Shotcrete

This is the name given to mortar or concrete conveyed through a hose and
pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a backup surface. The force of
the jet impacting on the surface compacts the material so that it can
support itself without sagging or sloughing, even on a vertical face or
overhead.
Other names are also used for some types of shotcrete, e.g. gunite, but only
sprayed concrete is sufficiently general and is indeed the preferred term in
the European Union terminology.

The properties of shotcrete are no different from the properties of

conventionally placed mortar or concrete of similar proportions: it is the
method of placing that bestows on shotcrete significant advantages in many
applications.
At the same time, considerable skill and experience are required in the
application of shotcrete so that its quality depends to a large extent on the
performance of the operators involved, especially in control of the actual
placing by the nozzle.

Because shotcrete is pneumatically projected on a backup surface and then

gradually built up, only one side of formwork or a substrate is needed. This
represents economy, especially when account is taken of the absence of
form ties, etc. On the other hand, the cement content of shotcrete is high.
Also, the necessary equipment and mode of placing are more expensive
than in the case of conventional concrete. For these reasons, shotcrete is
used primarily in certain types of construction: thin, lightly reinforced
sections, such as roofs, especially shell or folded plate, tunnel linings, and
prestressed tanks. Shotcrete is also used in repair of deteriorated concrete,
in stabilizing rock slopes, in encasing steel for fireproofing, and as a thin
overlay on concrete, masonry or steel.
If shotcrete is applied to a surface covered by running water, an accelerator
producing flash set, such as washing soda, is used. This adversely affects
strength but makes repair work possible. Admixtures for shotcrete are
specified by BS EN 934-5 : 2007.

Generally, shotcrete is applied in a thickness up to 100 mm (4 in.).

There are two basic processes by which shotcrete is applied. In the dry mix
process (which is the more common of the two, in many parts of the world)
cement and damp aggregate are intimately mixed and fed into a mechanical
feeder or gun. The mixture is then transferred by a feed wheel or distributor
(at a known rate) into a stream of compressed air in a hose, and carried up
to the delivery nozzle. The nozzle is fitted inside with a perforated manifold
through which water is introduced under pressure and intimately mixed
with the other ingredients. The mixture is then projected at high velocity
onto the surface to be shotcreted.

The fundamental feature of the wet mix process is that all the ingredients,
including the mixing water, are mixed together to begin with. The mixture is
then introduced into the chamber of the delivery equipment and from there
conveyed pneumatically or by positive displacement. A pump similar to that
of Fig. 4.21 can be used. Compressed air (or in the case of pneumatically
conveyed mix, additional air) is injected at the nozzle, and the material is
projected at high velocity onto the surface to be shotcreted.

Either process can produce excellent shotcrete, but the dry mix process is
better suited for use with porous lightweight aggregate and with flash set
accelerators, and is also capable of greater delivery lengths, as well as of
intermittent operation.4.34 The consistency of the mix can be controlled
direct at the nozzle, and higher strengths (up to 50 MPa (or 7000 psi)) can
be readily achieved.4.34 On the other hand, the wet mix process gives a
better control of the quantity of mixing water (which is metered, as
opposed to judgement by the nozzle operator) and of any admixture used.
Also, the wet mix process leads to less dust being produced and possibly to
lower rebound. The process is suitable for large-volume operation.

Because of the high velocity of the impacting jet, not all the shotcrete
projected on a surface remains in position: some material rebounds. This
consists of the coarsest particles in the mix, so that the shotcrete in situ is
richer than would be expected from the mix proportions as batched. This
may lead to slightly increased shrinkage. The rebound is greatest in the
initial layers and becomes smaller as a plastic cushion of shotcrete is built
up. Typical percentages of material rebounded are:
The significance of rebound is not so much in the waste of the material as in
the danger from accumulation of rebounded particles in a position where
they will become incorporated in the subsequent layers of shotcrete. This
can occur if the rebound collects in inside corners, at the base of walls,
behind reinforcement or embedded pipes, or on horizontal surfaces. Great
care in placing of shotcrete is therefore necessary, and the use of large
reinforcement is undesirable. The latter also leads to the risk of unfilled
pockets behind the obstacle to the jet.
The projected shotcrete has to have a relatively dry consistency so that the
material can support itself in any position; at the same time, the mix has to
be wet enough to achieve compaction without excessive rebound. The usual
range of water/cement ratios is 0.30 to 0.50 for dry mix shotcrete, and 0.40
to 0.55 for the wet mix.4.34 Recommended aggregate gradings are given in
Table 4.7.
Curing of shotcrete is particularly important because the large
surface/volume ratio can lead to rapid drying. Recommended practice is
given in ACI 506R- 904.34 and in BS EN 14487-2 : 2006.

Shotcrete exhibits durability comparable with ordinary concrete. The only

reservation concerns the resistance to freezing and thawing, especially in
salt water.4.91 Air entrainment of shotcrete is possible using the wet
process, but achieving an adequately low bubble spacing factor (see p. 547)
presents some difficulties.4.94 However, addition of silica fume (7 to 11 per
cent by mass of cement) leads to adequate resistance to freezing and
thawing.4.95 More generally, the addition of silica fume, in proportion of 10
to 15 per cent of the cement by mass, has been found to improve the
cohesion and adhesion of shotcrete; rebound is reduced.4.32 Such shotcrete
can be put into service at an early age.4.96
For very rapid use in service, dry process shotcrete can be made using
regulated set cement.4.92 The durability of such shotcrete is good.

Reference
Properties of concrete by A M Nevellie