What are Optical Fibers?

Optical Fibers are fibers of glass, usually about 120 micrometers in diameter, which are
used to carry signals in the form of pulses of light over distances up to 50 km without the
need for repeaters. These signals may be coded voice communications or computer data.

History

Interest in the use of light as a carrier for information grew in the 1960's with the advent of
the laser as a source of coherent light. Initially the transmission distances were very short,
but as manufacturing techniques for very pure glass arrived in 1970, it became feasible to
use optical fibers as a practical transmission medium. At the same time developments in
semi-conductor light sources and detectors meant that by 1980 worldwide installation of
fiber optic communication systems had been achieved.

Advantages

Capacity

Optical fibers carry signals with much less energy loss than copper cable and with a much
higher bandwidth. This means that fibers can carry more channels of information over
longer distances and with fewer repeaters required.

Size and Weight

Optical fiber cables are much lighter and thinner than copper cables with the same
bandwidth. This means that much less space is required in underground cabling ducts.
Also they are easier for installation engineers to handle.

Security

Optical fibers are much more difficult to tap information from undetected; a great
advantage for banks and security installations. They are immune to Electromagnetic
interference (EMI) from radio signals, lightning etc. They can be routed safely through
explosive or flammable atmospheres, for example, in the petrochemical industries or
munitions sites, without any risk of ignition.
Disadvantages

Price

In spite of the fact that the raw material for making optical fibers, sand, is abundant and
cheap, optical fibers are still more expensive per metre than copper. Having said this, one
fiber can carry many more signals than a single copper cable and the large transmission
distances mean that fewer expensive repeaters are required.

Special Skills

Optical fibers cannot be joined together as a easily as copper cable and requires
additional training of personnel and expensive precision splicing and measurement
equipment

Areas of Application

Telecommunications

Optical fibers are now the standard point to point cable link between telephone
substations.

Local Area Networks (LAN's)

Multimode fiber is commonly used as the "backbone" to carry signals between the hubs of
LAN's from where copper coaxial cable takes the data to the desktop. Fiber links to the
desktop, however, are also common.

Cable TV

As mentioned above domestic cable TV networks use optical fiber because of its very low
power consumption.

CCTV

Closed circuit television security systems use optical fiber because of its inherent security,
as well as the other advantages mentioned above.

Optical Fiber Sensors

Many advances have been made in recent years in the use of Optical Fibers as sensors.
Gas concentration, chemical concentration, pressure, temperature, and rate of rotation
can all be sensed using optical fiber.
Fiber Optic Theory

Introduction

1. Total Internal
Reflection

2. Optical Fibers

3. Fiber Types

4. Pulse Spreading

5. Attenuation

6. Numerical
Aperture

Total Internal Reflection

Reflection and Refraction of Light

When light traveling in a transparent material meets the surface of another transparent
material two things happen

1. Some of the light is reflected

2. Some of the light is transmitted into the second transparent
material

The light, which is transmitted usually, changes direction when it enters the second
material. This bending of light is called refraction and it depends upon the fact that light
travels at one speed in one material and at a different speed in a different material. As a
result each material has its own Refractive Index, which we use to help us calculate the
amount of bending which takes place. Refractive index is defined as: -
 where n is the refractive index, C is the speed of light in a vacuum, V is the speed of light
in the material

Two possible cases exist.

These are: -

1. Where light goes from a material with a low refractive index to one with a high
refractive index, OR
2. Where light goes from a material with a high refractive index to one with a low
refractive index.

These two cases are shown in the diagrams below.

Figure 1 n1 < n2 Figure 2 n1 > n2

Total Internal Reflection

In the second case above, θ 2 is always greater than θ 1. So, as we increase θ 1,

eventually θ 2 will reach 90 before θ 1 does. At this point where θ 1 has reached a value
o

called the critical angle (θ c).

The transmitted ray now tries to travel in both materials simultaneously, for various
reasons this is physically impossible so there is no transmitted ray and all the light energy
is reflected. This is true for any value of θ 1, the angle of incidence equal to or greater than
θ c. This phenomenon is called Total Internal Reflection (TIR).

We can define the two conditions necessary for TIR to occur

 1. The refractive index of the first medium is greater than the refractive index of the
second one.
2. The angle of incidence, θ1, is greater than or equal to the critical angle, θc

The phenomenon of TIR causes 100% reflection. In no other situation in nature, where
light is reflected, does 100% reflection occur. So TIR is unique and very useful.

