3.45/ 3.

152 Magnetic Materials

Prof. Caroline Ross

caross@mit.edu
Room 13-4005, phone 8-0223
Spring 2019
9.30-11am Tues and Thurs, Room 4-159

Textbooks:
R.C. O’Handley, Modern Magnetic Materials: Principles and Applications.
Wiley (2000)
K.M. Krishnan, Fundamentals and applications of magnetic materials,
Oxford (2016)
1

Our Aim

- understand the origins of magnetism and various magnetic

phenomena
- show how we design magnetic materials for particular functions

a hard drive

natural lodestone
 Class outline and grading

Assignments
Two exams during class hours, and a term paper. Problem sets due most weeks
except for exam and term paper weeks.
Grade
50% for Exam I and II combined (25% each) No final exam
35% for Paper
15% for Problem sets (Work in small groups)
3.152 (Undergraduate) and 3.45 (Graduate) will have different assignments and
will be graded separately.
Reference books (bold: recommended)
R.C. O’Handley, Modern Magnetic Materials, 2000
K.M. Krishnan, Fundamentals and applications of magnetic materials, 2016
B.D. Cullity and C.D. Graham, Intro. to Magnetic Materials, 2009
D. Jiles, Introduction to Magnetism & Magnetic Materials, 1998.
N. Spaldin, Mag. Materials Fundamentals and Device Applications. 2003. 3
G.F. Dionne, Magnetic Oxides. 2009

Syllabus
3.45/3.152
Class
Syllabus TR9:30-11am. 26 days
O'Handley Krishnan
Date Day # Note Lecture Title Topics Chapter Chapter Assignments
Define M,B,H, susceptibility etc; review Maxwell
eqs; where magnetism comes from; different types
Feb 5 T 1 Introduction of magnetic materials; domains and hysteresis 1.2-1.5 1.1-1.9 PS1 out

Magnetism and Magnetic induction, Ampere's law, Transformers,

Feb 7 R 2 Currents Lorentz forces, force on a current, and motors 1.6-1.7 1.1-1.4
B, H fields and forces on a magnetic body,
boundary conditions, demagnetizing factors; dipole PS1 due,
Feb 12 T 3 Magnetostatics fields; hysteresis curves; magnetic potential 2.1-2.6 1.9-1.11 PS2 out
Classical and
quantum Orbital AM, classical diamagnetism and
Feb 14 R 4 magnetism paramagnetism, Spin, g-factor 3.1-3.5 2
No
Feb 19 T class No class (Monday schedule)

Quantum Spin-orbit coupling, filling of electronic levels, Hund PS2 due,

Feb 21 R 5 magnetism rules, ferromagnetism 3.5-3.7 2 PS3 out

Exchange interactions, molecular bonding and

Feb 26 T 6 Exchange molecular field theory 6.5, 16.7 3.8
VSM, AGM, torque magnetometer, Faraday/MOKE,
Measurement MFM, SQUID magnetometer, magnetoresistance 8.2,8.5, PS3 due,
Feb 28 R 7 methods (Lab tours, bldg. 13) 4.1, 4.2 6.2.1 PS4 out
Bonding in oxides, Oxide structures: ferrites,
Magnetic perovskites, garnets; Superexchange; Site
Mar 5 T 8 oxides occupancy; M(T) 4.3, 4.4 4.6,4.9
Slater-Pauling, bands, electronic structure and
Magnetic magnetism of transition metals and rare earths; 5.1-5.6, PS4 due,
Mar 7 R 9 metals indirect exchange and RKKY 5 5.8 PS5 out

Magnetic Materials 3.45/3.152 4

 Syllabus
Uniaxial and cubic descriptions; origin of
magnetocrystalline anisotropy; combining
Mar 12 T 10 Anisotropy anisotropies 6 6.1-6.7
Domains and domain walls widths and energies;
wall types: Neel, Bloch, transverse and vortex walls
Mar 14 R 11 Domains in thin films; 360 walls; DW pinning 8 7 PS5 due

Mar 19 T 12 Exam 1 Exam 1

Magnetization Stoner-Wohlfarth model; reversal mechanisms
Reversal and (curling, buckling, coherent rotation); Single 9.1-9.3, 7.5,7.6,
Mar 21 R 13 Nanoparticles domain particles; Superparamagnetism 12.1 9.2-9.5 PS6 out

