Propagation of Rayleigh wave

Introduction
What is Rayleigh wave?
Rayleigh waves are a type of surface acoustic wave that travel along the surface of solids.
They can be produced in materials in many ways, such as by a localized impact or by
piezo-electric transduction , and are frequently used in non-destructive testing for
detecting defects. Rayleigh waves are part of the seismic waves that are produced on the Earth
by earthquakes. When guided in layers they are referred to as Lamb waves, Rayleigh–Lamb
waves, or generalized Rayleigh waves.

Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, are surface waves that travel as ripples with motions
that are similar to those of waves on the surface of water (note, however, that the associated
particle motion at shallow depths is retrograde, and that the restoring force in Rayleigh and in
other seismic waves is elastic, not gravitational as for water waves).

The existence of these waves was predicted by John William Strut, Lord Rayleigh, in 1885. They
are slower than body waves, roughly 90% of the velocity of S waves for typical homogeneous
elastic media. In the layered medium (like the crust and upper mantle) the velocity of the
Rayleigh waves depends on their frequency and wavelength.

Characteristics
Rayleigh waves are a type of surface wave that travel near the surface of solids. Rayleigh
waves include both longitudinal and transverse motions that decrease exponentially in
amplitude as distance from the surface increases. There is a phase difference between these
component motions. The existence of Rayleigh waves was predicted in 1885 by Lord
Rayleigh, after whom they were named. In isotropic solids these waves cause the surface
particles to move in ellipses in planes normal to the surface and parallel to the direction of
propagation - the major axis of the ellipse is vertical. At the surface and at shallow depths this
motion is retrograde, that is the in-plane motion of a particle is counterclockwise when the wave
travels from left to right.

At greater depths the particle motion becomes prograde. In addition, the motion amplitude
decays and the eccentricity changes as the depth into the material increases. The depth of
significant displacement in the solid is approximately equal to the acoustic wavelength.
Rayleigh waves are distinct from other types of surface or guided acoustic waves such as Love
waves or Lamb waves, both being types of guided waves supported by a layer , or longitudinal
and shear waves , that travel in the bulk.
Rayleigh waves have a speed slightly less than shear waves by a factor dependent on the
elastic constants of the material. The typical speed of Rayleigh waves in metals is of the
order of 2–5 km/s, and the typical Rayleigh speed in the ground is of the order of 50–300 m/s.
For linear elastic materials with positive Poisson ratio(v> 0), the Rayleigh wave speed can
be approximated as
Perspective view of elastic P-wave propagation through a grid representing a volume of Material. The
directions X and Y are parallel to the Earth's surface and the Z direction is depth T = 0 t through T=3
indicate successive times. The disturbance that is propagated is a compression (grid lines are closer
together) followed by a dilatation or extension (grid lines are farther apart). The Particle motion is in
the direction of propagation. The material returns to its original shape after the wave has passed.

Rayleigh wave propagation in layered media

The interactions between body waves (i.e., compressional and shear waves) propagating inside a
layered medium may cause Rayleigh waves to propagate parallel to the stress-free boundary of
the medium, as shown in fig . Rayleigh waves include motion in both the longitudinal and
transverse directions, in particular a two-dimensional rolling motion along the x1-x2 plane. The
amplitude of the propagating surface wave decreases as x2 increases in the substrate, while there
is a standing wave in the top layer. The wave amplitude decreases as x1 increases because of
dissipation in the viscoelastic materials.

Rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the
ground up and down and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving.
Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than
the other waves.
Schematic of the Rayleigh wave propagation concept in (a) a uniform and (b) a layered half-space. In the
substrate, the amplitude of the propagating surface wave decreases as x2 increases. The amplitude
decreases as x1 increases because of the dissipative behavior of the viscoelastic medium. The particles
undergo elliptical motion. The motion direction is counter clockwise when the wave propagates from
left to right.

Solution for Rayleigh waves

To describe Rayleigh waves, consider a plane wave (figure 1.11111) that travels in the x-direction with
zero particle displacement in the Y direction (V = 0). The Z direction is taken as positive down-ward, so
all particle motion occurs in the x-z plane. Two potential functions, Φ and Ψ, can be defined to describe
the displacements in the X and Z directions:
The volumetric strain, or dilatation, e of the wave is given by ε = εxx + εzz, or

…….1

…….2

Use of the potential functions allows separation of the effect of dilatation and rotation [i.e. equations 1
and 2 indicate that Φ and Ψ are associated with dilatation and rotation, respectively]. Therefore, Rayleigh
waves can be thought of as combinations of P and S waves (SV waves for this case, since the XZ plane is
vertical) that satisfy certain boundary conditions. Substitution of the expression for u and w in the
equations of motion as written in the equations