Fiber Types

There are two main fiber types:

(1) Step index (multimode, single mode)

(2) Graded index (multimode)

Step Index Fiber:

Figure 6 - Step Index Fiber

Step index fiber is so called because the refractive index of the fiber 'steps" up as we
move from the cladding to the core of the fiber. Within the cladding the refractive index is
constant, and within the core of the refractive index is constant.

Multimode
Although it may seem from what we have said about total internal reflection that any ray of
light can travel down the fiber, in fact, because of the wave nature of light, only certain ray
directions can actually travel down the fiber. These are called the "Fiber Mode". In a
multimode fiber the fiber supports many different modes. This is shown in the diagram
below.

Figure 7 Multimode fiber

Single Mode
Because its core is so narrow Single Mode fiber can support only one mode. This is called
the "Lowest Order Mode". Single mode fiber has some advantages over multimode fiber,
which we will deal with later
 Figure 8 - Single Mode Fiber

Graded Index Fiber

Graded Index Fiber has a different core structure from single mode and multimode fiber.
Whereas in a step-index fiber the refractive index of the core is constant throughout the
core, in a graded index fiber the value of the refractive index changes from the center of
the core onwards. In fact it has what we call a Quadratic Profile. This means that the
refractive index of the core is proportional to the square of the distance from the center of
the fiber.

Figure 9 - Graded Index Fiber

Graded index fiber is actually a multimode fiber because it can support more than one
fiber mode. But when we refer to "multimode" fiber we normally mean "step index
multimode

Pulse Spreading
The data, which is carried in an optical fiber, consists of pulses of light energy
following each other rapidly. There is a limit to the highest frequency, i.e. how
many pulses per second, which can be sent into a fiber and be expected to
emerge intact at the other end. This is because of a phenomenon known as pulse
spreading which limits the "Bandwidth" of the fiber.

Figure 11 Pulse Spreading in an Optical Fiber

The pulse sets off down the fiber with a nice square wave shape. As it travels
along the fiber it gradually gets wider and the peak intensity decreases.

Cause of Pulse Spreading

The cause of cause spreading is dispersion. This means that some components
of the pulse of light travel at different rates along the fiber. There are two forms of
dispersion.

1. Chromatic dispersion
 2. Modal dispersion

Chromatic Dispersion

Chromatic dispersion is the variation of refractive index with the

wavelength (or the frequency) of the light. Another way of
saying this is that each wavelength of light travels through the
same material at its own particular speed that is different from
that of other wavelengths.

For example, when white light passes through a prism some

wavelengths of light bend more because their refractive index
is higher, i.e. they travel slower This is what gives us the
"Spectrum" of white light. The "red' and "orange" light travel
slowest and so are bent most while the "violet" and "blue" travel
fastest and so are bent less. All the other colors lie in between.

This means that different wavelengths traveling through an

optical fiber also travel at different speeds. This phenomenon is
called "Chromatic Dispersion".

Figure 10 Dispersion of Light through a Prism

Modal Dispersion

In an optical fiber there is another type of dispersion called

"Multimode Dispersion".

More oblique rays (lower order modes) travel a shorter

distance. These correspond to rays traveling almost parallel to
the center line of the fiber and reach the end of fiber sooner.
The more zigzag rays (higher order modes) take a longer route
as they pass along the fiber and so reach the end of the fiber
later.

Now: -

Total dispersion = chromatic dispersion + multimode

dispersion
Or put simply: for various reasons some components of a pulse of light traveling
along an optical fiber move faster and other components move slower. So, a
pulse which starts off as a narrow burst of light gets wider because some
components race ahead while other components lag behind, rather like the
 runners in a marathon race.

Consequences of pulse spreading

Frequency Limit (Bandwidth)

The further the pulse travels in the fiber the worse the
spreading gets

Figure 12 - Merging of Pulses in a Fiber.

Pulse spreading limits the maximum frequency of signal, which

can be sent along a fiber. If signal pulses follow each other too
fast then by the time they reach the end fiber they will have
merged together and become indistinguishable. This is
unacceptable for digital systems, which depend on the precise
sequence of pulses as a code for information. The Bandwidth is
the highest number of pulses per second that can be carried by
the fiber without loss of information due to pulse spreading.