Mar no
26,28 TR class Spring break

Thin film Domains, exchange coupling in multilayers; 12.2, 10.4-

April 2 T 14 magnetism electronic effects at surfaces; patterned structures 16.1-2 10.6
PS6 and
Origin of soft and hard behavior; NiFe, Fe-Si, Paper topic
Soft and Hard FeCoB, cubic ferrites, rare earth magnets, alnico; due, PS7
April 4 R 15 Magnets RE global supply 9.5 11 out
Micromagnetics
and
Magnetization
April 9 T 16 dynamics Slow and intermediate timescales 7 9.4
Micromagnetics
and
Magnetization LLG equation, implementation in OOMMF; FMR, spin 8.7, 5.7,
April 11 R 17 dynamics waves /magnons 7 6.5 PS7 due

no
April 16 T class Patriots Day

Magneto- Description, examples, magnetoelastic oxides;

April 18 R 18 elasticity metals; ferromagnetic shape memory materials 9.5 6.8

Magnetic Materials 3.45/3.152 5

Syllabus

April 23 T 19 Term paper No lecture; complete term papers Paper due

Magneto- 13.2,
April 25 R 20 transport AMR and GMR; TMR and CMR; Hall effect. 15 13.3 PS8 out

Hard Disks 14.1-

April 30 T 21 Data Storage Hard drives and disks, Recording heads 17 14.6
Solid state
magnetic MRAM and other solid state technologies; Spin- 13.3, PS8 due,
May 2 R 22 memories torque effects 14.8 PS9 out

May 7 T 23 Exam 2 Exam 2

Spin torque 13.2
and Magnetic Current driven domain wall motion; Magnetostatic 14.8,
May 9 R 24 Logic and magnetoelectronic logic devices 13.4
Interaction of light with magnetic materials;
Faraday and Kerr effects; magnetooptical data
May 14 T 25 Magnetooptics storage and optical isolators 14.7 PS9 due
Magneto-
last electrics and
May 16 26 day Multiferroics Definitions, materials, and applications.

May
20-24 (Finals week) (No final exam)

6
 What do you think of when you think of a magnet?

fridge magnets?
electromagnets?
compass needles? N
toys?
Maxwell’s equations?
S

78-yr old ‘magnetic man’

solenoid

William Gilbert – 1600

De Magnete, Magneticisque
Corporibus, et de Magno
Magnete Tellure (On the
Magnet and Magnetic Bodies,
and on That Great Magnet the
Earth)

Gilbert, a physician, postulated

that the earth was a giant
magnet
 Where are Magnetic Materials Used?

Volume
usage

Dollar
value

transformers, motors,
electromagnets,
data storage, security tags,
EM shielding, credit cards, 9
medical, …

What are naturally occuring magnetic materials?

Meteorite, FeNi (a ferromagnet)

The strong tendency
to magnetic
alignment is due to a
quantum mechanical
exchange
interaction.
Lodestone, Fe3O4 (a ferrimagnet)
What are “non-magnetic” materials?

Water, Silicon, Gold, etc. (a Organometallics, Oxygen, Al, Mn …

diamagnet –Faraday, 1845) anything with an unpaired spin but no
magnetic order is a paramagnet

CoO, Cr (an antiferromagnet

–Neel, 1948)

Nanoelectronics – Devices beyond silicon

Magnetic materials also have useful mechanical, optical and
electrical properties. These properties couple to each other.

magnetoresistance (M, ρ)
Magnetic Electrical
H, M E, P, ρ
ma )
gn
eto &n
ela ., E
sti r eff
cit er
magnetooptics y (K piezoelectrics (σ and ε)
(Faraday or Kerr (M
tics an
dε
effects, H and n) o p )
ctro
ele

Optical
optomechanics Mechanical
λ, n, k, εr σ, ε
Multiferroics
These combine more than one ‘ferro’ property, for example ferroelectricity
(spontaneous electrical polarization) and ferromagnetism.
In magnetoelectric materials you can change the magnetization with an
electric field, or change the electrical polarization with a magnetic field

Mougin, CNRS – Ferroelectric

domains in BiFeO3

Observations of Magnetism (1800s)

Field about wire

Ampère,
Oersted

Solenoid

Faraday

14
 Constitutive Relations

Electric Polarization
  d
∑ p = n〈 p〉
p = qd p P=
q vol.
E
P
+ +
€
µm
Magnetic Polarization pm = µ m = magnetic moment,

v
M=
∑µ m
= n〈 µm 〉
νol. M = magnetic moment density,
or magnetization.

15

Constitutive Relations

Electric Polarization
∑p P
P= = n〈 p〉
vol.
E
(3) 3
P = χ e E + χ E + ...
e

1st order term, χe

D = ε 0 E + P = ε 0 (1+ )E = ε0ε r E
P=ceE ε0
v
Magnetic “Polarization” M=
∑µ m
= n〈 µm 〉
νol. M

H
M = χ m H + χ m(3) H 3 + ...

16
 Three magnetic fields: M, H, B

2 fields ® M = χH , c is dimensionless in MKS; M, H have same units.

