Ac = ( d:L + d:L + 4")(d+L)7T 0
z
()
Ac =(22)(J8)7T = 1245in 2 ::0
rn
-1
1245 rn
% of increase of 8 compared to A = 605 = 206%

Fig. 10-1 0-Comparison of pullout capacity of flush insert with insertimbedded to 6 in. depth
INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ON CONNECTIONS 137

increased by 206 percent and this fact is used to advantage when anchors
are used to support cantilevered forms for lock and dam construction.
In this type of construction, the trend is toward very low strength con-
crete and to develop anchor capacity it is necessary to have large depths
of embedment or longer anchors.

FUTURE RESEARCH
Although we have achieved a reliable engineering approach to pre-
diction of insert capacities, we have at the same time become aware of
additional areas of investigation that must be explored. ·work relating
to shear loading is presently being studied; edge conditions for both shear

Out line of pseudo area

d =5"
b 0 =2.5"

d
2

Pr= (AcHKHKJ where Ac =pseudo shear cone area (in.2 )

K = 4.0 for normal concrete

Ac =7T(d+b 0 )(d) = 118in.2

Fig. 10-11-Comparison of theoretical insert capacities with field test of

a single pickup insert
138 MECHANICAL FASTENERS FOR CONCRETE

and tension loading is another area that must be studied. In mass concrete
structures, we must learn more about the ultimate tensile strength of the
concrete at very early ages. Forms are usually reanchored to a previous
lift at ages of 48 to 72 hr and safe anchorage must be assured.
Once this information is obtained, the meaningful results can be ap-
plied to the fabrication of safe, economical anchorage devices.