Distance Limit

A given length of fiber, as explained above has a maximum

frequency (bandwidth), which can be sent along it. If we want to
increase the bandwidth for the same type of fiber we can
achieve this by decreasing the length of the fiber. Another way
of saying this is that for a given data rate there is a maximum
distance, which the data can be sent.

Bandwidth Distance Product (BDP)

We can combine the two ideas above into a single term called
the bandwidth distance product (BDP). It is the bandwidth of a
fiber multiplied by the length of the fiber. The BDP is the
bandwidth of a kilometer of fiber and is a constant for any
particular type of fiber. For example, suppose a particular type
of multimode fiber has a BDP of 20 MHz. km, then: -

1 km of the fiber would have a bandwidth of

20 MHz

2 km of the fiber would have a bandwidth of

10 MHz

5 km of the fiber would have a bandwidth of 4

MHz

4 km of the fiber would have a bandwidth of 5

MHz

10 km of the fiber would have a bandwidth of

 2 MHz

20 km of the fiber would have a bandwidth of

1 MHz

The typical B.D.P. of the three types of fibers are as follows: -

Multimode 6 - 25 MHz. km

Single Mode 500 - 1500 MHz. km

Graded Index 100 - 1000 MHZ. km

NB: The units of BDP are MHz. km (read as megahertz

kilometers). They are not MHz/km (read as megahertz per
kilometers). This is because the quantity is a product (of
bandwidth and distance) and not a ratio.

Choice of Fiber

Multimode Fiber

Multimode fiber is suitable for local area networks (LAN's)

because it can carry enough energy to support all the
subscribers to the network. In a LAN the distances involved,
however, are small. Little pulse spreading can take place and
so the effects of dispersion are unimportant.

Single Mode Fiber

Using Single Mode fiber eliminates multimode Dispersion. The

core is so narrow that only one mode can travel. So the amount
of pulse spreading in a single mode fiber is greatly reduced
from that of a multimode fiber. Chromatic dispersion however
remains even in a single mode fiber. Thus even in single mode
fiber pulse spreading can occur. But chromatic dispersion can
be reduced by careful design of the chemical composition of
the glass.

The energy carried by a single mode fiber, however, is much

less than that carried by a multimode fiber. For this reason
single mode fiber is made from extremely low loss, very pure,
glass.

Single mode low absorption fiber is ideal for

telecommunications because pulse spreading is small.

Graded Index Fiber

In graded index fiber rays of light follow sinusoidal paths. This

means that low order modes, i.e. oblique rays, stay close to the
center of the fiber, high order modes spend more time near the
edge of core. Low order modes travel in the high index part of
the core and so travel slowly, whereas high order modes spend
predominantly more time in the low index part of the core and
so travel faster. This way, although the paths are different
lengths, all the modes travel the length of the fiber in tandem,
i.e., they all reach the end of the fiber at the same time. This
eliminates multimode dispersion and reduces pulse spreading.

Graded Index fiber has the advantage that it can carry the
same amount of energy as multimode fiber. The disadvantage
is that this effect takes place at only one wavelength, so the
light source has to be a laser diode, which has a narrow line
width.

Figure 13 - Ray Paths in Graded Index Fiber

 -1
Attenuation is specified in db.km

Where

-2
I out = outgoing intensity (intensity is measured in W.m )

-2
I in = ingoing intensity (W.m )

Attenuation in a fiber is measured using an OTDR (Optical Time-Domain

Reflectometer) which looks at the light reflected back long the fiber when a pulse
of light is sent down the fiber. Another method is to send light from a continuous
source of light and measure the power emerging at the other end of the fiber.

Optical Time Domain Reflectometer

Causes of Attenuation
The light traveling along a fiber is attenuated, i.e. its intensity decreases as it
moves along the fiber. This happens for 3 main reasons

Atomic absorption of light photons

Scattering of light by flaws and impurities

Reflection of light by splices and connectors

We will look at each of these factors in turn.