H is field intensity, M is magnetization, moment density in sample

3rd field B = µ0 (H + M) = µ0 (1+ χ)H = µ0 µrH Mag.Permeability,

MKS
µrµ0
[B = H + 4 πM = (1+ 4 πχ )H ] cgs Analogous to
Electrical
Permitivity,
ke0
MAGNETIC
POTENTIAL
ENERGY:
M

θ MKS
B Energy u = −M ⋅ B
−M ⋅ H cgs

17

cgs and MKS units

B = µ0 (H + M) = µ0 (1+ χ)H = µ0 µrH MKS

[ B = H + 4π M = (1+ 4πχ )H ] cgs

B 1 T = 10,000 G
H 1 A/m = 1/79.6 Oe
M 1 kA/m = 1 emu/cm3
also 1 J = 107 erg

µ0 = 4p 10-7 H/m

€
18
 (From IEEE. Original is posted on stellar)

Magnetic Materials 3.45/3.152 2012 19

Maxwell Equations
ρ
Field source: ∇⋅ E =
ε ∇⋅B =0
B field lines do not
emanate from a
Coupled fields:
∂B ∂E
∇× E =− ∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0ε magnetic charge
∂t ∂t
Faraday Ampère
Integral Formulas for source equations
r = charge / volume, \ integrate over volume:
v v
∫ ∇ ⋅ E(x − x %)d x % = ε1 ∫ ρ(x − x %)d 3x %,
3
∫
∇ ⋅ Bd 3 x % = 0
0
E B
Gauss Theorem Gauss Theorem
1
∫∫ E ⋅ ndA = ε ∫∫ ρ(x − x ')d 3
x'
∫∫ B ⋅ ndA = 0
0
Electric field lines emanate => there is
from positive charge no magnetic monopole source of B !
20
€
 Integral forms for COUPLED Maxwell Equations
B = magnetic flux per unit area, and J = current per unit area, so integrate over area

∫ (∇ × E ) ⋅ dA = − ∫ ∂∂Bt dA ∫∫ ∇ × B ⋅ dA = µ0 J 0 dA + µ0 D dA
∫ ∫
Stokes Theorem Stokes Theorem

   ∂φ B = φ
∫ E ⋅ dl =−
A
∫ Bidl = µ I 0
∂t
≡V
Faraday s Law of Ampère s Law:
induction: V = −N ∂B A
N = No. of turns ∂t This is how magnetic fields
are generated by currents.
More on this…

21

QUANTITATIVE current-field relations (Right-hand rules)

FIELD OUTSIDE CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE

∫ Bidl = µ I 0

for closed circular path

2πRB = µ 0 I
µI
B= 0
2πR
I
H= (H includes only macroscopic currents
2πR
you can think of material magnetization
M as coming from microscopic currents –
more later)

22
 Alternate derivation:

Integrate differential form in cylindrical coordinates:

1∂
∇ × B⇒ [rB (r)] = µ0 J
r ∂r θ
R
#∂ %
∫ $∂r (rB ) = µ Jr &dr
θ 0
0

µ0 JR 2 I
RBθ (R) = + C, J=
2 πR 2
I
B = µ0 +C C = 0 because B vanishes at R = ∞
2πR
dl
µ0 I dl × r I
Biot-Savart form more useful: dB = r
4π r 3
23

Field inside Solenoid


∫∫ (∇ × B) ⋅ dA = ∫ B ⋅ dl = µ 
∫∫ J ⋅ dA = µ NI
0 0
sense of ∫ is RH rule,

Bout ⋅ dl + Bin ⋅ dl = µ0 NI NI NI
 Bi = µ0 , Hi =
l
,
l
=0
REVIEW N / l = # turns / length

2 2
€ ∫ (∇ × B)d x = µ ∫ J d x
0

NI NI
∫ B ⋅ dl = µ J ⇒ B = µ
0 0
2πR
B = µ0

Field around a wire Field inside solenoid
24
 Try it!

∫ B ⋅ dl = µ I0
Calculate H field
2 cm from a wire carrying 1 A
µ0 I I
B= , H =
2π R 2π R H = 8 A/m

Calculate H field inside solenoid

NI Having 100 turns/cm, I = 2 A.
Hi = , H = 2 x104 A/m
l
0.4π NI
Hi = , (cgs) H = 250 Oe
l

 
 ∂φ Calculate voltage across 400 turns of coil
∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∂ t 5 cm2 area, if you push 1 T pole in 1 sec.