………………3

And
 ……………….4

Gives

…………………5a

……………..5b
2 2
Solving equations (5) simultaneously for 𝜕 𝛷⁄ and 𝜕 𝛹⁄ shows
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2

………….6a

………………..6b

If the wave is harmonic with frequency ω and wave number kR, so that it propagates with Rayleigh wave
velocity 𝑉𝑅 = 𝜔/𝑘𝑅 , the potential functions can be expressed as

𝚿 = 𝐆(𝐳)𝐞−𝐢(𝛚𝐭−𝐤𝐑𝐱)

Where F and G are functions that describe the manner in which the amplitude of the dilatational and
rotational components of Rayleigh wave vary with depth. Substituting these expressions for ø and ψ into
equations gives

𝜔2 2 𝑑2 𝐹(𝑧)
− 2 𝐹(𝑧) = −𝑘𝑅 𝐹(𝑧) +
𝑉𝑝 𝑑𝑧 2

𝜔2 2 𝑑2 𝐺(𝑧)
− 𝐺(𝑧) = −𝑘𝑅 𝐺(𝑧) +
𝑉𝑠 2 𝑑𝑧 2

Which can be rearranged to give the second order differential equations?

 𝑑2 𝐹 2 𝜔2
− (𝑘 𝑅 − )𝐹 = 0
𝑑𝑧 2 𝑣𝑝 2

𝑑2 𝐺 2 𝜔2
− (𝑘 𝑅 − )𝐺 = 0
𝑑𝑧 2 𝑣𝑠 2

The general solution to this equation can be written in the form of

𝐹(𝑧) = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑞𝑧 + 𝐵1 𝑒 𝑞𝑧

𝐺(𝑧) = 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑧 + 𝐵2 𝑒 𝑠𝑧

Where A1, A2, B1, and B2 are constants.

𝜔2
𝑞 2 = 𝑘𝑅 2 −
𝑣𝑝 2

𝜔2
𝑠 2 = 𝑘𝑅 2 −
𝑣𝑠 2

The second term of equation corresponds to a disturbance whose displacement amplitude approaches
infinity with increasing depth. Which is not the type of wave that is considered here, B1 and B2 must be
zero and the potential function can finally be written as?

∅ = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑞𝑧+𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑅𝑥)

𝜓 = 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑧+𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑅𝑥)

Since neither shear nor normal stress can exist at the free surface of the half space, 𝜎𝑥𝑧 = 0 and

𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 0. Therefore
𝑑𝑤
𝜎𝑧𝑧 =  𝜀 + 2𝜇𝜀𝑧𝑧 =  𝜀 + 2𝜇 𝑑𝑧 = 0 , The dilation 𝜀 be defined as
 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑢
𝜎𝑥𝑧 = 𝜇𝜀𝑥𝑧 = 𝜇 ( + )=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

Using the potential function definition of u and w equation [ ] and the solution for the potential
functions equation[], the free surface boundary conditions can be rewritten as

𝜎𝑧𝑧 (𝑧 = 0) = 𝐴1 [( + 2𝜇)𝑞 2 − 𝑘𝑅 2 ] − 2𝑖𝜇𝐴2 𝑠𝑘𝑅 = 0

𝜎𝑥𝑧 (𝑧 = 0) = 2𝑖𝐴1 𝑞𝑘𝑅 + 𝐴2 ( 𝑠 2 + 𝑘𝑅 2 ) = 0

This can be rearranged to yield

𝐴1 ( + 2𝜇)𝑞 2 − 𝑘𝑅 2
−1=0
𝐴2 2𝑖𝜇𝑘𝑅 𝑠

𝐴1 2𝑖𝑞𝑘𝑅
+1 = 0
𝐴2 𝑠 2 + 𝑘𝑅 2

With this result, the velocity and displacement patterns of Rayleigh wave can be determined

Rayleigh wave velocity

The velocity at which Rayleigh waves travel is of interest in geotechnical earth quake
engineering. Rayleigh waves are often mechanically generated and their velocities measured in
the field to investigate the stiffness of surficial soil. Adding equations [] and cross multiplying
gives

4𝑞𝜇𝑠𝑘𝑅 2 = (𝑠2 + 𝑘𝑅 2 [( + 2𝜇)𝑞 2 − 𝑘𝑅 2 ]