Atomic Absorption

The atoms of any material are capable of absorbing specific

 wavelengths of light because of their electron orbital structure.
This absorption can be observed if you look into the edge of a
pane of glass. The light which emerges has a green colour
because so much red and blue light have been absorbed by
the atoms of the glass. In the same way, as light passes along
an optical fiber. more and more light is absorbed by the atoms
as it continues on its path

Scattering by Flaws and Impurities

This type of scattering is called "Rayleigh Scattering". The

amount of Rayleigh Scattering which takes place depends on
the relative size of the scattering particle and the wavelength of
the light. If the wavelength of the light is large compared to the
size of the scattering particle then little light is scattered. If the
wavelength of the light is small compared to the scattering
particles then a lot of light is scattered. So long wavelengths
are preferred in fiber optics because of the lower absorption.
Thus 1500 nm is better than 1300 nm which is better than 850
nm

Reflection by Splices and Connectors

In a long fiber cable there may be many splices which join the
individual lengths of fiber together. In a Local Area Network
there will be many connectors because of the number of
subscribers to the system. At each connector and/or splice
some light will be reflected back along the fiber in the opposite
direction. This will happen even for the most perfect splice or
connector. Light reflected backwards does not leave the fiber
but is no longer usefully available for the rest of the fiber, i.e. it
is no longer part of the ongoing light.

Numerical Aperture
One of the properties of a fiber, which we need to know, is called the Numerical Aperture.
The numerical aperture is defined as

It is a measure of the light gathering power of the fiber. It lies between 0 and 1. A
numerical aperture of 0 means that the fiber gathers no light (corresponding to θA = 0 ). A
o
 numerical aperture of 1 means that the fiber gathers all the light that falls onto it
(corresponding to θA = 90 )
o

Fiber Manufacture
There are two main stages to the manufacture of optical fibers. These are: -

1) The making of the preform

2) The extrusion of the preform

Perform Manufacture

The most common method of making fiber preforms is known as

Modified Chemical Vapour Dispersion (MCVD). An outer glass "bait
tube" is heated by a traversing burner. Through this tube a mixture
of gases is passed at a steady rate, which when heated undergoes a
chemical reaction. The gas mix contains compounds of silicon, metal
halides, oxygen and dopant materials which will determine the
refractive index of the glass of the core. The solid end products of
the reaction are deposited on the interior of the bait tube as "soot".
This soot will eventually form the core of the fiber while the bait tube
will form the cladding. When enough soot has been deposited the
gas flow is stopped and the heat is turned up so that the soot melts
to form a sintered glass.

Finally the tube is heated up enough to soften the bait tube and the
sintered glass so that the whole tube collapses to form a solid rod.
This is illustrated in the diagram below.

Figure 15 Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition

Extrusion of the Preform

The preform now has the same internal structure as the fiber to be
drawn. The preform is held vertically and passed through an oven
which softens its end. This end is now stretched to form a glass
fiber. The interior of the fiber retains the same refractive index
structure as the preform with the same relative dimensions. The fiber
passes through a device for monitoring its diameter so that the size
of the fiber stays within predefined limits It then passes through a
coater which coats it with a plastic buffer. This part of the process is
crucial since the strength of the fiber depends on freedom from any
surface contamination. The fiber must therefore be coated before
any contamination such as dust, etc, in the surrounding air can
reach it. Finally the fiber is rolled on to a drum for distribution or for
further work on it such as incorporation into a fiber cable. This is
illustrated in the diagram on the right.
Figure 16 Extrusion of the Preform
Splicing

Optical fibers have to be joined together to make longer lengths of fiber or existing fiber lengths which have
been broken have to be repaired. Also the ends of the fiber have to be fitted with convenient connectors
(terminations) to allow them to be easily plugged into equipment such as power meters, data transmitters,
etc. Unlike electrical cables where all that is needed is to solder lengths of cable together, the process of
joining two fibers (splicing) or terminating the end of a fiber is more complex and requires special equipment.

Splicing is the process of joining the two bare ends of two fibers together. The ends of the fiber must be
precisely lined up with each other, otherwise the light will not be able to pass from one fiber across the gap to
the other fiber. There are four main alignment errors and any splicing technique is designed to deal with ends
of these errors.

Possible alignment errors during splicing

There four alignment errors in splicing optical fibers. These are:-

Lateral,
Axial,
Angular,
Poor End Finish.

These are illustrated in the diagrams below.

Figure 20 Lateral Misalignment Figure 17 Angular Misalignment

Figure 18 Axial Misalignment Figure 19 Poor End Finnish

There are two main types of splicing:

Fusion Splicing and;

Mechanical Splicing
Fusion Splicing

Figure 21 Fusion Splicing

Fusion Splicer

You can see this process by clicking on the icons below.