∂B
V = −N A
∂t
V = 0.2 V

25

Origin of Macroscopic Magnetization

More on µm, M. Let s approximate a material as a stack of electron orbits:
there are N loops in length l, area A. Assume orbits are coplanar (M is saturated).
B = µ 0 (H + M ) = µ 0 M (no external field H)
N
M= µm
vol.
NI
Solenoid: B = µ 0
l
Combine these:
NI N〈 µm 〉
B = µ0 = µ0 µm = IA
l Al
Atomic magnetic
Hydrogen model: I = ew/2p, and A = pr02 moments due to current
(r0 is the Bohr radius, velocity n = w/r0) orbits
ω e v 2
µ m = IA = e πr 2 = πr v= 2E
2π 2π r0 0 m
26
(E1s for hydrogen is 13.6 eV, r0 = 0.52 Å)… get µm = 9.27 10-24 Am2
 The Bohr magneton

momentum (de Broglie equation)

er er 2π 
µ m = 0 vm = 0 λ = 2πr0 in the Bohr model
2m 2m λ

e
µm = = 9.3 × 10 −24 Am 2
2m

This is the Bohr magneton, µB, magnetic moment of one electron spin.
A magnetic material has n = # / vol. ≈ 1029 m-3 of these, so

B =~ µ 010 29 × 9.3×10 −24 =~ 1T

Observe: Fe: µm = 2.2 µB per atom
Ni: µm = 0.6 µB

27

Review

∫ B ⋅ dl = µ I 0

µ0 I
B=
2πR
Ampere

Faraday s Law of
∂B
induction: V = −N A
∂t
N = No. of turns

NI NI
Bi = µ0 , Hi = ,
l l

N / l = # turns / length

28
 Review

B = µ0 (H + M) = µ0 (1+ χ)H = µ0 µrH

(In a magnetic medium, B includes microscopic and macroscopic currents)
M H
µm
Magnetic Polarization pm = µ m = magnetic moment,

M=
∑µ m
= n〈 µ m 〉
ν ol. M = magnetic moment density,
or magnetization.

e
µm = IA µm = = 9.3 × 10 −24 Am 2
2m
NI N〈 µm 〉 Fe: Bs = 2.2 T
B = µ0 = µ0
l Al Ni: Bs = 0.6 T
29

Types of Magnetic Materials

Weak Magnetism (dia and para) Ferromagnetism (& ferrimagnetism)

Fig. 1.10

€
M ≈ χ m H + ...

30
 Diamagnetism (c < 0) vs. paramagnetism (c > 0)

Paramagnetism

Diamagnetism

Note rare gases Note T dependence

Ferromagnetism:
A paradox - How can a magnetic material not have a magnetic moment?

commons.wikimedia.org fys.uio.no
Weiss proposed a strong internal “molecular field” keeps the magnetic
moments aligned. But macroscopic magnetic materials can form domains,
so the net magnetism cancels out.
Pierre-Ernest Weiss, 1865-1940 proposed domains in 1907
 Magnetic Domains

Domains form to lower the total energy – much of which

comes from the stray field of a magnetized body 33

Hysteresis loops

Fig.1.14

Flux density:

Bs B = µH = µ0 (H + M)

Coercivity Permeability:
µ = ΔB ΔH
Magnetic Field

Area inside loop

represents the energy
that is lost when the
magnetization is cycled
You can plot B vs H or M vs H from +M to –M then
back to +M.
34
 Examples of Electromagnetic Devices
Electrical Transformer

Michael Faraday and James

Henry in 1831 discovered
electromagnetic induction, the
basis of a transformer.
Induction: A changing magnetic
flux causes a voltage in a coil

Transformers

Requires a soft magnetic core,

High µr, Bs and resistivity
Low Hc

Tc/K Bs/T Hc/A/m µr W, J/m3.

cycle
Fe 1043 2.2 ~4 200,000 30
Fe-3% Si 1030 2.0 ~12 40,000 30
a-FeSiB 630 1.6 ~0 >100,000 15
DC Motors (permanent magnet motor)

DC Motors
Requires a permanent magnet:
must stay magnetized in field from coil
plus its own demagnetizing field

Tc/K Br/T Hc/ kA/m (BH)max,

kJ/m3
Alnico-5 1160 1.4 64 44
BaO.(Fe2O3)6 720 0.4 264 28
SmCo5 1000 0.85 600 140
Nd2Fe14B 620 1.1 890 216
 Summary

Magnetic definitions: B, H and M

Constitutive relations: M = cH, B = µ0H + M, and units
ρ ∂B ∂E
Maxwell: ∇⋅ E = ∇⋅B =0 ∇× E =− ∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0ε
ε ∂t ∂t
Faraday Ampère

Field from a current loop or a solenoid: H = NI/l

Bohr magneton: µB = 9.27 10-24 Am2
Types of magnetic material: para, dia, ferro, ferri, antiferromagnets
Hysteresis loops and Domain theory

Faraday’s law and Ampere’s law ∫ Bidl = µ I 0

Force on a current F = BIl

Transformers and permanent magnet motors

Magnetic Materials 3.45/3.152 39

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