Which upon introducing the definitions of q and s and factoring out a 𝐺 2 𝑘𝑅 2 term, yields
2 2
𝜔2 𝜔2  + 2𝜇 𝜔2 𝜔2
16 (1 − 2 2 ) (1 − 2 2 ) = (2 − ) (2 − )
𝑣𝑝 𝑘𝑅 𝑣𝑠 𝑘𝑅 𝜇 𝑣𝑝 2 𝑘𝑅 2 𝑣𝑠 2 𝑘𝑅 2
Defining 𝑘𝑅𝑠 as a functions of Rayleigh wave velocity to s-wave velocity
𝑣𝑅 𝜔
𝑘𝑅𝑠 = =
𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑠 𝑘𝑅
𝑣𝑅 𝜔 𝜔
= = = 𝛼𝑘𝑅𝑠
𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑝 𝑘𝑅  + 2𝜇
𝑣𝑠 𝑘𝑅 √ 𝜇

Where = √𝜇/( + 2𝜇) = √(1 − 2𝑣)/(2 − 2𝑣) . Then equation [] can be rewritten as
2 2
16(1 − 𝛼 2 𝑘𝑅𝑠 2 )(1 − 𝑘𝑅𝑠 2 ) = (2 − 𝑘𝑅𝑠 2 ) (2 − 𝑘𝑅𝑠 2 )

Which can be rearranged and expanded into the equation

𝑘𝑅𝑠 6 − 8𝑘𝑅𝑠 4 + (24 − 16𝛼 2 )𝑘𝑅𝑠 2 + 16(𝛼 2 − 1) = 0

This equation is cubic in𝑘𝑅𝑠 2 , and real solutions for 𝑘𝑅𝑠 can be found for various values of
Poisson’s ratio. This allows evaluation of the ratios of the Rayleigh wave velocity to both s and p
wave velocities as functions of Poisson’s ratio (𝑣). The solution shown in figure below shows
that Rayleigh waves travel slightly slower than s-waves for all values of Poisson’s ratio except
0.5.

Rayleigh wave displacement amplitude

The above section showed that the velocity of Rayleigh wave compares with that of p-
and s- waves. Some of the intermediate results of that section can be used to illustrate the
nature of motion during the passage of Rayleigh waves. Substitute for the potential
 functions 𝛹(equation ()) in to the expression for u and w equation () and carrying out the
necessary partial differentiation yields

𝐮 = −𝐀𝟏 𝐢𝐤 𝐑 𝐞−𝐪𝐳+𝐢(𝛚𝐭−𝐤𝐑 𝐱) − 𝐀𝟐 𝐬𝐞−𝐬𝐳+𝐢(𝛚𝐭−𝐤𝐑 𝐱)

𝐮 = −𝐀𝟏 𝐢𝐤 𝐑 𝐞−𝐪𝐳+𝐢(𝛚𝐭−𝐤𝐑 𝐱) + 𝐀𝟐 𝐢𝐞−𝐬𝐳+𝐢(𝛚𝐭−𝐤𝐑𝐱)

From equation ()

2𝑖𝑞𝑘𝑅
𝐴2 = 𝐴1
𝑠 2 + 𝑘𝑅 2

Which substituting in to equation () gives

2𝑖𝑞𝑠𝑘𝑅
𝑢 = 𝐴1 (−𝑖𝑘𝑅 𝑒 −𝑞𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑠𝑧 )𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑅𝑥)
𝑠 2 + 𝑘𝑅 2

2𝑞𝑘𝑅 2
𝑤 = 𝐴1 ( 𝑒 −𝑠𝑧 − 𝑞𝑒 −𝑞𝑧 ) 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑅𝑥)
𝑠 2 + 𝑘𝑅 2

Where the terms in parentheses describe the variation of the amplitude of u and w with depth.
This horizontal and vertical displacement amplitude is illustrated for several value of Poisson’s
ratio figure 5.10. Examination of equation () indicates that the horizontal and vertical
displacement are out of phase by 900 . Hence the horizontal displacement will be zero when the
vertical displacement reaches its maximum (or minimum), and vice versa. The motion of particle
near the surface of the half-space is in the form of retrograde ellipse (as opposed to the pro-grade
ellipse particle motion observed at the surface of the water waves). The general nature of
Rayleigh wave motion was illustrated in figure below.
Horizontal and vertical motion of Rayleigh wave. A negative amplitude ratio indicates that the
displacement is in the opposite of the surface.

The Rayleigh waves produced by earthquake were once thought to appear only at very large epi
central distance (several hundred Km). it is now now recognized, however that they can be
significant at much shorter distance ( a few tens of km). the ratio of epi-central distance, R to
focal depth, h, at which Rayleigh waves first appear in homogeneous medium is given by
𝑅 1
=
ℎ 𝑣
√(𝑣𝑃 )2 − 1
𝑅

Where 𝑣𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑅 are the wave propagation velocities of p-wave and Rayleigh wave, respectively
(Ewing et al…, 1957)