Alignment Pre-Fuse Fuse

In fusion splicing the ends of the fibers are aligned either manually using micro-
manipulators and a microscope system for viewing the splice, or automatically either using
cameras or by measuring the light transmitted through the splice and adjusting the
positions of the fibers to optimise the transmission The ends of the fibers are then melted
together using a gas flame or more commonly an electric arc.

Near perfect splices can be obtained with losses as low as 0.02 dB (best mechanical splice
 0.2 dB)

One of the systems in top of the range fusion splicers is called a Profile Alignment System
(PAS). This system uses a TV camera to view the splice before it is fused. The image is
sent to a microcomputer inside the splicer which is programmed to recognise when the
cores of the two fibers form a continuous straight line. An adjustment is made to bring the
fibers form a continuous straight line. An adjustment is made to bring the fibers into
alignment in that plane. The camera then moves to a new position to view the splice in an
orthogonal plane. The same process aligns the fibers in this plane too. The camera then
goes back to the original view and starts to make fine adjustments in that plane. It goes to
the second plane and makes fine adjustments in that plane too. This goes on until the
alignment is as close as possible. At this point the arc is fired and the heat form the arc
melts the fibers together locally.

Mechanical Splicing

In mechanical splicing the two fiber ends are held together in a splice. This consists of
some device usually made of glass which by its internal design automatically brings the two
fibers into alignment. The openings at each end of the device are usually fluted to allow the
fibers to be guided into the capillary where the alignment takes place. The splice is fist filled
with an optical cement whose refractive index is the same as that of the core of the fiber.
After the fibers have been entered into the splice they are adjusted to give the optimum
transmission of light. At this point they are clamped in position and the whole assembly is
exposed to ultra-violet light which cures the cement.

Figure 22 Mechanical Splice

Mechanical splices are best used for multimode fiber. Some splices now exist which are
suitable SM fiber, but have a loss of 0.1dB. This is five times the loss of the best fusion
splice.
System Design

Fiber Optic Systems Design Considerations

In designing an fiber optic system there two main areas of crucial importance to consider.
These are:-

Power budget
Bandwidth Budget

We have to calculate both of these to see if our system will carry out the task required of it.
But often there are compromises which we must make on the basis of cost. Let's first
consider each of the above in turn

Power budget

Losses occur at many points in a fiber optic system. We have to ensure that the light source
launches enough power into the fiber to provide enough power at the receiver. The receiver
has limited sensitivity.

Transmitter output - Receiver input = Losses + Margin (All calculations are done in dB)

Types of Loss

Light source to fiber coupling loss

Connector loss
Splice loss
Coupler loss
Fiber loss
Fiber to receiver coupling loss
Margin

Light source to fiber coupling loss

For LED coupling to 62.5/125 MM (62.5m m core, 125m m cladding,

multimode) a typical loss would be 1 mW to 50m W.

I.e. 13 dB loss

A laser diode can couple several milliwatts of power into 62.5/125 MM

fiber typically with a dB loss so small that it's negligible (i.e. 0 dB loss).

These are however, more expensive, and shorter lived than LED's and
require special stabilised power supplies.

Couplers, connectors and splices

 Simply multiply either the measured loss or the manufacturers
specifications by the number of these devices in the system. For small
numbers of devices use the maximum loss quoted per device. For large
numbers of devices use the average loss quoted per device.

Fiber Loss

1
Multiply the dB.km~ loss figure for the fiber by the length of the fiber.

So called "transient" losses occur in the first few 100 m of MM fiber

coupled to an LED. So for short lengths of fiber the loss/km is greater than
the manufacturer's figure.

Fiber / receiver coupling loss

This is not usually a problem since the area of the detector and its
numerical aperture are larger than those of fiber.

Margin

In addition to the above known losses it is usual to allow a margin, in case

some of the losses turn out to be higher than expected, but mainly to
compensate for any future degradation of the system which may happen
with time.

We usually allow between 3 dB and 10 dB margin.

Bandwidth Budget
The bandwidth budget is a series of calculations which allows us to work out whether the
fiber system can support the data rate which we require. We do this by calculating the
overall Response Time of the system. This overall time response of a fiber system must be
less than the bit time of the signal.

Calculation of Response Time of a System

There are a number of coding systems for digital

information. The simplest to use, from the point of view
of calculating response time is the Non Return to Zero
coding (NRZ). For an NRZ coding the bit time is given
by

Where R is the rate at which information is being sent

(i.e. the number of bits per second or bit rate). For
example, a bit rate of R = 1000 M bit/s the bit time is
 Response time of a system is defined as longer of the
rise time or the fall time of a bit leaving the system.

A system which can transmit 1 Mbit/s, for example, must

have a response time less than 1m s, then one bit will
be trying to rise while the previous bit is still falling. As a
result bits of information will merge together.

Calculation of overall response time

The overall response time is affected by only 3 individual response times.

transmitter
fiber
receiver

Components such as splices and connectors have a negligible effect on response time. The
light can pass through them without any delaying effect.

The overall response time is given, in general, by the formula:

Where t is the response time of component So for a fiber system we would use the formula

where

ttx = response time of the transmitter

tf = response time of the fiber

trx = response time of the receiver

suppose

ttx = 2ns

tf = 1ns

trx = 0.5ns
 then

t2=(2x10-9)2+(1 x10-9)2+(0.5x10-9)2
= 5.25 x 10-8
= t= 2.29 ns
Thus, if we know the individual response time, we can calculate the response time of the
whole system, and knowing that we can decide whether the system is fast enough for the
information rate we want it to carry. The response times of the transmitter and the receiver
will be given by the manufacturer. The fiber response time, however, has to be calculated,
because it depends on the length of the fiber and therefore is different for different systems.

Calculation of Fiber Response Time

This is composed of two things

Modal Response Time

Chromatic Response Time

Each of these contribute a component to the response time of the fiber in the following way:

Where

tm = modal response time

tc = chromatic response time
Modal Response Time

The modal response time is given by

where

Dm = Modal Dispersion L = Length of fiber and

Dm is given by:-
 where

BDP = Bandwidth distance product

For example, a fiber of bandwidth of say 200 MHz.km has a model
-1
dispersion of 5ns.km .

Chromatic Dispersion

For chromatic dispersion where response time also depends on the range
of wavelengths launched into the fiber we use the formula:

where

Dc = Chromatic Dispersion

∆ λ = Range of wavelengths of the light launched

into the fiber (sometimes called the linewidth)

L = Length of fiber
For example, 200 m length of 85/125 fiber and chromatic dispersion

-1 -1
100 ps.nm .km

For 850nm LED, D l = 50nm

then

Notice that D l is converted to nm andL is converted to km.D c is

expressed in the number of seconds per nanometre per kilometre in this
 -12 -1 -1
case 100 ps, i.e. 110 x 10 per nm per km, [ps.nm .km ]

Thus the overall response time of the above fiber is given by:-
Light Source

There are two main light sources used in the field of fiber optics.-

Light Emitting diodes (LED's)

Laser Diodes (LD's)

LED's
An LED is a p-n junction diode in a transparent capsule usually with
a lens to let the light escape and to focus it. LED's can be
manufactured to operate at 850 nm, 1300 nm, or 1500 nm. These
wavelengths are all in the infrared region. LED's have a typical
response time of 8 ns, a line width of 40 nm, and an output power of
tens of microwatts.

Figure 23 Planar LED

Laser Diodes
A laser diode Is an LED with two important differences
 (1) The operating current is much higher in order
to produce OPTICAL GAIN

(2) Two of the ends of the LD are cleaved parallel

to each other. These ends act as perfectly aligned
mirrors which reflect the light back and forth
through the "gain medium" in order to get as much
amplification as possible

The typical response time of a laser diode Is 0.5 ns. The linewidth is
around 2 nm with a typical laser power of 10's of milliwatts. The
wavelength of a laser diode can be 850 nm, 1300 nm, or 1500 nm.

Figure 25 Laser Diode

Sensors

Fiber Optic System

Telecommunications System

A Telecommunications Link is the simplest of fiber optic systems. It consists

basically of a transmitter, a fiber link and a receiver. The transmitter will normally
be equipped with a laser diode, usually with an output wavelength of 1300 nm or
1500 nm. The fiber link will be made of single lengths of Single Mode optical fiber
of length 2 km fusion spliced together. The link will be able to carry thousands of
telephone conversations "simultaneously" by means of TIME DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING.

Figure 26 Telecommunications Link

Fiber Optic Sensors

Microbending Sensor

A Microbending Sensor consists of two plates between which

passes an optical fiber. The plates have parallel grooves on
their facing surfaces and the grooves from the two plates
interleave with each other. This means that the high point
between two grooves on, say, the upper plate lies above a
groove on the lower plate. The fiber passing between the plates
is therefore bent alternatively up and down.

When a fiber is bent sufficiently the light in the core no longer

meets the cladding at an angle equal to or greater than the
critical angle. TIR, therefore, does not occur. This means that
light escapes into the cladding and doesn't reach the end of the
fiber This is called "microbending loss". The more the plates
press the more loss occurs. A detector at the end of the fiber
can thus measure how much pressure is on the pIates This has
 a military application in submarine detection.

Fiber Optic Gyroscope

The fiber optic gyroscope consists of a long length of fiber

wound into a coil. Laser light is sent into both ends of the fiber
using a beam splitter which reflects 50% of the light and
transmits 50%. Light travelling round the coil clockwise
emerges from the end of the fiber with the same phase as the
light travelling in the anticlockwise direction. This is because
both have travelled exactly the same distance.

Fiber Optic Gyroscope

If the gyroscope is now rotated, say, in the clockwise direction,

then the light travelling round the fiber coil in the clockwise
direction will take longer to reach the end of the fiber because
the end is always moving away from the light. Likewise light
travelling in the anticlockwise direction will take less time to
reach the other end because that end is moving towards the
light. This introduces a phase difference between the two
emerging beams of light which is proportional to the rate of
rotation of the gyroscope.

Evanescent Wave Sensor

Theory

The model of light travelling through glass in

the form of millions of infinitesimally thin rays
works very well as a way of explaining Total
Internal Reflection (TIR). As you might
expect, however, it is not the whole picture.

Light is, in fact, a wave motion. This means

that it propagates through space, through
glass, through any transparent medium, in
the form of electromagnetic waves which, like
all wave motions, tend to spread out as they
travel.

Because of this characteristic of light waves

we have to look at TIR at a boundary in a
little more detail. Some of the energy of the
light waves in the core of the fiber does
actually penetrate into the cladding for a very
short distance. We can think of it as escaping
from the core then immediately coming back
 in again. This thin penetration of light energy
into the cladding is called the Evanescent
Wave.

In a single mode fiber in particular there is

always a layer" of light energy surrounding
the core whenever light is travelling along the
fiber. The energy flow of this evanescent
wave is parallel to the surface of the core and
in the same direction as the main flow of
energy within the core.

Distribution of Energy for a Guided Wave

Single mode fibers, in particular, not only

have to have a core made from low
absoprtion glass, but also the cladding has to
be made of low absorption glass because the
evanescent wave carries a significant
proportion of the guided energy. If a lot of this
evanescent energy is absorbed by the
cladding then energy will be drawn out of the
core to replace it.

Application to Sensors

In a fiber what is a disadvantage can be used

to our advantage in a sensor. We can design
a sensor where energy is absorbed from the
evanescent wave in the presence of certain
chemicals. When the chemicals are not
present then the evanescent energy is not
absorbed.

Evanescent Wave Chemical Sensor

In the detector cell shown in the above

diagram, a liquid can be poured in to
surround the fiber. The fiber is not a standard
communications fiber with a core and a
cladding. It has been manufactured without a
cladding. Thus the sample poured in is in
direct contact with the evanescent wave. Any
materials which absorb the particular
wavelength of light being carried by the fiber
will take energy out of the evanescent wave.
This in turn drains energy from the interior of
the fiber and the output at the detector is
reduced.
Blood Components Meter

By choosing the correct wavelength we can

quickly measure the concentrations of
specific components of blood such as total
protein, cholesterol, urea, and uric acid.
When the concentration is high the output at
the detector is less and vice versa

The concentrations of these chemicals are

important to doctors in the diagnosis and
monitoring of certain disease conditions.
Fiber optic sensors can give very results
quickly without the need to send samples
away to an analytical laboratory.

Other Materials

A sensor like this can be used to analyse

many other liquids including gases.
Conclusion

This concludes our study of Fiber Optics. We have looked at how they work and
how they are made. We have examined the properties of fibers, and how fibers
are joined together. We have learned how to do system design calculations and
looked at examples of fiber optic sources and systems. In the practical part of the
course you will have carried out for yourself mechanical and fusion splices, and
will have done at least one form of termination. You will have used an OTDR and
will have measured numerical aperture in the laboratory. Although the course
does not cover all the aspects of optical fiber work it will have equipped you
knowledge and skills essential to the fiber optic industry.